WHAT ARE THE ISSUE AND THE CONCLUSION

C H A P T E R

2I
W H A T A R E T H E ISSUE
AND T H E C O N C L U S I O N ?
Before we evaluate someone's reasoning, we must first find it. Doing so sounds
simple; it isn't. To get started as a critical thinker, you must practice the identification of the issue and the conclusion.
Cell phones are becoming a large part of today's society bringing with than benefits
and drawbacks. They are beneficial for those with tight schedules and in case of
emergencies. Cell phones can also come in handy for parents to check up on their
children. Even though cell phones do carry benefits, the drawbacks are in their
inappropriate use. When a cell phone rings or owners talk on them during a lecture
or a concert, a major disruption in the concentration of others is inevitable. Even
though there are suggestions in polite society to leave them off, perhaps we need
stronger penalties associated with abuse of the growing population of cell phones.
The person who wrote this assessment of cell phones very much wants
you to believe something. But what is that something and why are we supposed
to believe any such thing?
In general, those who create Web pages, editorials, books, magazine articles, or speeches are trying to change your perceptions or beliefs. For you to
form a reasonable reaction to their persuasive effort, you must first identify the
controversy or issue as well as the thesis or conclusion being pushed onto you.
(Someone's conclusion is her intended message to you. Its purpose is to shape
your beliefs a n d / o r behavior.) Otherwise, you will be reacting to a distorted
version of the attempted communication.
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Chapter 2

When we read or listen, it is so easy to ignore what was said in the previous paragraph. We often react to the images, dramatic illustrations, or tone of
what was said instead of the reasoning that was intended by the person communicating with us. Each time we fail to react to the reasoning, human
conversation has experienced a defeat. We are not connecting as the person
who wrote or spoke to us intended. So, getting straight about the person's
conclusion and issue is an essential first step in effective human interaction.
When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to answer the
first of our critical questions successfully:
(J)

Critical Question: What are the issue and the conclusion?
Attention: An issue is a question or controversy responsible for the
conversation or discussion. It is the stimulus for what is being said.

Kinds of Issues
It will be helpful at this point to identify two kinds of issues you will typically
encounter. The following questions illustrate one of these:
Do families who own pets have fewer arguments with one another?
What causes high blood pressure?
Who made the decision to increase our sales taxes?
How much will college cost in the year 2010?
All these questions have one thing in common. They demand answers
attempting to describe the way the world is, was, or is going to be. For example, answers to the first two questions might be, "In general, families with pets
have fewer arguments with one another," and "Poor dietary habits cause high
blood pressure."
Such issues are descriptive issues. They are commonly found in textbooks,
magazines, the Internet, and television. Such issues reflect our curiosity about
patterns or order in the world. Note the boldfaced words that begin each question above; when questions begin with these words, they will probably be
descriptive questions.
Attention: Descriptive issues are those that raise questions about the
accuracy of descriptions of the past, present, or future.

What Are the Issue and the Conclusion?

17

Now let's look at examples of a second kind of question:
Should capital punishment be abolished?
What ought to be done about social security?
Must we outlaw SUVs or face increasing rates of asthma?
All of these questions demand answers suggesting the way the world ought
to be. For example, answers to the first two questions might be, "Capital punishment should be abolished," and "We ought to increase social security benefits."
These issues are ethical, or moral, issues; they raise questions about what
is right or wrong, desirable or undesirable, good or bad. They demand prescriptive answers. Thus, we will refer to these issues as prescriptive issues. Social
controversies are often prescriptive issues.
We have somewhat oversimplified. Sometimes it will be difficult to decide
what kind of issue is being discussed. It will be useful to keep these distinctions
in mind, however, because the kinds of critical evaluations you eventually make
will differ depending on the kind of issue to which you are responding.
Attention: Prescriptive issues are those that raise questions about what
we should do or what is right or wrong, good or bad.

Searching for the Issue
How does one go about determining the basic question or issue? Sometimes it
is very simple: The writer or speaker will tell you what it is. Alternatively, the
issue may be identified in the body of the text, usually right at the beginning,
or it may even be found in the title. When the issue is explicitly stated, it will
be indicated by phrases such as the following:
The question I am raising is: Why must we have speed limits on our highways?
Lowering the legal drinking age: Is it the right thing to do?

Should sex education be taught in the schools?
Unfortunately, the question is not always explicitly stated and instead
must be inferred from other clues in the communication. For example, many
writers or speakers are reacting to some current event that concerns them,
such as a series of violent acts in schools. Asking "What is the author reacting
to?" will often suggest the central issue of a communication. Another good


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Chapter 2

clue is knowledge of the author's background, such as organizations to which
she belongs. So check for background information about the author as you try
to determine the issue.
When you are identifying the issue, try to resist the idea that there is one
and only one correct way to state the issue. Once you have found a question that
the entire essay or speech is addressing, and you can show the link between
that question and the essay or speech, you have found the issue. Just make certain that what you are calling an issue meets the definitional criteria for that idea.
The surest way to detect an issue when it is not explicitly stated, however,
is to locate the conclusion. In many cases, the conclusion must be found before you can identify the issue. Thus, in such cases, the first step in critical evaluation is to find the conclusion—a frequently difficult step.
We cannot critically evaluate until we find the conclusion!
Let's see how we go about looking for that very important structural
element.
Attention: A conclusion is the message that the speaker or writer
wishes you to accept.

Searching for the Author's or Speaker's Conclusion
To identify the conclusion, the critical thinker must ask, "What is the writer or
speaker trying to prove?" or "What is the communicator's main point?" The

answer to either of these questions will be the conclusion. Any answer to the
question provided by the speaker or writer will be the conclusion.
In searching for a conclusion, you will be looking for a statement or set
of statements that the writer or speaker wants you to believe. She wants you to
believe the conclusion on the basis of her other statements. In short, the basic
structure of persuasive communication or argument is: This because of that.
This refers to the conclusion; that refers to the support for the conclusion. This
structure represents the process of inference.
Conclusions are inferred; they are derived from reasoning. Conclusions
are ideas that require other ideas to support them. Thus, whenever someone
claims something is true or ought to be done and provides no statements to
support her claim, that claim is not a conclusion because no one has offered
any basis for belief. In contrast, unsupported claims are what we refer to as
mere opinions.


What Are the Issue and the Conclusion?

19

The last paragraph says a lot. It would be a good idea for you to read it
again. Understanding the nature of a conclusion is an essential step toward
critical reading and listening. Let's look closely at a conclusion and at the
inference process. Here is a brief paragraph; see whether you can identify the
conclusion, then the statements that support it.
Factory farming should not be legal. There are other more natural ways to produce
needed food supply.
"Factory farming should not be legal." This is the author's answer to the
question: should factory farming be legalized? It is her conclusion. The author
supports this belief with another: "There are other more natural ways to produce needed food supply."

Do you see why the supporting belief is not a conclusion? It is not the
conclusion because it is used to prove something else. Remember. To believe
one statement (the conclusion) because you think it is well supported by other
beliefs is to make an inference. When people engage in this process, they are
reasoning; the conclusion is the outcome of this reasoning.
Sometimes, communicators will not make their conclusions explicit; in
such cases you will have to infer the conclusion from what you believe the author
is trying to prove by the set of ideas she has presented.

USING THIS CRITICAL QUESTION
Once you have found the conclusion, use it as the focus of your evaluation. It
is the destination that the writer or speaker wants you to choose. Your ongoing
concern is: Should I accept that conclusion on the basis of what is supporting
the claim?

Clues to Discovery: How to Find the Conclusion
There are a number of clues to help you identify the conclusion.
CLUE NO. 1: Ask what the issue is. Because a conclusion is always a response to
an issue, it will help you find the conclusion if you know the issue. We discussed earlier how to identify the issue. First, look at the title. Next, look at the
opening paragraphs. If this technique does not help, skimming several pages
may be necessary.


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Chapter 2

Clue No. 2 : Look for indicator words. The conclusion will frequently be preceded by indicator words that announce a conclusion is coming. When you
see these indicator words, take note of them. They tell you that a conclusion
may follow. A list of such indicator words follows:

consequently

suggests that

hence

therefore

points

to the conclusion that

thus

the point I'm trying to make is

it follows that

it is highly probable that

shows that

proves that

indicates that

the truth of the matter is

Read the following passage; then identify and highlight the indicator words.
By doing so, you will have identified the statements containing the conclusion.

Because of the wording of the Constitution, it follows that prayer should not be
allowed in public schools. When the schools favor any particular religion, they
are hampering the freedom of those who embrace a different religion. The idea
of freedom of religion is what the country was founded on.
You should have highlighted the following phrase: it follows. The conclusion follows these words.
Unfortunately, many written and spoken communications do not introduce the conclusion with indicator words. However, when you write, you
should draw attention to your thesis with indicator words. Those words act as
a neon sign, drawing attention to the point you want the reader to accept.
Clue No. 3: Look in likely locations. Conclusions tend to occupy certain locations. The first two places to look are at the beginning and at the end. Many
writers begin with a statement of purpose, containing what they are trying to
prove. Others summarize their conclusions at the end. If you are reading a
long, complex passage and are having difficulty seeing where it is going, skip
ahead to the end.
Clue No. 4: Remember what a conclusion is not. Conclusions will not be any
of the following:


What Are the Issue and the Conclusion?
•
•

examples
statistics

•

definitions

•

background information

•

evidence

21

Clue No. 5: Check the context of the communication and the author's background. Often writers, speakers, or Internet sites take predictable positions on
issues. Knowing probable biases of the source and the background of authors
can be especially valuable clues when the conclusion is not explicit. Be especially alert to information about organizations with which writers or speakers
may be associated.
Clue No. 6: Ask the question, "and therefore?" Because conclusions are
often implied, ask for the identity of the "and therefore" element. Ask, "Does
the author want us to draw an implied conclusion from the information communicated?" Conclusions like "candidate X will be soft on crime" are often
left for the reader or viewer to infer from the limited information presented
in a political ad.

Critical Thinking and Your Own Writing and Speaking
Because readers of your writing will be looking for your thesis or conclusion,
help them by giving it the clarity it deserves. It is the central message you want
to deliver. Emphasize it; leave no doubt about what it actually is. Making your
conclusion easily identifiable not only makes a reader's task easier, it also may
improve the logic of your writing. An effective way to emphasize the conclusion
is to insert it at the beginning or end of your essay and precede it with an
indicator word.
In addition, take a close look at your conclusion to make certain that it is
a direct response to the issue you intended to address. For example, suppose
the issue you are attempting to address is: Will owning a pet increase how long
we live? If your conclusion is: "yes, it will increase our life span by an average

of 15 years," there is a match between issue and conclusion. But were your conclusion, instead, that pets bring joy to the lives of everyone who owns them,
your reasoning is confused. The latter conclusion is responding to a different
issue, namely, do pets bring joy to our lives?


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Chapter 2

Practice Exercises
(JM

Critical Question: What are the issue and the

conclusion?

I n the following p a s s a g e s , locate the issue a n d c o n c l u s i o n . As you search,
be sure to l o o k for i n d i c a t o r words.
Passage 1
Home schooling is a valid concept if the parent makes teaching a full time job,
and has the insight, knowledge and patience to do so. However, the truth of the
matter is that few parents who home school their child are capable of doing so.
Parents may choose to pull their student out of public schools for the wrong reasons. Sometimes, when children are a discipline problem, the parents will pull
them out of school rather than tolerating the rules associated with the punishment. Such a motivation does not speak well for the probable results of the home
schooling that follows. In addition, when there are no other adults to monitor
what is going on at home, it is likely that if there is a case of abuse in the home
that it will go unnoticed. Society needs to know whether these children are
getting the education and treatment they deserve.
Passage 2
Television advertising agencies are very clever in the way that they construct ads.

Often the ads are similar to the cartoons that the children enjoy. Children see
these characters interacting with a certain product and associate their affection
for the character with affection for the product. The companies do not want the
children to perceive a difference between the shows they are watching and the
advertisements. By using this strategy, these companies take advantage of the fact
that children are often not able to discriminate between the cartoons and the ads
and do not understand that these things offered come at a cost. Often the advertising is about sugary snacks or fatty foods, leading the children down a path to
bad health. Advertising geared towards children should be regulated - j u s t as
there are regulations now about tobacco and alcohol ads targeted at children.
Passage 3
Should the public be shown actual courtroom trials on television? It seems as
though the system can easily be corrupted by having cameras in the courtroom.
Victims are hesitant enough when testifying in front of a small crowd, but their
knowledge that every word is being sent to countless homes would increase the
likelihood that they would simply refuse to testify. There is little to no assumed
innocence for the accused when their trial is put on television. People do not
watch court television because they are concerned about our country's ability to


What Are the Issue and the Conclusion?

23

effectively carry out the proceedings of the judicial system; instead, they are
looking for the drama in witness testimony: entertainment. Thus, leave the cameras out of the courtrooms, and let the public view sitcom drama based off of
the legal system.

Sample Responses
Passage 1
The author states her conclusion in the second sentence of the passage. The conclusion is identified by the phrase, "the truth of the matter is". The author does not

explicitly state the issue, but it can be inferred by the conclusion and the reasons.
There are listed reasons in the second paragraph that suggest why some parents'
motivation to home school their children would lend to an ineffective home schooling experience. This example is prescriptive because it asks what ought to be done.
ISSUE: Should all parents be allowed to home school their children ?
CONCLUSION: NO, most parents are not capable of home schooling.
Passage 2
There are no indicator words to point towards die conclusion, but a good place to
look for the conclusion is either at the beginning or end of the excerpt. In this case,
the very last statement is the conclusion, and you can tell it is the conclusion because it gives finality to the passage using the phrase "should be". This phrase also
indicates that this is a prescriptive issue. It is not talking about the way things are or
are not, but how they ought to be. The issue is assumed from the conclusion and
from the preceding statements explaining why the author came to her conclusion.
ISSUE: Should advertisements geared towards children be regulated?
CONCLUSION: Advertisements geared toward children should be regulated.

ff)
Vl^

CRITICAL QUESTION SUMMARY:
WHY THIS QUESTION IS IMPORTANT

What Are the Issue and the Conclusion?
Before you can evaluate an author's argument, you must clearly identify the
issue and conclusion. How can you evaluate an argument if you don't know
exactly what the author is trying to persuade you to believe? Finding an author's
main point is the first step in deciding whether you will accept or reject it.



CHAPTER

3I
W H A T ARE THE REASONS?
Reasons provide answers for our human curiosity about why someone makes
a particular decision or holds a particular opinion.
Every class should conclude with student evaluations.
A pig is smarter than a mule.
Employers should be able to fire any employee who refuses to take a drug test.
Those three claims are each missing something. We may or may not agree with
them, but in their current form they are neither weak nor strong. None of the
claims contains an explanation or rationale for why we should agree. Thus, if we
heard someone make one of those three assertions, we would be left hungry for
more.
What is missing is the reason or reasons responsible for the claims.
Reasons are beliefs, evidence, metaphors, analogies, and other statements
offered to support or justify conclusions. They are the statements that
together form the basis for creating the credibility of a conclusion. Chapter 2
gave you some guidelines for locating two very important parts of the structure of an argument—the issue and the conclusion. This chapter focuses
on techniques for identifying the third essential element of an argument—
the reasons.
When a writer has a conclusion she wants you to accept, she must present
reasons to persuade you that she is right and to show you why.

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Chapter 3

It is the mark of a rational person to support her beliefs with adequate
proof, especially when the beliefs are of a controversial nature. For example,
when someone asserts that we should exclude inexperienced lawyers from
representing those charged with felonies, this assertion should be met with
the challenge, "Why do you say that?" You should raise this question whether
you agree or disagree.
The person's reasons may be either strong or weak, but you will not know
until you have asked the question and identified the reasons. If the answer is
"because I think so," you should be dissatisfied with the argument, because the
"reason" is a mere restatement of the conclusion. However, if the answer is
evidence concerning serious mistakes made by inexperienced lawyers in
felony cases, you will want to consider such evidence when you evaluate the
conclusion. Remember: You cannot determine the worth of a conclusion
until you identify the reasons.
Identifying reasons is a particularly important step in critical thinking.
An opinion cannot be evaluated fairly unless we ask why it is held and get a
satisfactory response. Focusing on reasons requires us to remain open to and
tolerant of views that might differ from our own. If we reacted to conclusions
rather than to reasoning, we would tend to stick to the conclusions we brought
to the discussion or essay, and those conclusions that agree with our own
would receive our rapid assent. If we are ever to re-examine our own opinions,
we must remain curious, open to the reasons provided by those people with
opinions that we do not yet share.
(Jj

Critical Question: What are the reasons?

Reasons + Conclusion = Argument
In ordinary conversation, an argument refers to a disagreement, a time when
blood pressure soars. We will use the concept in a very different manner. An

argument is a combination of two forms of statements: a conclusion and the reasons allegedly supporting it. The partnership between reasons and conclusion
establishes a person's argument. It is something we provide because we care
about how people live their lives and what they believe. Our continual
improvement depends on someone's caring enough about us to offer us arguments and to evaluate the ones we make. Only then will we be able to develop
as thoughtful people.
Sometimes, an argument will consist of a single reason and a conclusion;
often, however, several reasons will be offered to support the conclusion.


What Are the Reasons?

27

So when we refer to someone's argument, we might be referring to a single
reason and its related conclusion or to the entire group of reasons and the
conclusion it is intended to substantiate.
Attention: Reasons are explanations or rationales for why we should
believe a particular conclusion.

As we use the terms, argument and reasoning mean the same thing—the
use of one or more ideas to support another idea. Thus when a communication
lacks reasons, it is neither an argument nor an example of reasoning. Consequently, only arguments and reasoning can be logically flawed. Because a
reason by itselfis an isolated idea, it cannot reflect a logical relationship.
Several characteristics of arguments grab our attention:
•

They have intent. Those who provide them hope to convince us to believe
certain things or act in certain ways. Consequently, they call for a reaction.
We can imitate the sponge or the gold prospector, but we ordinarily must
respond somehow.

•

Their quality varies. Critical thinking is required to determine the extent
of quality in an argument.

•

They have two essential visible components—a conclusion and reasons.
Failure to identify either component destroys the opportunity to evaluate
the argument. We cannot evaluate what we cannot identify.

That last point deserves some repetition and explanation. There is little
purpose in rushing critical thinking. In fact, the philosopher Wittgenstein
suggests that when one bright person addresses another, each should first say
"Wait! " Taking the time to locate arguments before we assess what we think
was said is only fair to the person providing the argument.

Initiating the Questioning Process
The first step in identifying reasons is to approach the argument with a questioning attitude, and the first question you should ask is a why question. You
have identified the conclusion; now you wish to know why the conclusion
makes sense. If a statement does not answer the question, "Why does the writer
or speaker believe that?" then it is not a reason. To function as a reason, a statement (or group of statements) must provide support for a conclusion.


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Chapter 3

Let us apply the questioning attitude to the following paragraph. First we

will find the conclusion; then we will ask the appropriate why question.
Remember your guidelines for finding the conclusion. (The indicator words
for the conclusion have been italicized.)
(1) Should metal detectors be in place at every public school? (2) Teachers were
surveyed about their opinions. (3) Many indicated that they never know what to
expect from their students and thought that metal detectors would be a safe
solution to unexpected circumstances. (4) 57 percent of teachers agreed
that metal detectors would help the school become a safer environment.
(5) Therefore, public schools should install metal detectors for safety.
What follows "Therefore' answers the question raised in statement (1). Thus, the
conclusion is statement (5) ". . . public schools should instate metal detectors
for safety." Highlight the conclusion!
Attention: An argument consists of a conclusion and the reasons that
allegedly support it.
We then ask the question, "Why does the writer or speaker believe the
conclusion?" The statements that answer that question are the reasons. In this
particular case, the writer provides us with evidence as reasons. Statements (3)
and (4) jointly provide the evidence; that is, together they provide support for
the conclusion. Together they serve as the reason for the conclusion. Thus, we
can paraphrase the reason as: A majority of surveyed teachers believe that
metal detectors would help the school's level of safety.
Now, try to find the reasons in the following paragraph. Again, first find
the conclusion, highlight it, and then ask the why question.
(1) Genetic screening of embryos is morally wrong. (2) People do not have the
right to terminate a potential life just because it might not be the right sex, or
may have a defect of some kind. (3) It cannot be said that a person's quality of
life is severely changed by birth defect, or that parents should get to choose the
sex of their baby.
There is no obvious indicator word for the conclusion in the paragraph,
but the author is against genetic screening of embryos. The conclusion is:

"Genetic screening of embryos is morally wrong." Why does the author believe
this? The major reason given is that "People do not have the right to decide to
terminate a potential life based on a set of their preferred criteria." Sentence
(3) provides additional support for this reason.


What Are the Reasons?

29

One of the best ways for you to determine whether you have discovered
a reason is to try to play the role of the communicator. Put yourself in her
position and ask yourself, "Why am I in favor of this conclusion that I am supporting?" Try to put into your own words how you believe the communicator
would answer this question. If you can paraphrase the answer, you have probably discovered her reasons.
As you determine a communicator's reasoning structure, you should
treat any idea that seems to be used to support her conclusion as a reason,
even if you do not believe it provides support for the conclusion. At this stage
of critical thinking, you are trying to identify the argument. Because you want
to be fair to the person who made the argument, it makes good sense to use
the principle of charity. If the writer or speaker believed she was providing support for the conclusion with some evidence or logic, then we should at least
consider the reasoning. There will be plenty of time later to evaluate the reasoning carefully.

Words That Identify Reasons
As was the case with conclusions, there are certain words that will typically
indicate that a reason will follow. Remember: The structure of reasoning is this,
because of that. Thus, the word because, as well as words synonymous with and
similar in function to it, will frequently signal the presence of reasons. A list of
indicator words for reasons follows:
as a result of

for the reason that

because of the fact that

in view of

is supported by

because the evidence is

Kinds of Reasons
There are many different kinds of reasons, depending on the kind of issue.
Many reasons will be statements that present evidence. By evidence, we mean
specific information that someone uses to furnish "proof for something she
is trying to claim is true. Communicators appeal to many kinds of evidence to
"prove their point." These include "the facts," research findings, examples
from real life, statistics, appeals to experts and authorities, personal testimonials, metaphors, and analogies. Different kinds of evidence are more appropriate in some situations than in others, and you will find it helpful to develop


30

Chapter 3

rules for yourself for determining what kinds of evidence are appropriate on
given occasions.
You will often want to ask, "What kind of evidence is needed to support
this claim?" and then determine whether such evidence has been offered. You
should know that there are no uniform "codes of evidence" applicable to all
cases of serious reasoning. A more detailed treatment of evidence appears in
Chapters 8 - 1 1 .

When a speaker or writer is trying to support a descriptive conclusion,
the answer to the why question will typically be evidence.
The following example provides a descriptive argument; try to find the
author's reasons.
(1) The number of people in the United States that are obese is growing quickly.
(2) Studies indicate that over 25 percent of Americans are obese, not to mention
the numbers of simply overweight Americans.
You should have identified the first statement as the conclusion. It is a
descriptive statement about the large number of Americans who are obese.
The rest of the paragraph presents the evidence—the reason for the conclusion. Remember: The conclusion itself will not be evidence; it will be a belief
supported by evidence or by other beliefs.
In prescriptive arguments, reasons are typically either general, prescriptive statements or descriptive beliefs or principles. The use of these kinds of
statements to support a conclusion in a prescriptive argument is illustrated in
the following:
( 1 ) In today's society, there are all sorts of regulations on media, such as television ratings. (2) Do these ratings allow for people to make educated decisions
about what they will or will not watch? (3) Do these ratings entice some people
to watch a show even though they know they are not supposed to? (4) How many
parents actually go by the television ratings to deter their children from watching
a show? (5) More often than not, the television ratings do not prevent children
from watching shows society believes that they are not mature enough to watch.
(6) Television ratings are unenforceable guidelines. (7) If one believes in the
censorship of media for minors, items such as the V-chip should be used for this
pupose rather than the simple tagged rating at the top of the screen.
The conflict here is about whether television ratings are desirable. The
author argues that if society really is concerned about what children are watching, then it should implement the use of items such as the V-chip, as stated in
sentence (7). Let us look for sentences that answer the question, "Why does the


What Are the Reasons?

31

author believe this conclusion?" First, note that no evidence is presented.
Sentences (2) and (3) jointly form one reason, a descriptive belief: The television ratings are not significant enough to affect change, and they may even
encourage some to watch more harmful shows than they would have otherwise
watched. The warnings are vague and can leave people thinking that the show
may not be that "bad." Sentences (4) and (5) add a second reason: The television ratings do not really affect the choice of television shows for either parents
or children. Sentence (6) provides a third reason: Television ratings cannot be
enforced. There is no officer on duty other than parents, and if they do not
agree with the ratings or are not around, the ratings are useless. These last two
reasons are general beliefs. If the argument were expanded by the author, the
beliefs themselves might be supported by evidence in some form.

Keeping the Reasons and Conclusions Straight
Much reasoning is long and not very well organized. Sometimes a set of reasons
will support one conclusion, and that conclusion will function as the main
reason for another conclusion. Reasons may be supported by other reasons. In
especially complicated arguments, it is frequently difficult to keep the structure
straight in your mind as you attempt to critically evaluate what you have read.
To overcome this problem, try to develop your own organizing procedure for
keeping the reasons and conclusions separate and in a logical pattern.
We have mentioned a number of techniques for you to use in developing
a clear picture of the reasoning structure. If some other technique works better for you, by all means use it. The important point is to keep the reasons and
conclusions straight as you prepare to evaluate.

Clues for Identifying and Organizing
the Reasoning of a Passage
1.

Circle indicator words.

2.

Underline the reasons and conclusion in different colors of ink, or
highlight the conclusion and underline the reasons.

3.

Label the reasons and conclusion in the margin.

4.

After reading long passages, make a list of reasons at the end of the
essay.


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Chapter 3

USING THIS CRITICAL QUESTION
Once you have found the reasons, you need to come back to them again and
again as you read or listen further. Their quality is crucial to a strong
argument. The conclusion depends on their merit. Weak reasons create weak
reasoning!

Reasons First, Then Conclusions
The first chapter warned you about the danger of weak-sense critical thinking. A warning signal that can alert you to weak-sense critical thinking
should go off when you notice that reasons seem to be created (on the spot,
even) only because they defend a previously held opinion. When someone is

eager to share an opinion as if it were a conclusion, but looks puzzled or
angry when asked for reasons, weak-sense critical thinking is the probable
culprit.
Certainly, you have a large set of initial beliefs, which act as initial conclusions when you encounter controversies. As your respect for the importance of
reasons grows, you will frequently expect those conclusions to stand or crumble
on the basis of their support. Your strongest conclusions follow your reflection
about the reasons and what they mean.
Be your own censor in this regard. You must shake your own pan when
looking for gold. Try to avoid "reverse logic" or "backward reasoning," whereby
reasons are an afterthought, following the selection of your conclusion. Ideally,
reasons are the tool by which conclusions are shaped and modified.

" F r e s h " Reasons and Your Growth
We need to remind ourselves again and again how important it is to force ourselves to pay attention to "fresh" reasons, those that we have not previously
considered. Critical thinkers are proud to be open to new forms of reasoning.
Being fair to such reasons is tough, but rewarding. What makes this task so difficult is the power of our current opinions. They provide a starting point for
our reaction to reasoning. We come to each conversation, essay, or lecture
with a loyalty to the beliefs we already have. Thus, our existing beliefs can be
an obstacle to our listening and learning. But at another level, we know there
are thoughtful reasons that we have not yet encountered. For our personal
growth, we have to give "fresh" reasons a real chance to speak to us.


What Are the Reasons?

33

Critical Thinking and Your Own Writing and Speaking
When you are writing or speaking, you will want to keep your audience foremost in your plans. They need to be clear about what you conclude and why
you are concluding it. Do not hide your conclusion and reasons; display them

openly. Give the audience a clear opportunity to see what you intend. Thus,
your task is to use words, sentences, paragraphs, and indicator words to illuminate the logical relationships in your argument.

Practice Exercises
(J)

Critical Question: What are the reasons?

First survey the passage and highlight its conclusion. Then ask the question,
"Why?" and locate the reasons. Use indicator words to help. Keep the conclusions and the reasons separate. Try to paraphrase the reason; putting the reasons in your own words helps clarify their meaning and function.
Passage 1
Public swimming pools can be a health hazard. Many public pools are not able to
obey the sanitation regulations and therefore allow for the contraction of waterborne bacteria. Studies have shown that only 60 percent of public pools are able
to maintain the proper amount of chlorine in the water, allowing for those who
use the pool to be infected. Many pool users have become ill after the use of a
public swimming pool.
Passage 2
Schools all around the nation are forming community service programs. Should
students be required to do community service? There are many drawbacks to
requiring such service.
Students will not be able to understand the concept of charity and benevolence
if it is something they have to do. Forced charity seems contradictory to the concept of charity. If this concept loses value for the students because the service was
not a choice, they will then resent the idea of community service and not volunteer to do so at a later time in life.
Furthermore, because this community service would be coerced, the students
may not perform at a high level. They may feel they will do the bare minimum of
what is required. The students may also be resentful or rude to the people they
are helping, which would also hamper the progress of the community service.


34

Chapter 3
As you can see, forced community service may not be the best programming
choice for schools.
Passage 3
In high school men's basketball and men's football usually dominate the Friday
night schedule. Should it be that way? These games are significant to the high
school experience, but not at the cost of die other sports in die school. Just because
it has been a tradition does not mean that the format has to remain that way.
It is easier for most parents and other fans to make it out to the game on Friday
nights. Therefore, it is easier for them to come see the men's basketball or men's
football games. What about the girl's basketball team, or the swim team? Their
games should not always be stuck on weekday afternoons and evenings. Their
families often are not able to make it out to see them because most are working
during the afternoons. The students who play these "secondary" sports are not
getting a fair share of the spotlight; the schedule should change to accommodate
these other sports.

Sample Responses
Passage 1
ISSUE:

What makes public pools a health hazard ?

CONCLUSION:
REASONS:

Inadequate sanitation.

1. Sixty percent of public pools are not able to maintain proper

chlorination levels.
2. Many people have gotten sick after using public pooh.

Recall that we are looking for the support system for the conclusion. We ask
ourselves: Why does this person claim that sanitation is causing a health hazard
in pools? The conclusion is justified by two research findings; these findings constitute the reasons. An indicator word for the first reason is "studies have shown."
Passage 2
ISSUE:

Should schools require community service!

CONCLUSION: NO,
REASONS:

schools should not require community service.

1. Forced charity makes little sense.
(SUPPORTING REASONS)

a.

Required community service is a self-contradiction.