support vector machines optimization based theory, algorithms, and extensions deng, tian zhang 2012 12 17 Cấu trúc dữ liệu và giải thuật

Computer Science

“This book provides a concise overview of SVMs, starting from the
basics and connecting to many of their most significant extensions.
Starting from an optimization perspective provides a new way of
presenting the material, including many of the technical details that
are hard to find in other texts. And since it includes a discussion
of many practical issues important for the effective use of SVMs
(e.g., feature construction), the book is valuable as a reference for
researchers and practitioners alike.”
—Professor Thorsten Joachims, Cornell University
“One thing which makes the book very unique from other books
is that the authors try to shed light on SVM from the viewpoint of
optimization. I believe that the comprehensive and systematic
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and related fields will want to carefully read and routinely consult.”
—Dr. Hang Li, Noah’s Ark Lab, Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd

Deng, Tian,
and Zhang

“This book comprehensively covers many topics of SVMs. In
particular, it gives a nice connection between optimization theory
and support vector machines. … The setting allows readers to easily
learn how optimization techniques are used in a machine learning
technique such as SVM.”
—Professor Chih-Jen Lin, National Taiwan University

Support Vector Machines

Chapman & Hall/CRC
Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery Series

Chapman & Hall/CRC
Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery Series

Support Vector
Machines
Optimization Based Theory,
Algorithms, and Extensions

Naiyang Deng
Yingjie Tian
Chunhua Zhang

K12703

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Support Vector
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Optimization Based Theory,
Algorithms, and Extensions

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Chapman & Hall/CRC
Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery Series
SERIES EDITOR
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University of Minnesota
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
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Support Vector
Machines
Optimization Based Theory,
Algorithms, and Extensions

Naiyang Deng
Yingjie Tian
Chunhua Zhang

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CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Dedicated to my beloved wife Meifang
Naiyang Deng
Dedicated to my dearest father Mingran Tian
Yingjie Tian
Dedicated to my husband Xingang Xu and my son Kaiwen Xu
Chunhua Zhang

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Contents

List of Figures

xvii

List of Tables

xxi

Preface

xxiii

List of Symbols

xxvii

1 Optimization
1.1 Optimization Problems in Euclidian Space . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 An example of optimization problems . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Optimization problems and their solutions . . . . . . .

1.1.3 Geometric interpretation of optimization problems . .
1.2 Convex Programming in Euclidean Space . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Convex sets and convex functions . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1.1 Convex sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1.2 Convex functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Convex programming and their properties . . . . . . .
1.2.2.1 Convex programming problems . . . . . . . .
1.2.2.2 Basic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Duality theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.1 Derivation of the dual problem . . . . . . . .
1.2.3.2 Duality theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4 Optimality conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.5 Linear programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Convex Programming in Hilbert Space . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Convex sets and Fr´echet derivative . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Convex programming problems . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3 Duality theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4 Optimality conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
*1.4 Convex Programming with Generalized Inequality Constraints
in Euclidian Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1 Convex programming with generalized inequality constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1.1 Cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1.2 Generalized inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1.4.1.3

*1.5

Convex programming with generalized inequality constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 Duality theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2.1 Dual cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2.2 Derivation of the dual problem . . . . . . . .
1.4.2.3 Duality theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3 Optimality conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4 Second-order cone programming . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4.1 Second-order cone programming and its dual
problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4.2 Software for second-order cone programming
1.4.5 Semidefinite programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.5.1 Semidefinite programming and its dual problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.5.2 Software for semidefinite programming . . .
Convex Programming with Generalized Inequality Constraints
in Hilbert Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.1 K-convex function and Fr´
echet derivative . . . . . . .
1.5.2 Convex programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.3 Duality theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.4 Optimality conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 Linear Classification
2.1 Presentation of Classification Problems . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 A sample (diagnosis of heart disease) . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 Classification problems and classification machines . .
2.2 Support Vector Classification (SVC) for Linearly Separable
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Maximal margin method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.1.1 Derivation of the maximal margin method .
2.2.1.2 Properties of the maximal margin method .
2.2.2 Linearly separable support vector classification . . . .
2.2.2.1 Relationship between the primal and dual
problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2.2 Linearly separable support vector classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Support vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Linear C-Support Vector Classification . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Maximal margin method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1.1 Derivation of the maximal margin method .
2.3.1.2 Properties of the maximal margin method .
2.3.2 Linear C-support vector classification . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2.1 Relationship between the primal and dual
problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2.2 Linear C-support vector classification . . . .

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3 Linear Regression
3.1 Regression Problems and Linear Regression Problems . . . .
3.2 Hard ε¯-Band Hyperplane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Linear regression problem and hard ε¯-band hyperplane
3.2.2 Hard ε¯-band hyperplane and linear classification . . .
3.2.3 Optimization problem of constructing a hard ε-band hyperplane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Linear Hard ε-band Support Vector Regression . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Primal problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Dual problem and relationship between the primal and
dual problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3 Linear hard ε-band support vector regression . . . . .
3.4 Linear ε-Support Vector Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1 Primal problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2 Dual problem and relationship between the primal and
dual problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.3 Linear ε-support vector regression . . . . . . . . . . .
4 Kernels and Support Vector Machines
4.1 From Linear Classification to Nonlinear Classification . . .
4.1.1 An example of nonlinear classification . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 Classification machine based on nonlinear separation
4.1.3 Regression machine based on nonlinear separation .
4.2 Kernels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Construction of kernels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2.1 Basic kernels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2.2 Operations keeping kernels . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2.3 Commonly used kernels . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2.4 Graph kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Support Vector Machines and Their Properties . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Support vector classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.3.1.1 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1.2 Support vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1.3 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1.4 Soft margin loss function . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1.5 Probabilistic outputs . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 Support vector regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2.1 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2.2 Support vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2.3 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2.4 ε-Insensitive loss function . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3 Flatness of support vector machines . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3.1 Runge phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3.2 Flatness of ε-support vector regression . . .

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xii

Contents
4.4

4.3.3.3 Flatness of C-support vector classification . .
Meaning of Kernels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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5 Basic Statistical Learning Theory of C-Support Vector Classification
127
5.1 Classification Problems on Statistical Learning Theory . . . 127
5.1.1 Probability distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.1.2 Description of classification problems . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.2 Empirical Risk Minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.3 Vapnik Chervonenkis (VC) Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.4 Structural Risk Minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.5 An Implementation of Structural Risk Minimization . . . . . 140
5.5.1 Primal problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.5.2 Quasi-dual problem and relationship between quasidual problem and primal problem . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.5.3 Structural risk minimization classification . . . . . . . 144
5.6 Theoretical Foundation of C-Support Vector Classification on
Statistical Learning Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.6.1 Linear C-support vector classification . . . . . . . . . 145
5.6.2 Relationship between dual problem and quasi-dual
problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.6.3 Interpretation of C-support vector classification . . . . 148
6 Model Construction
151
6.1 Data Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.1.1 Orthogonal encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.1.2 Spectrum profile encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

6.1.3 Positional weighted matrix encoding . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.2 Data Preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.2.1 Representation of nominal features . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.2.2 Feature selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.2.2.1 F -score method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.2.2.2 Recursive feature elimination method . . . . 157
6.2.2.3 Methods based on p-norm support vector classification (0 ≤ p ≤ 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.2.3 Feature extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.2.3.1 Linear dimensionality reduction . . . . . . . 164
6.2.3.2 Nonlinear dimensionality reduction . . . . . 165
6.2.4 Data compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.2.5 Data rebalancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.3 Model Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.3.1 Algorithm evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.3.1.1 Some evaluation measures for a decision function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

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6.3.1.2

6.4

Some evaluation measures for
rithm . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2 Selection of kernels and parameters . .
Rule Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.1 A toy example . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.2 Rule extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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7 Implementation
7.1 Stopping Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.1 The first stopping criterion . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.2 The second stopping criterion . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.3 The third stopping criterion . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Chunking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Decomposing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Sequential Minimal Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.1 Main steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.2 Selecting the working set . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.3 Analytical solution of the two-variables problem
7.5 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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8 Variants and Extensions of Support Vector Machines
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8.1 Variants of Binary Support Vector Classification . . . . . . . 203
8.1.1 Support vector classification with homogeneous decision
function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.1.2 Bounded support vector classification . . . . . . . . . 206
8.1.3 Least squares support vector classification . . . . . . . 209
8.1.4 Proximal support vector classification . . . . . . . . . 211

8.1.5 ν-Support vector classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.1.5.1 ν-Support vector classification . . . . . . . . 213
8.1.5.2 Relationship between ν-SVC and C-SVC . . 215
8.1.5.3 Significance of the parameter ν . . . . . . . . 215
8.1.6 Linear programming support vector classifications
(LPSVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
8.1.6.1 LPSVC corresponding to C-SVC . . . . . . . 216
8.1.6.2 LPSVC corresponding to ν-SVC . . . . . . . 218
8.1.7 Twin support vector classification . . . . . . . . . . . 218
8.2 Variants of Support Vector Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
8.2.1 Least squares support vector regression . . . . . . . . 225
8.2.2 ν-Support vector regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
8.2.2.1 ν-Support vector regression . . . . . . . . . . 227
8.2.2.2 Relationship between ν-SVR and ε-SVR . . 229
8.2.2.3 The significance of the parameter ν . . . . . 229
8.2.2.4 Linear programming support vector regression
(LPSVR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
8.3 Multiclass Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

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Contents
8.3.1

8.4

8.5

8.6

8.7

8.8

Approaches based on binary classifiers . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1.1 One versus one . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1.2 One versus the rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1.3 Error-correcting output coding . . . . . . . .
8.3.2 Approach based on ordinal regression machines . . . .
8.3.2.1 Ordinal regression machine . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.2.2 Approach based on ordinal regression machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.3 Crammer-Singer multiclass support vector classification
8.3.3.1 Basic idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.3.2 Primal problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.3.3 Crammer-Singer support vector classification
Semisupervised Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1 PU classification problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.2 Biased support vector classification[101] . . . . . . . .
8.4.2.1 Optimization problem . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.2.2 The selection of the parameters C+ and C− .
8.4.3 Classification problem with labeled and unlabeled inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.4 Support vector classification by semidefinite programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.4.1 Optimization problem . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.4.2 Approximate solution via semidefinite programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.4.3 Support vector classification by semidefinite
programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Universum Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.5.1 Universum classification problem . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.2 Primal problem and dual problem . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.2.1 Algorithm and its relationship with three-class
classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.2.2 Construction of Universum . . . . . . . . . .
Privileged Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6.1 Linear privileged support vector classification . . . . .
8.6.2 Nonlinear privileged support vector classification . . .
8.6.3 A variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Knowledge-based Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7.1 Knowledge-based linear support vector classification .
8.7.2 Knowledge-based nonlinear support vector classification
Robust Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.8.1 Robust classification problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.8.2 The solution when the input sets are polyhedrons . . .
8.8.2.1 Linear robust support vector classification .
8.8.2.2 Robust support vector classification . . . . .
8.8.3 The solution when the input sets are superspheres . .

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Contents
8.8.3.1 Linear robust support vector classification
8.8.3.2 Robust support vector classification . . . .
8.9 Multi-instance Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.9.1 Multi-instance classification problem . . . . . . . . .
8.9.2 Multi-instance linear support vector classification . .
8.9.2.1 Optimization problem . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.9.2.2 Linear support vector classification . . . .
8.9.3 Multi-instance support vector classification . . . . .
8.10 Multi-label Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.10.1 Problem transformation methods . . . . . . . . . . .
8.10.2 Algorithm adaptation methods . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.10.2.1 A ranking system . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.10.2.2 Label set size prediction . . . . . . . . . . .
8.10.3 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Bibliography

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Index

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List of Figures

1.9

Two line segments in R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Two line segments u1 u2 and v1 v2 given by (1.1.21). . . . . . .
Graph of f0 (x) given by (1.1.22). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Illustration of the problem (1.1.22)∼(1.1.26). . . . . . . . . .
(a) Convex set; (b)Non-convex set. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Intersection of two convex sets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geometric illustration of convex and non-convex functions in
R: (a) convex; (b) non-convex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geometric illustration of convex and non-convex functions in
R2 : (a) convex; (b)(c) non-convex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundary of a second-order cone: (a) in R2 ; (b) in R3 . . . . .

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2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6

2.7

Data for heart disease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Linearly separable problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Approximately linearly separable problem. . . . . . .
Linearly nonseparable problem. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Optimal separating line with fixed normal direction.
Separating line with maximal margin. . . . . . . . .
Geometric interpretation of Theorem 2.2.12. . . . . .

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3.2
3.3
3.4

A regression problem in R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A linear regression problem in R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S hard ε¯-band hyperplane (line) in R. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Demonstration of constructing a hard ε¯-band hyperplane (line)
in R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8

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A nonlinear classification problem (a) In x-space; (b) In xspace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simple graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geometric interpretation of Theorem 4.3.4. . . . . . . . . . .
Soft margin loss function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S-type function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geometric interpretation of Theorem 4.3.9. . . . . . . . . . .
ε-insensitive loss function with ε > 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Runge phenomenon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15

4.16

5.1
5.2

List of Figures
Geometric interpretation of the flatness in R: (a) sloping regression line; (b) horizontal regression line. . . . . . . . . . .
Flat regression line for the case where all of the training points
lie in a line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flat functions in the input space for a regression problem. . .
Flat separating straight line in R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flat functions in the input space for a classification problem.
Case (i). The separating line when the similarity measure between two inputs is defined by their Euclidian distance. . . .
Case (ii). The separating line when the similarity measure between two inputs is defined by the difference between their
lengths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Case (iii). The separating line when the similarity measure between two inputs is defined by the difference between their arguments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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5.4

Probability distribution given by Table 5.3. . . . . . . . . . .
Eight labels for three fixed points in R2 (a) four points are in a
line; (b) only three points are in a line; (c) any three points are
not in a line and these four points form a convex quadrilateral;
(d) any three points are not in a line and one point is inside of
the triangle of other three points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Four cases for four points in R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Structural risk minimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7

6.8
6.9

Representation of nominal features. . . . . . . .
Contour lines of w p with different p. . . . . .
Function t(vi , α) with different α. . . . . . . . .
Principal component analysis. . . . . . . . . . .
Locally linear embedding. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clustering of a set based on K-means method.
ROC curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rule extraction in Example 2.1.1. . . . . . . . .
Rule rectangle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Linearly separable problem with homogeneous decision function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example form x-space to x-space with x = (xT , 1)T . . . . . .
An interpretation of two-dimensional classification problem. .
An ordinal regression problem in R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
An ordinal regression problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Crammer-Singer method for a linearly separable three-class
problem in R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A PU problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
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List of Figures
A robust classification problem with polyhedron input sets in
R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.9 Robust classification problem with circle input sets in R2 . . .
8.10 A multi-instance classification problem in R2 . . . . . . . . . .
8.11 A linearly separable multi-instance classification problem in R2 .

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List of Tables

2.1

Clinical records of 10 patients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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5.1
5.2
5.3

Probability distribution of a discrete random variable. . . . .
Probability distribution of a mixed random variable. . . . . .
An example of a mixed random variable. . . . . . . . . . . . .

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6.1

Positional weighted matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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8.1

Binary classification problems in ten-class digit recognition. .

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Preface

Support vector machines (SVMs), which were introduced by Vapnik in the
early 1990s, have proven effective and promising techniques for data mining.
SVMs have recently made breakthroughs and advances in their theoretical
studies and implementations of algorithms. They have been successfully applied in many fields such as text categorization, speech recognition, remote
sensing image analysis, time series forecasting, information security, and so
forth.

SVMs, having their roots in Statistical Learning Theory (SLT) and optimization methods, have become powerful tools to solve the problems of machine learning with finite training points and to overcome some traditional
difficulties such as the “curse of dimensionality”, “over-fitting”, and so forth.
Their theoretical foundation and implementation techniques have been established and SVMs are gaining quick popularity due to their many attractive features: nice mathematical representations, geometrical explanations, good generalization abilities, and promising empirical performance. Some SVM monographs, including more sophisticated ones such as Cristianini & Shawe-Taylor
[39] and Scholkopf & Smola [124], have been published.
We have published two books in Chinese about SVMs in Science Press of
China since 2004 [42, 43], which attracted widespread interest and received
favorable comments in China. After several years of research and teaching,
we decided to rewrite the books and add new research achievements. The
starting point and focus of the book is optimization theory, which is different
from other books on SVMs in this respect. Optimization is one of the pillars
on which SVMs are built, so it makes a lot of sense to consider them from this
point of view.
This book introduces SVMs systematically and comprehensively. We place
emphasis on the readability and the importance of perception on a sound understanding of SVMs. Prior to systematical and rigorous discourses, concepts
are introduced graphically, and the methods and conclusions are proposed by
direct inspection or with visual explanation. Particularly, for some important
concepts and algorithms we try our best to give clearly geometric interpretations that are not depicted in the literature, such as Crammer-Singer SVM
for multiclass classification problems.
We give details on classification problems and regression problems that
are the two main components of SVMs. We formated this book uniformly
by using the classification problem as the principal axis and converting the
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Preface

regression problem to the classification problem. The book is organized as follows. In Chapter 1 the optimization fundamentals are introduced. The convex
programming encompassing traditional convex optimization (Sections 1.1–1.3)
and conic programming (Sections 1.4-1.5). Sections 1.1–1.3 are necessary background for the later chapters. For beginners, Sections 1.4 and 1.5 (marked with
an asterisk *) can be skipped since they are used only in Subsections 8.4.3 and
8.8.3 of Chapter 8, and are mainly served for further research. Support vector
machines begin from Chapter 2 starting from linear classification problems.
Based on the maximal margin principal, the basic linear support vector classification is derived visually in Chapter 2. Linear support vector regression is
established in Chapter 3. The kernel theory, which is the key of extension of
basic SVMs and the foundation for solving nonlinear problems, together with
the general classification and regression problems, are discussed in Chapter 4.
Starting with statistical interpretation of the maximal margin method, statistical learning theory, which is the groundwork of SVMs, is studied in Chapter
5. The model construction problems, which are very useful in practical applications, are discussed in Chapter 6. The implementations of several prevailing
SVM’s algorithms are introduced in Chapter 7. Finally, the variations and extensions of SVMs including multiclass classification, semisupervised classification, knowledge-based classification, Universum classification, privileged classification, robust classification, multi-instance classification, and multi-label
classification are covered in Chapter 8.
The contents of this book comprise our research achievements. A precise
and concise interpretation of statistical leaning theory for C-support vector
classification (C-SVC) is given in Chapter 5 which imbues the parameter C
with a new meaning. From our achievements the following results of SVMs are
also given: the regularized twin SVMs for binary classification problems, the
SVMs for solving multi-classification problems based on the idea of ordinal
regression, the SVMs for semisupervised problems by means of constructing
second order cone programming or semidefinite programming models, and the
SVMs for problems with perturbations.
Potential readers include those who are beginners in the SVM and those
who are interested in solving real-world problems by employing SVMs, and
those who will conduct more comprehensive study of SVMs.
We are indebted to all the people who have helped in various ways. We
would like to say special thanks to Dr. Hang Li, Chief Scientist of Noah’s Ark
Lab of Huawei Technologies, academicians Zhiming Ma and Yaxiang Yuan
of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dr. Mingren Shi of University of Western

Australia, Prof. Changyu Wang and Prof. Yiju Wang of Qufu Normal University, Prof. Zunquan Xia and Liwei Zhang of Dalian University of Technology,
Prof. Naihua Xiu of Beijing Jiaotong University, Prof. Yanqin Bai of Shanghai University, and Prof. Ling Jing of China Agricultural University for their
valuable suggestions. Our gratitude goes also to Prof. Xiangsun Zhang and
Prof. Yong Shi of Chinese Academy of Sciences, and Prof. Shuzhong Zhang of
The Chinese University of Hong Kong for their great help and support. We

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