Phân tích tu từ trong trích giảng văn học Anh Mỹ :stylistic analysis of British and American literary texts : Đề tài NCKH. QT.99.11

DAI HOC QUOC GIA HA NOI
YRUrONG DAI HOC KIIOA HOC XA HOI VA NIIAN VAN

PIIANTICTTTIITII
LRONG TRICII (.lANG VAN HOC ANII MY
( STYLISTIC ANALYSIS OF BRITISH AND AMERICAN LITERARY TEXTS)

Ma so : QG 95 - 37
Cliii tri de lai : TS. \A The Que

IIA NOI - 2000


CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

^

I. THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE

1.1. Literature as Language
1.2. What Forms of Literature to Teach?

t
^

1.2.1. The Study of Poetry
1.2.2. The Study of Prose Fiction
1.2.3. The Study of Drama
IL WHAT ARE NEEDED IN THE STYUSTIf: ANALYSIS OF LITERARY TEXTS?

2.1. Phonetic Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices
2.1.1. Onomatopoeia
2.1.2. Alliteration
2.1.3. Rhyme
2.1.4. Rhythm
2.2. Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices
2.2.7. Metaphor
2.2.2. Metonymy
2.2.3. Irony
2.2.4. Pun
2.2.5.

Epithet

2.2.6. Simile
2.2.7. Periphrasis
2.2.8.Euphemism
2.2.9. Hyperbole
2.2.10. Proverbs and Sayings
2.2.11.Quotations
2.2.12. Allusions

g

?


2.3. Syntactical Expressive Means and StyUstic Devices

^^

2.3.1. Stylistic Inversion
2.3.2. Detached
2.3.3. Parallel

Constructions
Construction

2.3.4. Repetition
2.3.5.

Enumeration

2.3.6. Suspense
2.3.7. Climax
2.3.8. Antithesis
2.3.9. Ellipsis
2.3.10. Rhetorical

Questions

2.3.11. Litotes
III. PATTERN STYLISTIC ANALYSIS

3.1. Poetry

^^

Stylistic Analysis

3.2. Drama
Stylistic Analysis
3.1. Prose

5
2^ i

StyHstic Analysis
(ONCLUSION

fj

REFERENCES

c,
6


INTRODUCTION

British and American literature

is an indispensable subject for

Vietnamese students of English.
The study of literature helps to enrich the student's mind as well as
to develop his language skills. To understand a literary text, the student
should know, among other things, how the language is used.
The puipose of stylistic analysis is to help the student to observe the
interaction of foiTn and matter, to see how through the infinite variety oi

stylistic devices and their multifarious functions the massage of the author
is brought home to the reader. A linguistic method of stylistic analysis
involves carelul oKsei'vation and detailed and consistent description oi
language phenomena in the text.
The examination of the text in detail may well lead to the need to
investigate all related features, lexical, grammatical and phonetic.
^CThe paper falls into three parts. The first part deals with the teaching
oi literature in general and then with the teaching of literature texts. The
second part focus on the main expressive ineans and stylistic devices that
are needed for stylistic analysis. The third pa^rt includes a number (A
passages with stylistic analysis which sei'ves as pattern analysis.

^


L THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE

1.1. Literature as Language
The study of literature in general and the study of British and
American literature in particular is fundamentally a study oi language in
operation. The study of literature must always be based on the realization
that each work is essentially the collection oi words that are peiTnanently
available for the student to inspect, to investigate, to analyze, to build
together. The experiencing of a work of literature, no matter how big or
small, can only begin, and continue, with the reading and the study oi a
verbal text. Nowadays many of us do so much reading that we are inclined
lo take it for granted, but the process of reading is a highly inlricalc
business. However, as with other activities in which we acquire skill after
much practice, we eventually learn to carry it out effectively

wilh

considerable speed. Nevertheless there are often occasions when the
symbols

of

language

require

more

careful

inleipretation

than

the

inexperienced reader may himself realize, and the most successful teacher
oi" literature will be one who apart from his insight into his students' minds
and interests, is fully conversant with all the ways in which language
works, and can see exactly how it works in any particular case.
The teacher of literature (equally with the teacher of language) will
he aware how language can be used for different

puipose. lo give

infonnation. lo express feeling, to persuade, to recognize, to conduct
thinking. He will be able to distinguish between language used to refer to
actual things, situation or relationships and language which is used to create
imaginary or hypothetical t)nes. He will be familiar wilh the sub-languages
ni dialect and register that are available for specilic purposes within the
lolalily of the language he is working in. He will be ready to recognize the
different methods by which a language operates, whether by statement. h\
elaboration, by rhythmic effect, by comparison, by allusion, or b\ indirect

2


means such as understatement and irony: and he will be aware of the
special effects that can be gained by changing from on method to another
whether explicitly or unexpectedly. Most important or all. perhaps, he will
be aware that words actually used do not always represent the whole of the
ideas that are being brought into consideration: the analogy of the iceberg is
very useful here to compare the small part which is visible with the great
quantity which is unseen.
We may begin by repeating the following statement by H.L.B
Moody(1971) that there is a close relationship between Literature and
Language. Language skills are four types: (i) listening (ii) speaking (iii)
reading (iv) writing. The inclusion of literature in the cuiriculum helps to
train students in the skill of reading, and perhaps a little in listening,
speaking and writing. A student listens to literature read aloud by the
teacher(or on records or tapes) and to the discussion that literature always
stimulates in the class. He speaks when he acts in plays, when he reads
poems and when he takes an active part in discussion. Because literature is
interesting, he wants to talk about it. It can provide plenty of interesting
opportunities for writing too.

Literature does not of course concentrate on a particular area oi
knowledge, as for example does history or biology. Literature is conceiTied
wilh all aspects of man and the universe in their entirety. Certainly every
work of literature is about something, often about many things, and the
more a person reads, the better stocked will his mind be wilh knowledge.
Knowledge, of course, is a complex conception: we can analyze it.
and the way it is acquired from literature, in a number of ways. Tliere are.
for example, the fact that are actually encountered and explained in the
work of literature: there are also the facts thai we are impelled lo discover
front other sources in order lo understand particular situations or problems
that occur in literature. Sooner or later, students come to the realization that
separate " f a d s " in themselves are less important than the \ \ a \ s \n which
they support and illustrate each other. Most important ol all is the

3


realization that the fact worth knowing are not only facts about "things".
but the fact ab<^ut life.
A special kind of knowledge which every society must foster is that
concerning its own culture. The word "culture'' is used lavishly nowadays.
with many different meanings and implications. Here we use it to signify
what is peculiarly characteristic of a particular community, including its
organization, institutions, laws, customs, work. play. art. religion and so on.
Some of this knowledge is transmitted in the family, and some in various
parts of the school curriculum. Literature, however, can often fill in any
gaps and weld the whole into a meaningful picture.
Although there are various forms of literature, important aspects are
lo all foiTns. A standard method of procedure could be adopted by any
teacher of literature and a suggested method is put forward to include the

following stages:
(1) Preliminary assessment: (2) Practical decision: (3) Introduction i)i
the work: (4) Presentation of the work: (5) Discussion: and
(6)Reinforcement(testing).
It is essential, however, that no lesson should seem to fall into a set
mechanical routine, the teacher will be helped because literature in its
subject - matter and its expression is extremely varied.
1.2. What Forms of Literature to Teach?
1.2.1. The Study of Poetry
We deal first with the study of poetry because this raises some of the
most typical problems in the teaching of literature. Poetry has been given a
place of honour in every culture. Yet the leaching of poetry presents special
dilTicullies. and many teachers are inclined lo avoid it as long as they can.
We must bricHy consider the reasons for this.
Tliere seem to be two kinds of obstacles lo the enjoyment of poetry.
The first is the thought that it is "useless". Hie second consists nol so much
prejudice as of memories of "unfortunate experience".

^


Archaic spelling, familiar
obscure

references,

unfamiliar

words used
comparisons,

in unexpected
nonsensical

contexts,
statements,

chaotic sentences are just a few of the features which are liable to make
cooperation difficult. Also the field of poetry seems to be extraordinarily
complex , for there are lyrical poems, epic, naiTative and satirical poems,
and such technical expressions as metaphysical poetry, impressionistic
poetry, symbolism, imagery, hyperbole, metre, and perhaps many other
things besides.
How is the teacher of literature to steer his students safely through all
these difficulties ? TTie essential educational principle here is that work
rnust be related to students' capacity at any stage. The teacher should make
his own decisions in relation lo his students' capacities. Perhaps the most
important thing of all in teaching poetry is lo preserve a nonnal atmosphere
in the classroom. Tlic kind of poetry we want to use is made of language
Jiisl like anything else we read: and it confonns to the same principles,
building up its "message" wilh the help oi individual words and syntax or
grammar.
Language study thus becomes extraordinarily important for

the

study oi poetry. The importance of linguistic study is nol. of course.
confined lo the understanding of single words or phrases. But linguistic
study becomes literary only when it serves the sludy of literature, when it
aims at investigating the aesthetic effects oi language, in short, when it

becomes stylislics.
1.2,2, The Study of Prose

Fiction

From the more general educational point of xicw. it must he
recognized that the novel is a literary fonn which has engaged the alteulion
oi a large number oi notable writers. Novels and short slolies tend to ha\e
lairlx' complex structures involving selling, characters, narralixc. narratixe
technique, language and themes.


As for language, there is usually a great deal to be gathered from a
careful appreciation of the resources of language, the sub - lamiilies.
dialects, registers and personal "idiolects" which may be employed in the
course of a single novel or a short story. The most straightforward type ol
novel

maintains

a

uniform

style

throughout.

coiTesponding

to

the

pessonality of the particular naiTator or novelist. This method allows lor
many subtleties of description and definition. In other cases, however,
authors will modify the language they employ, whether in direct speech or
narrative, to retlect the thoughts and feelings of particular characters at
particular moments. Here the teacher is oi great importance in helping
students to reorganize the effect of stylistic devices (SDs) and expressive
means (EMs) used.
1,2.3, The Study of Drama
In the sludy oi a dramatic work, the same things ( aclting. characters,
narrative, technique, language, theme) may still require our attention. But
over and above these, we are concerned with the stylistic examination oi
the text.
II. WHAT ARE NEEDED IN THE STYLISTK ANALYSIS OF LITERARY lEX IS?

Literature

is related

lo all aspects of language. All

language

phenoiTiena occuring in the text fonn a complex, present the whole. A
linguistic method of stylistic analysis involxes careful observation and
detailed and consistent description of language phenomena in the text, ll is
necessary lo emphasize that a rigorous analysis of expressive means (EMs)

and stylistic dexiccs (SDs) cleariy seen at first glance is likely lo uncover
oilier. previt>usly unobserved, significant features.
Tlic examination oi the text in detail may well lead lo the need to
investigale all related lealures. lexical, grammatical and phonetic. So. while
analvzing the lexl we must take into account the interrelation ofmanx parts
w Inch make up the whole.


2.1. Phonetic Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices
The sound of a word or the way words sound in combination
contribute something to the general effect of the massage, particularly when
the sound effect has clearly been deliberately worked out.
2.1.1.

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech - sounds which aiins at
initiating

sounds

produced

in

nature(wind.

sea.

thunder,

etc),

by

lhings(machines or tools, etc), by people(sighing, laughter, patter oi feel.
etc) and by animals.
Tlierc are two types of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect.
Direct onomatopoeia is contained in works thai imitate natural
sounds, as cliiii^-cJoiii*. buzz, hcm^. cuckoo. mc\\\ pii^-poni^,

roar and the

like.
Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination oi sounds which aims at
makinu the sound of utterance an echo oi its sense.
For example:
"And the silken, sad. uncertain rustling of each"
Tlie repetition of the sound

j s | (E.A.Poe) in the line actually

produces the sound of the rustling of the curtain.
2.7.2.

Alliteration

Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparling a
m elodic effect

lo the utterance

The essence ol ihis device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in
particular consonant

sounds, in close succession, parlicularlv

bciiinnini: of succcssixc words:

7

al the


For example:
"Deep into the Jarkness peering, long I stooJ there wonJering.
fearing".
"/doubting. Jreaming (breams no mortals ever Jared to Jream betore"
2.1.3.

Rhyme

Rhyme is the repetition of the identical or similar stressed sound or
sounds.
Identity and similarity of sound combination may be relatix^e.
There are full rhyme and incomplete rhymes.
The full rhyme occurs when differing consonant sounds are followed
by identical stressed vowel-sounds, and the following sounds, if any. are
identical:
ioc - ioc: meci - ilcei: b//ffer - iY>//gher.

Tlie incomplete rhyme occurs when only the final consonant -sounds
ol the rhyming words are identical: the stressed vowel-sounds as well as the
initial consonant-sounds, if any, differ:
sou/ - oil: m'u'lh - for///.
2.1.4,

Rhythm

Rhythm exists in all spheres of human

activity and

assumes

mullifarious fonns. It is a mighty weapon in stirring up emotions whatever
Its nature or origin, whether it is musical, mechanical, or symmetrical as in
aichileclure.
Cienerally rhythm may be defined as follow s:
"[•ihythm is a How. movement, procedure, etc.. characterized b\
basically regular recurrence oi elements of lealures. as beat or accent, in
alternation with opposite or different elements or features"
(Webster's New World Dictionarx)

d


Rhythm reveals itself most conspicuously in music, dance and verse.

2.2. Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices
2.2.1. Metaphor

A metaphor is a relation between the dictionary and contextual
logical meanings based on the affinity or similarity of certain properties or
lealures of the two con'esponding concepts.
Metaphor can be embodied in all the meaningful parts of speech: in
nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs and sometimes even in the auxiliary parts
of speech, as in prepositions.
•

Nouns: His eldest son is the star of the family.

•

Adjectives: The hwnan tide is rolling westward.
(Charles Dickens. Dombey and Son).

•

Verbs: He s^am bravely against the stream of popular applause.
2.2.2.

Metonymy

Metonymy is based on the proximity of the two concepts which these
meanings represent.
TIius the word crown may stand for "King or Queen'\
hollle for "the liquor it contains":
e.g.
Tlie C^rown would not approve it.
He is too fond of the bottle.
2.2.3.

Irony

Irony is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization
of two logical meanings - dictionary and contextual, but the two meanini^s
sland in opposition lo each other.


e.g. It must be deli^^htfiil to find oneself in a foreign country without
a penny in one's pocket.
The word delightful

acquires a meaning quite the opposite lo its

primary dictionary meaning, that is "unpleasant", "not delightfur\
2.2.4.

Pun

The pun is another stylistic device based on the interaclion of two
well-known meanings of a word or phrase.
e.g. " Bow to the hoard ". said Bumble.
Oliver brushed away two or three tears that were lingering in his
eyes: and seeing no hoard but the table, fortunately bowed lo that !
(Charles Dickens. Oliver Twist)
2.2.5.

Epithet

Tlic epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and

lt>gical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence, used to
characlcrize an object and pointing out

to the reader, and IVcquenllv

imposing on him. some oi the properties or features of the object wilh the
aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation i)i these features or
properties:
e.g. "Such was background of the wonderful,

cruel,

euchanling.

hewildcriug, fatal, great city'\
(O.Henry)
2.2.6.

Simile

A simile consists in giving fonnal expression to the likeness said to
evisl between two dilferenl objects or events.
Tlie fonnality peculiar lo a simile consists in using some word ojwords for drawini: attention lo the likeness. Tlic words commonlv used lor

1C


this purpose are as, as - so, like.
e.g. En-ors, like straws, upon the surface How:
He that would search for pearis must dive below.

(.lohn Dryden)
2.2.7.

Periphrasis

Periphrasis is the re-naming of an object by a phrase that brings out
some particular feature of the object. The essence of the device is that it is
decipherable only in context. If a periphrastic locution is understandable
outside the context, it is not a stylistic device but merely a synonymous
expression.
e.g.

"And Harold stands upon the place of skulls,
I lie grave of France, the deadly Waterloo".
(Ci.G. Byron)

2.2.8.

Euphemism

Euphemism is a word or phrase used lo replace an unpleasant w^ord
or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one.
Tlic following euphemisms are used lo replace "lo die":
to pass away, to expire, lo be no more, to depart, to join the majorily.
and the more facetious ones:
to kick the bucket, to gixe up the ghost, to go west.
e.g. " Tliey think we have come by this horse in some

dishouesi

manner " = steal
(Charles Dickens)
2.2.9.

Hyperbole

Hyperbole is deliberate overstalemcnl or exaggeration which aims at

11


intensifying one of the features of the object in question lo such a degree as
will show its utter absurdity.
e.g. Rosemary Fell was not exactly beautiful. No. you couldn't have
called her beautiful her beautiful. Pretty? Well, if you took her to pieces...
(Katherine Mansfield)
2.2.10.

Proverbs and

Sayings

Proverbs and sayings have certain purely linguistic features which
iTiusl always be taken into account in order lo distinguish them from
ordinary sentences. Proverbs are brief statements showing in condensed
form the accumulated life experience of the community and serving as
conventional practical symbols for abstract ideas. They have metre, rhyme
and alliteration:
e.g.
To cut one's coat according to one's cloth.

The proof of the pudding is in the eating.
Early lo bed and early lo rise.
Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.
2.2.11.

Quotations

A quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book,
speech and the like used by way of authority illustration, proof or as a basis
lor further speculation on the matter in hand.
e.g. Tlie Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen al the time
ol the French Revolution, in 1791. also slates: "All inen are born lice and
w ilh equal rights, and must always remain free and ha\e equal lights."
(Ho Chi Minh)

12


2.2.12.

Allusions

An allusion is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a
historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday lile
made in the course of speaking and writing.
e.g. In this house of his there was writing on every wall.
(John Galsworthy)
It is an allusion to the Biblical story of a warning written in letters oi
lire on the wall of the palace of the last Babylonian King Balthazar (6'''
century BC).

2.3. Syntactical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices
2.3.1. Stylistic

Inversion

Stylistic inversion in Modem English should not be regarded as a
violation of the noiTns of Standard English. It is on of the fonns of what arc
known as emphaUc constitutions.
The following patterns of stylistic inversion are most frequently met
both in English prose and English poetry.
i. Tlie object is placed at the beginning oi the sentence.
e.g.

Talent

Mr. Micawber has: capital Mr. Micawber has

not.
(Charles Dickens)
ii. Tlie allribute is placed after the word it modifies.
e.g.

With fingers weary and worn...
(Thomas Hood)

iii.

Tlie predicate is placed before the subjecl.
e.g.

A good generous prayer it was.
(Mark Twain)

13


iv.

The adverbial modifier is placed at the beginnmg of the
sentence.
e.g.

V.

Eagerly I wished the morrow. (E. A. Poe)
Both modifier and predicate stand before the subject:

e.g.

In went Mr. Pickwick
(Charles Dickens)

2.3.2. Detached Constructions
In the English language detached constructions are generally used in
the belles - lettres prose style and mainly with words that have some
explanatory functions.
The detached part, being torn away from its referent, assumes a
greater degree of significance and is given prominence by intonation.
e.g.

Sir Pitt came in first, very much flushed, and rather unsteady

in his gait.

(W.M. Thackeray)

2.3.3. Parallel Construction
Parallel constructions is a device involving identical, or similar
syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence.
e.g.

The seeds ye sow - another reaps.
The robes ye weave - another wears.
The anns ye forge - another bears.
(P.B.Shelley)

2.3.4. Repetition
Tlie stylistic device of repetition aims at logical emphasis, an
emphasis necessary to fix the attention of the reader on the kev-word oi the
ulteranee.

1^


Repetition may be:
i.

Anaphora or the repetition of a word(or phrase) at the

beginning of two or more consecudve sentence, clauses or phrases:

e.g.

For that was it ! Ignorant of the long and stealthy march

of passion, and of the state to which it has reduced Fleur: ignorant of
how Soames had watched

her; ignorant

of Fleur's

reckless

desperation... - ignorant of all this, everybody felt aggrieved.
(John Galsworthy)
i.

Epiphora or the repetition of a word (or phrase) al the
end of consecutive sentence, clauses or phrases:
e.g.

I am exactly the man to be placed in a superior position

in such a case as that. I am above the rest of mankind, /// such
a case as that. I can act with philosophy /// such a case a.s ihai.
(Charles Dickens)
2.3.5.

Enumeration

Enumeration is a stylistic device by means of which homogeneous
parts oi an utterance are made heterogeneous from the semantic point oi
\ iew.

e.g.

... and as she had no sort of character, nor talents, nor

opinions, nor occupations, tun' amusements, nor that vigor of stnil and
ferocity of temper which often falls lo the lot of entirely foolish woman, her
hold upon Sir Pitt's affections was not very great.
(W.M.Tliackeray)
2.3.6. Suspense
Suspense is a compositional device which consists in arranging the
matter iA a communication in such a wax that the less important.
descriptive, subordinate parts are amassed at the beginning, the main idea
being withheld till the end and his interest is kept up.

15


e.g.

Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend M. was

obliging enough to read and explain to me for the first seventy thousand
ages ate their meat raw
2.3.7. Climax
Climax is an arrangement of sentences (or of the homogeneous parts
of one sentence) which secures a gradual increase in significance,

importance, or emotional tension in the utterance:
e.g.

It was a lovely city, a beautiful city, a fair city, a veritable gem

of a city.
(G. G. Byron)
A gradual increase in significance may be maintained in three ways:
logical, emotional and quantitative. Emotional climax is achieved by such
words wilh emotive meaning as "lovely", "beautiful", "fair" in the above
example.
Quantitative climax may be found in
They looked at hundreds of houses: they climbed tlunisands of stairs:
they inspected innumerable kitchens.
(Somerset Maugham)
2.3.8. Antithesis
Antithesis is a stylistic opposition based on relative opposition which
arises out oi the context through the expansion of the objectixvly
contrasting pairs:
e.g.

^'outh is lovely, age is lonely.
Youth is fiery, age is frosty.
(H.W. Lonulcllow)

16


2.3.9.

Ellipsis

As a stylistic device, ellipsis always imitates the common features ol
colloquial language, where the situation predetemaines nol the omission ol
certain members of the sentence, but their absence.
e.g. 'There's somebody

wants to speak to you ".
( E. Hemingway)

2.3.10. Rhetorical

Questions

The rhetorical question is a special syntactical

stylistic device

consisting in reshaping the grammatical meaning oi the

interrogative

sentence. In other words, the question is no longer a question but a
statement expressed in the fonn of an interrogative sentence.
e.g.

Men oi England, wherefore plough
For the lords who lay ye low 7
(P.B. Shellev

2.3.IL

Litotes

Litotes is a stylistic device consisting of a peculiar use of negative
constructions. TTie negation plus noun or adjective serves to establish a
positive feature in a person or thing. This positive feature, however, is
somewhat

diminished

in

quality

as

compared

with

a

synonymous

expression making a straightforward assertion of ihe positive feature.
e.g.

He is not a bad student - He is good student.
He is no coward - He is a brave man.

"not bad" is nol equal lo "good" (although and "no coward" is not
ecpial lo " a brave man")
Tliese constructions are svnonvmous.


111. PAM ERN STYLISTIC ANALYSIS

3.1. Poetry
PHRCY BYSSIliZ SMLLLUY
, TO THE MEN OP ENCILANO

1. Men of FTigJaiifl, wherefore plom^li
t^or the lords who lay ye low?
Wherefore weave wilh loll and cnic,
The ricli robes your lytniils xvpai?
2, VVIieiefoie feed, and clollie, ninl save,
f'foin (he rirndle lo the grnve,
Those niiRrnlefttl dioiies who would
Drain yotir sw^eat—nny, drink your bloodi
.1. Wliriefoie, l^ees of Englntid, forgo
Many n \ven|)oii. chain and .sroinge,
That Ihe.'ie: slin^les.s drones tnny spoil
Tlie foicell i piodiiee of yonr toil?
I. Have ye . leisure, conifoil, calm,
Shelter, food, love's geiille bnlin?
{)\ what is it ye buy so tlear
With your pain and with your fenr?
f). The
The

1 he
the

seed ye sow, niiother reaps;
wealth ye find, another Iceeps;
rohns yo wonvn, nnolhor wen is;
aims ye foige, another bears.

f). Sow srfMl—but let no
Fiiul wenllli. -let. no
Wenve t()hes,-lel no
I'oige nifiis,—in yonr

lyrnitt reap;
impostor hnn[);
idler wear;
defence lo bear.

t. Sill ink lo your cellars, holes, and cells;
In linlLs ye dfM h. ai tot her f I we lis.
Wh y shake? Iho chniiis ye wioiifjii I ? '>'(» see
llie sleel ye lenipeied glance on yo.
1. Willi plough and
rince youi ginve,
And weave yoni
l''ngland he yom

spade, and hf)e and loont,
nnd l)nilfl your tomb,
winding slieel, till fair

so(nilcliie.
Id


Stylistic Analysis

The poem is an expression of Shelley's just indignation at the cruelty
of capitalist exploitation. Thus it is imbued with bitter irony and wrath. The
poem is built on a contrast between "Men

of England" - the labourers,

those who create real values, and the lords. " the ungrateful drones" who
exploit the toilers - " drink their blood".
The poem is built up as an address " to the Men of England". The
beginning of the poem ( the first two lines) is an appeal expressed through
the SD of rhetorical question:
Men of England, wherefore plough
For the lords who lay ye low?
Tlie idea cxpres.sed in this question is sustained through the first three
slanzas. The anaphoric repetition: "wherefore weave'", "wherefore feed".
"Wherefore, bees of England" stresses the idea - the uselessness of "toil
and care" wasted on " those ungrateful drones". In the fourth stanza the
climatic enumeration: " Have ye leisure, comfort, calm..." brings out a
rhetorical

question:

Or what is it ye buy so dear
With your pain and with your fear?

Tlie fifth stanza offers
unbearable

a solution of the problem, a way out of the

situation. The use of parallel constructions here is most

efficient, a series of imperative sentences brings out the climax:
Sow seed - but let no tyrant reap;
Find wealth, - let no impostor heap:
The last two stanzas present a kind of ironical address, directed
against those who shrink from struggle lo their " cellars, holes, and cells",
those who seek no way out and submit to tyranny and cruel exploitation:
they weave their own " winding-sheet", their fate is inosl Iragic and
disastrous, if they d(^ nol fight against the monstrous

social injustice ihev


are doomed - "England be your sepulchre".
The metrical pattern of the poem is that of trochee:
'

^.

\ L

u

\ ^.

y.

\ i

:^.

The rhyming scheme is couplet ( a a b b). Note the imperfect rhyme
in the P' stanza.
The major SDs used in the poem are syntactical SDs: rhetorical
questions, various kinds of repetition, parallel constructions, climax. These
SDs are used throughout the whole poem and create a strong emotional
effect.
The imagery employed in the poem is used

with the purpose oi

enhancing the contrast between the toilers and the oppressors. Note the
metaphors - " bees of England", , " those ungrateful drones". " drain your
sweat - nay", drink your blood". The verb metaphors

( "drain", "drink")

though trite add to the emotional appeal of the poem.
The metaphors used in the last stanza: " And weave your windingsheet", "England be your sepulchre" present a kind oi sinister warning those who do not struggle will perish.
One should note another lexical SD used in the poem - metonymy:
"from the cradle to the grave". " with plough and spade, and hoc and loom
...". Tlie interaction of metaphor and metonymy in the sexenlh stanza
increases the effect created by the use of other SDs: " the steel ye teinpered
glance on yc".

In conclusion one must say that the use of archaic fonns oi pronouns
( "thee", "yc") adds to the solemn atmosphere created by the use of lexical
and syntactical SDs and heightens the emotional appeal of the poem.

IC


ROBERT FROST
THE ROAD NOT TAKEN

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,
And sorry I could not Irnvel l)olli
And be otie traveller, long I stood
Atid looked down one as fa^ as 1 could
To where it beiit in the undergrowth;
Then took the other, as just as fair,
And having perhaps the better claim,
Because it was grassy and wanted wear;
Though as for that the passing (here
Had worn Iheiii really aljoul (lie saiiio.
And both that niorning equally lay
In leaves no step had trodden black.
Oh, 1 kept the first for another day!
Yet knowing how way leads on lo way,
I doubted if I sliould ever coiue back.
I shall be telling this with a sigh
Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a wood, aiul f I took the one less travelled bv,
And that has made all Ihe difference.

ii


Stylistic Analysis
The poem " The Road not Taken" is casual in its subject-matter.
describing a particular place at a particular time: once while travelling alone
the poet stopped at a fork in the road, undecided which path to take. Finally
he chose one because it seemed a little less frequented.
In analyzing this poem we must point out its three main features: 1)
the effect of striking conereteness and simplicity: 2)the impression of a
melancholy meditating tone: 3) the implication suggested by the poet as the
ultimate stylistic effect.
These three peculiarities are linked and interwoven to produce a joint
impression, the EMs and SDs of the poem are
aimed at achieving the
desired ellect.
The poet describes a particular autumn wood: "Two roads diverged in
a yellow wood", and two paths: one - " bent in the undergrowth", the other
"was grassy and wanted wear". All the facts consistently presented in the
poem stress the conereteness of the image (the third stanza):
And both that morning equally lay
In leaves no step had trodden black.
The poet consistenUy refers to himself as a traveller in a definite
wood described precisely one autumn day ( the first stanza):
And soiTy I could not travel both
And be one traveller. ...
SDs used in describing the picture are aimed at arousing a concrete
image: epithets "yellow", "grassy", metonymical periphrasis "wanted wear"
and "no step had trodden black" suggesting paths which arc seldom used.
A careful and inclusive analysis must consider linguistic items al

various levels, as all stylistically significant features foim a coinplex.
Tlie meditative tone of reminiscence is established from the \ery
first. The most important factor in achieving this effect is a phonetic SD: a
peculiar rhyming scheme a b a a b which suggests a slow mclancholx
intonation. Tlie stanza oi the poem consists of live lines, lines 3 and 4
having the same rhyme as line 1 produce a peculiar effect oi sound
anadiplosis. Tliis sound(or rhyme) anadiplosis stresses the impression iA a
slow movement oi thoughts. Three instances of the repetition of the

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