Study on situation to overcome the consequences of toxic chemicals to humans in cam lo district quang tri province

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
INSTITUTE OF VIETNAMESE STUDIES AND DEVELOPMENT SCIENCES

DUONG THI VAN ANH

STUDY ON SITUATION TO OVERCOME THE
CONSEQUENCES OF TOXIC CHEMICALS TO HUMANS IN
CAM LO DISTRICT, QUANG TRI PROVINCE

MASTER’S THESIS
Major: Vietnamese Studies

Hanoi- 2012


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
INSTITUTE OF VIETNAMESE STUDIES AND DEVELOPMENT SCIENCES

DUONG THI VAN ANH

STUDY ON SITUATION TO OVERCOME THE
CONSEQUENCES OF TOXIC CHEMICALS TO HUMANS IN
CAM LO DISTRICT, QUANG TRI PROVINCE

MASTER’S THESIS
Major: Vietnamese Studies
Code: 60 31 60

Supervisor: Prof. DSc. Truong Quang Hoc

Hanoi - 2012

CONTENTS
CONTENTS .........................................................................................................................1
LIST OF TABLES ...............................................................................................................4
LIST OF FIGURES.............................................................................................................6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................7
COMMITMENT ..................................................................................................................8
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................9
1. Necessity of the study ......................................................................................................9
2. Scientific and practical singnificances of the studied subject ........................................10
3. Study goal .......................................................................................................................11
4. Study objects and scope .................................................................................................11
5. Study methodology and methods ...................................................................................12
5.1. Methodology ...............................................................................................................12
5.2. Study methods .............................................................................................................14
5.2.1. Collecting secondary data…………………………………………………………14
5.2.2. Sociological survey methods……………………………………………………...15
5.2.3. SWOT method…………………………………………………………………….16
6. Thesis structure………………………………………………………………………..16
CHAPTER 1.......................................................................................................................17
OVERVIEW ON THE STUDY OF OVERCOMING THE CONSEQUENCES OF
TOXIC CHEMICALS/DIOXIN IN VIETNAM AND IN QUANG TRI .........................17
1.1. Basic concepts .............................................................................................................17
1.2. Overview of the chemical war in the world ................................................................20
1.3. Chemical war in Vietnam............................................................................................21
1.3.1. Ranch Hand campaign ............................................................................................. 21
1.3.2. Toxic chemicals used by the US army in the Vietnam war ..................................... 24
1.3.3. Consequences of the agent orange/dioxin on people ............................................... 27
1.3.3.1. Impacts of the agent orange/dioxin to human body ..............................................27

1.3.3.2. Real status of the exposure in the Vietnamese ......................................................30
1.3.3.3. Consequences of the chemical war in Quang Tri province ..................................36
1.3.4. Efforts of Vietnam in overcoming the impacts of toxic chemicals on people ......... 39
1.3.4.1. Research activities ................................................................................................39
1.3.4.2. Activities ................................................................................................................41

1


1.3.5. General assessment of achievements, weaknesses, and proposed solutions for
their overcoming ................................................................................................................ 45
CHAPTER 2.......................................................................................................................49
STATUS OF OVERCOMING AGENT ORANGE/DIOXIN INFLUENCES .................49
ON PEOPLE IN CAMLO DISTRICT, QUANG TRI PROVINCE ..................................49
2.1. Overview of Cam Lo district.......................................................................................49
2.1.1. Features of natural conditions .................................................................................. 49
2.1.1.1. Geographic site .....................................................................................................49
2.1.1.2. Topography and soil .............................................................................................50
2.1.1.3. Climate and hydrography .....................................................................................51
2.1.1.4. Minerals and biological resources .......................................................................52
2.1.2. Socio - Economic ..................................................................................................... 52
2.1.2.1. Population and population density .......................................................................52
2.1.2.2. Economy………………………………………………………………………………….54
2.1.2.3. Culture and society……………………………………………………………………...55
2.1.2.4. Social security……………………………………………………………………………56
2.2. Status of victims of the Agent Orange/dioxin in Cam Lo district ..............................57
2.2.1. Real status of victims of the Agent Orange/dioxin in Cam Lo district .................... 58
2.2.2. General features of the victims of the agent orange in Cam Lo district ............................. 66
2.2.2.1. Economy and family conditions ............................................................................66
2.2.2.2. Status of health, illness, and deformity of the victims ........................................71

2.2.2.3. Difficulties in life faced by the victims and their family ......................................75
2.2.2.4. Psychological features of victims of the Agent Orange ........................................77
2.2.2.5. Demands and wishes of the victims and their family ...........................................82
2.3. Activities to supgort and take care victims of Agent Orange/dioxin .......................... 84
2.3.1. In term of policies .................................................................................................... 84
2.3.2. Campaigns of the Association of Victims of Agent Orange in Cam Lo district ..... 86
2.3.2.1. Results of the mobilization work to support, help, and look after the victims .....87
2.3.2.2. Some obtained results ...........................................................................................88
2.3.2.3. Activities of foreign affairs ...................................................................................88
2.3.3. Activities of looking after the victims of Agent Orange/dioxin in community ....... 89
2.4. General assessments ....................................................................................................90
2.4.1. About policies .......................................................................................................... 90
2.4.2. The work of supporting and taking care of the victims ........................................... 94

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2.4.3. Raising awareness and participation of the community .......................................... 94
CHAPTER 3.......................................................................................................................96
PROPOSED SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................96
TO COMPREHENSIVELY SUPPORT VICTIMS OF THE TOXIC CHEMICALS IN
CAM LO DISTRICT, QUANG TRI PROVINCE ............................................................96
3.1. Results of analyzing strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and challenges ..........96
3.2. General solutions .........................................................................................................97
3.2.1. Sollutions making on policies and their implementation arrangement……
3.2.2. Solutions in term of social and humanitarian aspects .............................................. 98
3.3. Concrete solutions .......................................................................................................99
3.3.1. Surveying and investigating real status of the victims of toxic chemicals/dioxin
in Cam Lo district; sociologically investigating social psychology of victims ................. 99
3.3.2. Improving social and health policies and taking care of victims infected by toxic

chemicals/dioxin .............................................................................................................. 100
3.3.3. Developing programs to propagandize ................................................................. 101
3.3.4. Mobilizing sources to support victims of the toxic chemicals/dioxin ................... 106
3.3.5. Supporting and looking after the victims infected by toxic chemicals in
community........................................................................................................................ 108
3.4. Recommendations .....................................................................................................109
3.4.1. For policy making .................................................................................................. 109
3.4.2. For the local authority ............................................................................................ 111
3.4.2.1. Programming community-based models to restore forestry resources in toxic
chemical areas in Cam Lo district by giving preferential treatment in handing over land
and forest to families of dioxin victims ............................................................................111
3.4.2.2. Building work to supply running water and social works in Agent Orange areas 112
3.4.2.3. Forming and implementing tours to visit old battlefields with the participation of
local people, veterans, and victims of the Agent Orange to propagandize and do business113
3.4.2.4. Combining with universities and schools in the province as well in the whole
country to build program for volunteer students; bringing them to communes and hamlets
to support the rehabilitation work and other social activities for the families of dioxin
victims and making this an annual activity ......................................................................114
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .........................................................116

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………...119

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LIST OF TABLES
Table

Title

Page

Table 0.1.

Time, site, and content of fieldwork

12

Table 1.1.

Components of toxic chemicals containing 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T

19

Table 1.2.

Chemical war escalation

23

Table 1.3.

Amount of toxic chemicals used by the US army phase 1962-1971

26

Table 1.4.

Total number of missions spraying plant killer agents in the Ranch

27

Hand campaign
Table 1.5.

Content of 2,3,7,8-TCDD and TEQ in mix blood in localities in

31

Vietnam
Table 1.6.

Content of 2378-TCDD and TEQ in breast milk in localities of

34

Vietnam phase 1986-1987
Table 1.7.

Dioxin and dioxin equivalence in the Vietnamese women’s breast

34

milk in comparison with some other countries in the world
Table 1.8.

Households suffered Agent Orange/dioxin in Quang Tri in 1999

37

Table 1.9.

Influences of toxic chemicals/dioxin with Quang Tri people in

38

1999
Table 1.10.

Victims of toxic chemicals/dioxin in Quang Tri in 1999

39

Table 2.1.

Population distributed according to district, city, and sex of Cam

53

Lo in 2008
Table 2.2.

Rates of birth, death, and natural population growth

53

Table 2.3.

Areas conducted investigation on the influences of toxic chemicals

59

Table 2.4.

Number of households having innate deformity children

59

Table 2.5.

Exposure level of toxic chemicals of surveyed households

60

Table 2.6.

Number of households having innate deformity children

60

Table 2.7.

Innate deformity divided by sex

60

Table 2.8.

Time appearing innate deformity

60

Table 2.9.

Offspring’s innate deformity forms

61

4


Table 2.10.

Relation between households living in toxic chemical areas and

62

their children’s innate deformity
Table 2.11.

Relation between vegetable protection agent contacts

62

and children’s innate deformity
Table 2.12.

Situation of grandchildren’s innate deformity

63

Table 2.13.

Relation between households living in toxic chemical areas and

63

grandchildren’s innate deformity
Table 2.14.

Relation between householders living in toxic chemical areas and

64

related diseases of their children
Table 2.15.

Premature situation of women in investigated households

65

Table 2.16.

Losing pregnancy situation of women in investigated households

65

Table 2.17.

Relation between losing pregnancy and living in toxic chemical

65

areas
Table 2.18.

Interrelation of average income of households having victims of

68

Agent orange/dioxin
Table 2.19.

Condition of households having victims of toxic chemical in Cam

70

Lo district
Table 2.20.

Diseases of the indirect victims in Cam Lo district

74

Table 2.21.

Impacts of psychological hurts on life of victims of the Agent

77

Orange/dioxin
Table 2.22.

Situation of dioxin victims benefited in Cam Lo district

85

Table 2.23.

Battlefield of directly infected victims

94

Table 3.1.

Results of analyzing strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and

96

threats

5


LIST OF FIGURES
Figure

Title

Page

Figure 0.1.

The relation between victims of toxic chemicals and the
surrounding environment

12

Figure 1.1.

Some agents in PCDD group

18

Figure 1.2.

Structure of TCDD

19

Figure 1.3.

Map of the tactics of US Army

24

Figure 1.4.

Amount of agents sprayed in Vietnam during the Ranch Hand
campaign

26

Figure 1.5.

Diagram comparing 1,2,3,7,8, TCDD and TEQ in mix blood in
localities of Vietnam

33

Figure 1.6.

Diagram comparing dioxin content in Vietnamese women’s milk
and other countries in the world (survey of the World Health

35

Organization, February 1988)
Figure 2.1.

Administrative map of Cam Lo District in Quang Tri Province

50

Figure 2.2. A.

Population structure with rate of male and female in Cam Lo
District (left)

53

Urban and rural population structure (right)

53

Figure 2.3.

Rate of households joining investigation distributed by
communes/towns

67

Figure 2.4.

Monthly income of investigated people

67

Figure 2.5.

People themselves assessing their living standard

69

Figure 2.6.

Number of dioxin victims in families in Cam Lo district

71

Figure 2.7

Rate of labor declination of victims of toxic chemicals in
communes and towns of Cam Lo district

72

Figure 2.8.

Number of victims directly infected by toxic chemicals

73

Figure 2.9.

Diseases of indirect victims in Cam Lo district

74

Figure 2.10

Attitute of pepple towards the victims of the Agent Orange

81

Figure 3.1.

System of sources to supgort victims of Agent Orange

96

B.

6


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I with to express my gratitude and deepest respect to Prof.DSc.
Truong Quang Hoc, my supervisor, who ethusiatic instructs and conveys basic
knownledge to me, as well as contributes valuable ideas to help me complete this
thesis.
I with to thank the teachers, and staff of the Institute of Vietnamese Studies and
Development Sciences, Vietnam National University, Hanoi. They have created the
best conditions for me to participate in the learning process and complete successfully
my MA course.
I would like to thank to the staff of the People’s Council, People’s Committee,
Statistics Division, Naural Resources and Environment Division of Cam Lo district and
Cam Lo Association of victims of Agent Orange/dioxin has provided information and
statistics data and interviewed in the course of local realities.
I would like to especially thank Mr. Nguyen Van Hoan, Mr. Tran Anh Lam,
Nguyen Van Bong notes enthusiastically guide and help me when conducting surveys
in the locality. I would like to express my sincere thanks to the people of Cam Lo
district commune for their ethusiasm in supplying me information during my field
work in these areas.
Finally I would like to thank my family, my friends who have always care,
share, motivate, encourage me in all this time.

Hanoi, 2012

Duong Thi Van Anh

7


COMMITMENT
I hereby declare that the obtained results in this thesis are absolutely honest.
Information and results published in this thesis are my researching work. If there is any
shortcoming, I will bear all responsibilities in front of the training unit and law.

Hanoi, june 2012

Duong Thi Van Anh

8


INTRODUCTION
1. Necessity of the study
In the Vietnam War, especially in the phase 1965-1971, the American empire
used many kinds of weed killer to destroy tree leaves to undermine our military affairs
and economy. Three main kinds of chemicals that were used in Vietnam by the
American army were agent oranges, white toxic chemical to destroy forests, and green
toxic chemical to destroy crops. The agent orange contains dioxin, a very strong toxic
chemical and difficult to disintegrate. Thus, they have been kept in the environment for
a very long time. After many times of accumulation, the soil and water is strongly
polluted. Forests are destroyed, causing the imbalance of ecological conditions and
leaving many hard consequences in many areas of Vietnam. In addition to negative
impacts of the toxic chemicals on the natural resources and environment, they also
dangerously influence the human being because of genetic destroy. Many people and
soldiers living in spreading toxic chemicals areas have caught fatal diseases, especially

cancer. Many women have suffered a miscarriage and had a premature delivery. More
seriously, children of people infected with toxic chemicals also suffer from diseases
such as dumb, blind, deaf, mental illness or deformity although they were born after the
war, even in areas far away from combat zones.
Quang Tri is one of the provinces of most seriously affected by toxic
chemicals. It is in the 1 tactical area with 17 – 20% of its area spread with toxic
chemical; some parts were spread chemical two or three times. In many documents, it
is found that the exterminated level in Quang Tri province is considerable. Formerly,
the forest natural resources in Quang Tri were very rich. At the eastern side of the
Truong Son range in Quang Tri - Thua Thien, there were 150,000 to 200,000 ha of
primaving forest. However, they were destroyed by the toxic chemicals. After the war,
the cover level of forest is only 22% (including planting forest). At present, the number
of this is 30% (with influence of both human activities and the war). According to the
Forest Inventory and Planning Institute, about 22% of the natural forests and 31%
unused land belong to the areas infected by toxic chemicals. 30% of the valley area of

9


Thach Han River - a big river in Quang Tri - was affected by the toxic chemicals.
Toxic chemicals make the compositions of species of the fauna and flora change.
Not only exterminating the ecological environment, the consequence of toxic
chemicals also affects life of people living in Quang Tri. Even now, they are living in a
peaceful time; the heart-rending traces of the war still exist. People suffered from toxic
chemical after-effect have been facing many difficulties in order keep their living
aspiration and existence. They have been cared by the Party and government with
many practical policies to overcome the sequels of toxic chemicals. Policies for the
victims suffering toxic chemicals are carried out in a comprehensive and overall way,
including issues of economy, health service, medical treatments, rehabilitation,
vocational instruction and psychological therapy. There have been many instruction

documents and institutionalized policies and regulations. However, because of many
reasons, the consequence has still limited. Promulgating policies for victim suffering
toxic chemicals is still limited because of the imbalance between the human resources
and people needed allowance. There have been no scientific and concrete standard to
define people infected toxic chemicals to be the basis of suitable and accurate policies.
Many victims of the toxic chemicals are not in the field of people benefiting much
from policies, including people living scatter in areas that were affected by toxic
chemicals in the past, or soldiers, officials, or people living in trouble-spot areas. The
supgorting level is not high and egad with complicated procedures that are not suitable
with most of the people living in poor areas. The fully worked-out model to treat the
patients has not been built concentrate and not basing on the community. Because of
those disadvantages, many victims of the chemical war, especially the Dioxin victims
have not been able to apgroach and benefit their legitimate policies. To make that issue
clearer, we choose the subject “Study on situation to overcome the consequences of
toxic chemicals to humans in Cam Lo district, Quang Tri province” to be my thesis.
2. Scientific and practical singnificances of the studied subject
- Scientific singnificances : The thesis results contribute to build the scientific
basis for: i) Studying and perfecting policies to supgort people affected by the toxic

10


chemicals; ii) Choosing suitable methods and solutions to improve people position as
well local authorities at different levels in order to better treat and support victims of
the toxic chemicals
- Practical singnificances: Comprehensively evaluating the work of
overcoming consequence of the toxic chemicals on people, especially current
disadvantages in term of supporting policy making as well as the participation of
community in the study area; bettering and improving gradually the results of
overcoming the chemical war’s consequence for the victims in localities.

3. Study goal
- To assess comprehensively the influence of the chemical war on people in
Quang Tri province in general and in Cam Lo district in particular
- To assess the status of overcoming the consequence of toxic chemical
impacts on people base on analysis of statistics information as well as practical
information gathered in the localities
- To propose some practical and comprehensive solutions to strengthen the
work of overcoming the consequence of toxic chemical influence on people in Cam Lo
district, Quang Tri province
4. Study objects and scope
Study objects
Victims of toxic chemicals, institution system (system of legal documents,
policies, and implemenation arrangement system) related to the work of overcoming
the impacts of the chemical war, and socialized work to overcome the consequence of
toxic chemicals
Study scope
- Spatical: The fieldwork study is performed in Cam Lo district, Quang Tri
province.
- Time scope: The study was continuously conducted from January 2010 to
December 2011, in which the fieldwork time in the locality was divided into three
phases as following:

11


Table 0.1. Time, site, and content of fieldwork phases
Phases
Study site
Phase 1: From 20 June Cam Lo town, Cam Chinh, Cam
2010 to 30 June 2010

Tuyen, Cam Nghia, and Cam An
communes in Cam Lo district
Phase 2: From 12 Association of Victims of Agent
January 2011 to 23 Orange in Cam Lo district and
January 2011
related departments
Phase 3: From 6 June Association of Victims of Agent
2011 to 12 June 2011
Orange in Cam Lo district, some
contingent families in the area, and
families of the dioxin victims

Study content
Generally assessing study
question
Gathering
related
secondary materials
Gathering
missing
secondary materials;
sociological investigating
by sample, interview, and
PRA

- Content scope: Focusing on: i) Assessing the impacts of toxic chemicals to
people; ii) Generally assessing the situation of overcoming influences of toxic
chemicals; achievements and shortcomings; iii) Assessing institutional system to
concerning the victims of the toxic chemicals and some proposing solutions to improve
the sittuation.

5. Study methodology and methods
5.1. Methodology

12


Figure 0.1. The relationship between victims of toxic chemicals and
the surrounding environment
The thesis uses systematic and interdisciplinary methodology which commonly
used in the Area studies.
Studying the situation of overcoming the consequences of toxic chemicals on
people is put in the relationship with the general impacts of the devastating to opgose
the America. It lasted for 21 year and influenced the present and future; at the same
time, it was put in the social-economic development and overcoming the consequence
of chemical war in the entire country in general and the locality in particular.
- About time: Conducting the process of history, the work of overcoming the
consequence of chemical war is the next step to restore and rebuild the country after a
long war. The toxic chemicals were used by the US after defeating in a series of
campaigns in order to destroy crops, clear forests, and annihilate our soldiers. It is
obvious that the war already pasted more than 30 years. However, the consequence of
the chemical war affects people more and more, causing long-term influences not only

13


in the past but also at present and in the future. Hence, studying the work of
overcoming the consequence of toxic chemicals in order to bring out more
comprehensive solutions to reduce and control impacts of toxic chemicals on following
generations, and supgorting families of the dioxin victims is a long-term task.

- About area:
+ Finding out situation of overcoming the consequence of toxic chemicals on
people is a problem related to all aspects of the social life. Humankind is the
integration of social relationships. From the biological point, man is at the highest
grade in the evolutionary ladder. Hence, effects of the toxic chemicals on human being
must be considered in the relation with all economic, social, cultural, and natural
aspects. The toxic chemicals cause serious consequences and the victims are suffered
impacts from all elements of the (natural and social) environment. They themselves
also affect the environment, creating a mutual two-way relationship.
+ Conducting research of the situation to overcome the influences of toxic
chemicals was done in Cam Lo district, Quang Tri province to find the most general
laws of the study question development in order to generalize the general situation of
our country and other foreign countries. In other words, the research problem is a “case
study” putting in overall regional studies. From the situation to overcome impacts of
toxic chemicals in Cam Lo district (Quang Tri province), we can analyze and assess the
achievements, shortcomings, and weaknesses to propose a more comprehensive
solution. As a result, we can generalize the situation of the regional and international
area; then widely apglying these measures to all objects in different regions who share
some basic characteristics.
5.2. Study methods
5.2.1. Collecting secondary data
Gathering, systematizing, analyzing, and summarizing secondary materials,
include:
+ Reports, materials, and statistics data of the Office 33, the Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment, Ministry of Labor, War Invalids and Social

14


Welfare, ministries, industries and departments from central to local level that relate to

the question of toxic chemicals and overcoming their consequences
+ Policies and legal research and development documents of the Party,
Government, and authorities of different levels
+ Published materials and figures in scientific projects, and projects at home
and abroad related to the thesis content
+ Acticles in magazines such as Communist Magazine, Environment and
Health Magazine, and Health and Life Magazine
+ Information is updated everyday via in public communication means
5.2.2. Sociological survey methods
+ Semi-structural interview method: To gather information directly from
individuals by asking open questions to orient the conversation, in which questions to
improve the discussed results can be asked. It includes the identification of goal and
information needs to be asked and set up; unanimous of the interviewees; using
questions before the interview to ensure the consistency and effectiveness; and
analyzing gathered information from interviews
+ Participatory rural apgraisal (PRA): In order to gather secondary information
of life of people living in areas infected by toxic chemicals, problems in life, and
people’s awareness of related questions. It is difficult to gather people; hence, only
small and separate discussions and their results are just for reference and verification of
considerations through collected information.
+ Quantitative sociological surveys with questionnaires: To collect information
according to a method basing on specific questions in a way that you can conduct
analysis, total up, and handle with SPSS 16.0 software. During study and
implementation process, the thesis delivered 210 forms and collected 163 (43 questions
for each form) related to the implementation of policies for victims of Agent
orange/dioxin, awareness of people about toxic chemicals, and some problems of
socialization work to overcome the consequence of toxic chemicals. Study subjects

15

were incidentally chosen in all communes with ages from 18 to 65, of which about
46% men and 54% women.
In addition, to comprehensively assess people’s awareness of the Agent
orange/dioxin and the Dioxin victims, we gave 200 contingent survey samples for
students of tourism, social work, history, and economy departments from central and
northern provinces who are studying at Vinh University and officials living in Vinh
city. The results prove that their understanding of dioxin/Agent Orange and people’s
interest on victims of Agent Orange is still limited.
5.2.3. SWOT method
To define strengths, weaknesses, opgortunities, threats and assess how standards
change as time goes by; taking notes as much as possible; and focusing on strengths
and weaknesses to point out internal factors
- Strengths: Achieved activities and results
- Weaknesses: Shortcoming when implementing
- Opgortunities: Ideas to make good shortcomings and promote strengths
- Threats: Threatening problems to put pressure on scope, scale, and opportunity
6. Thesis structure
The thesis structure is created according to Vietnam National University Hanoi
regulations, as follows :
Introduction
Chapter 1: Overview on the study of overcoming the consequences of toxic
chemical/dioxin in Vietnam and in Quang tri
Chapter 2: Status of overcoming toxic chemical influences on people in Cam Lo
district, Quang Tri province
Chapter 3: Proposed solutions and recommendations to comprehensively
support victims of the toxic chemicals in Cam Lo district, Quang Tri province
Conclusions and recommendations
References
Appendix

16


CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW ON THE STUDY OF OVERCOMING THE CONSEQUENCES OF
TOXIC CHEMICALS/DIOXIN IN VIETNAM AND IN QUANG TRI
1.1. Basic concepts
- Agent Orange
The Agent Orange is a red brown or brown liquid, not dissolving in water but
in oil and organic solvent. Its density at 250C is 1.28 kg per liter. Its compositions
include 50% of the 2,4,5-T and 50% of the 2,4-D weed extermination.
To easily identify and distinguish toxic agents, the American army used paints
with different colors to paint colorful lines on means containing these agents. Tanks
containing 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T mixture were painted with orange lines. Because of this,
the agent in the orange tanks was called Agent Orange. It was the same with green and
white agents [3, pg.17].
- Agent Orange/dioxin
This name was proposed and used the first time in 1999 by the Office 33 when
they set up a national program of studying the level of overcoming chemical war
consequence that caused by the American army in Vietnam. These words were used to
define that the origin of dioxin in southern Vietnam was brought and spread by the
American army during the wartime. The Agent Orange used by the American army in
Vietnam contains a large amount of dioxin impurities with the average of 10 milligram
(mg) per one kg of the Agent Orange (10pgm for short) [3, pg.18].
- Dioxin
Dioxin is the common name of a group of hundreds of chemical mix that
strongly exist in the environment as well inside the human body and other creatures.
Depending the number of the chlorine atoms (Cl-) and spatial position of these atoms,
dioxin has 75 PCDD (Poly-Chloro-Dibenzo-Dioxines) isomers and 135 PCDF (PolyChloro-Dibenzo-Furanes) isomers with different toxicity. The dioxin also comprises a

group of PCB (Poly-Chloro-Biphonenyles) that are agents similar to dioxin. It includes

17


419 chemicals, in which 29 agents are very dangerous. Among Dioxin mix, TCDD is
the most poisonous one.
Dioxin is the secondary product of many processes to produce industrial
chemicals related to Chlorine such as waste burning system, chemical and insecticides,
bleaching line in paper production, and many other steps.
At present, Dioxin is used to indicate hundreds of chemicals in the environment.
The Dioxin-like compounds are arranged in three groups: the first group includes
polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDDs)

Figure 1.1. Some agents in PCDD group [12, pg.17]
- The second group comprises polychlorinated dibenzofuran (PCDFs) and the
third group includes polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). The first and second groups
often include products with substance change when people burn industrial or
agricultural waste, forest fire, and burning gas. In the third group, PCB similar to
Dioxin is often produced intentionally and used in many different goals. To compare
the poisonous levels of agents, the World Health Organization (WHO) uses the TEFs
(Toxic Equivalence Factors) indicators for evaluation. At present, the 2,3,7,8-

18


tetrachlorodibenzo-p-Dioxin (TCCD for short) are assessed to be the most poisonous
one among the above substances.

Figure 1.2. Structure of TCDD [12, pg.18]

Dioxin and furan are the most toxic agents known in the scientific history. In the
draft report of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1994,
Dioxin was described as a dangerous agent threatening communities’ health. However,
according to EPA, it appears that none of the dioxin exposure level is considered safe.
Table 1.1. Components of toxic chemicals containing 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T
Name

Composition

Content of
Spray
TCDD, pgm (1999) time

Orange

50% n-butylic ester 2,4,5-T
50% n-butylic ester 2,4-D

1,77 – 40

1962-1970

1,77 - 40

1968-1969

32,8 - 45

1962-1964

65,6

1962-1964

65,6

1962 - 1964

Orange II

Purple

Pink
Green
Blue

White
Dinoxol

50% n-isooctylic ester 2,4,5-T
50% n-butylic ester 2,4-D
30% n-butylic ester 2,4,5-T
50% n-butylic ester 2,4-D
20% n-isooctylic ester 2,4,5-T
60% n-butylic ester 2,4,5-T
40% n-isooctylic ester 2,4,5-T
Mostly n-butylic ester 2,4,5-T

59.5%
water,

26.4%
Natricacodylat, 5.5% NaCl, 0.5% Containing arsenic
foam-creating agent
50,2%Trisopropanolamin
39,6%Triisopropanolamin 2,4-D
10,2%Triisopropanolamin
picloram
Butoxyetanolic ester 2,4-D
Containing Dioxin

19

1962-1970

1966-1971
1962-1964

test


Trinoxol
Diquat
Bromaxil

Butoxyetanolic ester 2,4,5-T
40% Butoxyetanolic ester 2,4,5-T
{6,7-Dyhydrodipyridol}
pyrazidium
5-Brom-3-sec-butyl-metyluraxil

Containing Dioxin

1962-1964

LD50
=
200mg/kg

1962-1964

30-

1962-1964

Tendex

{3,3-Dimetylureido}phenylterbutyl

Monuron

3-{p-Clophenyl}-1,1-dimetylure

LD50 = 1000mg/kg

1962-1964

Diuron

3-{3,4-Diclophenyl}-1,1dimetylure

LD50 = 1000mg/kg

1962-1964

Dalapon

2,2-Diclopropionic acid

LD50
=
8,000mg/kg

1962-1964

1962-1964

2000-

Source: [19, pg.6]

1.2. Overview of the chemical war in the world
From ancient time, people often used poisons for military goals in wars.
However, at first the poisons were often collected from plants and animals. The poisons
were apglied on the heads of arrows and spears. Along with the development of
sciences and technologies, people have gradually made toxic chemicals, and produced
modern antipersonnel chemical weapons on a large scale.
In the First World War, on 22nd April 1915, the German army used Cl as a
poison and killed thousands of English and French soldiers. In July 1917, the German
used again the yperite agent in the battlefield. During the Second World War, the
Japanese army used yperite in China; and the German soldiers used ziclon B to poison

prisoners in the concentration camp. The toxic chemicals were also used in the war
against the Malaysia guerrillas. [21, pg.4]
However, using poisons as weapons to destroy the environment, agricultural
production, especially food, living beings, and people in Vietnam on a large scale and
for a long time was a new tactics that had just been apglied in the war.
In the Vietnam War, the American army used not only lethal weapons to kill
people but also toxic chemicals to eradicate life of the Vietnamese. It aimed to prevent
the step forward of the revolutionary armed forces to turn Vietnam into a huge

20


laboratory to examine and test toxic chemicals for the military goal. In fact, the
chemical war of the America in Vietnam was the biggest one with the longest time and
cause the most destructive consequence in the human being history.
To use the toxic chemicals in a wide range, the American military experts had
to test them in a long time (for over 20 years) in many experiment fields in America
and some other countries. Although they already had schedule to use these chemicals in
the war long time ago, weed killers were not used for military goals. In 1944 and 1945
at the end of the Second World War, weed killer was ready to experiment in order to
exterminate rice fields in six provinces around Tokyo. As the Japanese army
surrendered quickly, this plan had not been carried out [21, pg.3].
After 1945, the American army and some other countries continued to
experiment these chemicals to opgose opgonents. Their army bases were often in
tropical areas in thick forests with the goal to destroy people’s crop. With the attempt to
prevent a rising in Malaysia, the Britain used modern weed killer for the first time.
However, it was used limited for the army goal, mostly in the middle of the 1950s. [21,
pg.5].
Only the United States used weed killer for its military goal on a large scale in
the Vietnam War. From 1961 to 1971, the American army actually used weed killers in

the Vietnam War with two above goals for the first time.
The initial shortage of knowledge or ignorance of this risk created opgortunity
for the US government to use these dangerous products. Their harmfulness was made
public by the scientists of many countries, including American ones.
1.3. Chemical war in Vietnam
1.3.1. Ranch Hand campaign
On 30th November 1961, the US President Kennedy apgroved the plan to use
the defoliant in the southern Vietnam with the code name of Ranch Hand campaign.
The US started the biggest chemical war in the humankind history in order to
undermine tropical ecosystems and the living environment of Vietnam.

21


The Ranch Hand campaign is the backbone of the toxic chemical spray
program in the air. The main means of the American army was C_123, from 10
January 1962 to 31 October 1971 with three goals [4, pg.29]:
+ Tidying-up for offensive: With this goal, the tidying-up was carried out
concentrated in the revolutionary base (C, D, Duong Minh Chau bases in the north and
northeast of Tay Ninh, Sac forest, and Can Gio in Ho Chi Minh City), Ho Chi Minh
trail, frontier areas with the discovery and attack by aerial by bombers, especially B52
carpet-bomb. On the other hand, the American army attacked by land to wipe out our
armed forces, destroy war means, army ordnance, transport lines and information
communication of the enemy. To form white areas, after using toxic chemicals to
tidying up, the American army continued to release napalm bomb to burn the forests
that they thought necessary. This is a savage mode to destroy living environment and
thick forests. It needs several centuries to recover. On the other hand, high temperature
of the napalm bomb also created secondary Dioxin with a remarkable amount in spray
areas with chemicals consisting of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T.
+ Clearance for defensive: To carry out this goal, the clearance was done in

bushy belts around garrison troop areas, essential troop areas, important army ordnance
bases, lines of rotation of troops, troop-regrouping fields of the America and pupget
troops in order to discover and prevent the penetration and attack of revolutionary
force.
+ Crop destruction: Destroying crops or fields that was called 2R task. This
aimed to destroy the self-sufficient economy on the premises of the southern Vietnam
Revolution in areas where the revolutionary force controlled, organized production,
and provided food.
According to the CĐHH/82 material of the UN Disarmament Committee
(Chemical Disarsement), after seven months deploying the Ranch Hand campaign, the
American air force flied 200 missions, spread 760,000 liters of weed killer along roads
near the 17 parallel of latitude. Thence, the scale of chemical spread was gradually

22


increased. Up to April 1967, the Ranch Hand campaign used such a large amount of
the Agent Orange that the US had to take full advantage of the entire amount of 2,4,5-T
and 2,4-D in the internal market to ensure the continuity of the campaign. [54, pg.70].
The Ranch Hand campaign was carried out with many different methods to
strengthen its damage to its opponent. The habitual tactics of the Ranch Hand
campaign was that after some days spreading toxic chemicals, trees were beginning to
shed their leaves; then bombs, bullets and thousands of diesel gallons, napalm bomb,
white phosphorus bombs were released to burn. At high temperature, 2,4,5 -T and 2,4D substance in the Agent Orange would create 2,3,7,8 TCDD (secondary dioxin) in
addition to miscellaneous TCDD in producing 2,4,5-T. This was one of the most
poisonous compounds created by people.
In phase 1962-1971, the US air force sprayed more than 72 millions of liters or
91 thousands of tons of clearance substance, in which 55 thousands of tons with
strongly active nature. [40, pg.8]. The average level of Agent Orange for one spraying
time in Vietnam was 28,06 liters per hectare; it meant that the level was 30 times

higher in comparison with the content of weed killer used in agriculture at that time
(31,37). The most malicious thing was that at the same time the US army used many
different kinds of toxic chemicals. They turned the southern Vietnam where millions of
people lived to be a huge test field of toxic chemicals.
Table 1.2. Chemical war escalation
Amount of CS,
US Amount of spray
toxic chemical, Westing SIPRI
tons
liters (1976)
(1971)

Year

Warring
army

1960

900

-

-

1961

3.200

-

-

1962

11.300

64.000

-

1963

16.300

284.000

-

1964

23.300

1.102.000

170

23