Designing an esp syllabus for the second-year students of library study at the national teachers training college

Vietnam national university, Hanoi
College of foreign languages
Post-Graduate Department
----------------------------------------------
Duong Thi hao
Designing an esp syllabus for the second-year
students of library study at the national
teachers training college
“ ThiÕt kÕ gi¸o tr×nh tiÕng Anh chuyªn ngµnh cho
sinh viªn n¨m thø hai ngµnh Th viÖn trêng Cao
§¼ng S Ph¹m Trung ¬ng”
MA. minor thesis
Major: English language teaching methodology
Code: 601014

Vietnam national university, Hanoi
College of foreign languages
Post-Graduate Department
------------------------------------------------
Duong Thi hao
Designing an esp syllabus for the second year
students of library study at the national teachers
training college
“ ThiÕt kÕ gi¸o tr×nh tiÕng Anh chuyªn ngµnh
cho sinh viªn n¨m thø hai ngµnh Th viÖn trêng Cao
§¼ng S Ph¹m Trung ¬ng”
MA. minor thesis
Field: English language teaching methodology
Code: 601014
Supervisor: Nguyen Xuan Thom, PhD

Hanoi, 2007
Acknowledgements
First of all, I’d like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Nguyen Xuan Thom
who gave me valuable suggestions, insightful discussions and immeasurable support and
encouragements in the development and completion of this study.
I gratefully acknowledge all those whose works which are referred to in this study. In particular, I
would like to thank Dr.To Thu Huong for her lectures and advice that helped shaping my thinking on
this subject matter.
My special thanks go to all the lecturers of the Postgraduate Department at the College of
Foreign Languages, Vietnam National University, Hanoi for their useful lectures and guidance during
the course.
I also wish to thank all my colleagues and my dear students at the National Teachers Training
College for their participation, assistance and support for this thesis.
ABSTRACT
This study is intended to deal with one of the problems in teaching English for the students of
library study at the National Teachers Training college (NTTC): That’s the shortage of an appropriate
ESP syllabus for the students of library study when they take the ESP course. Thus, this study aims at
designing an appropriate, practical, feasible and also enjoyable ESP syllabus for the students of
library study to facilitate the process of teaching and learning ESP.
The study consists of three main parts: Introduction, Development and Conclusion.
The first part: Introduction discusses the rationale, aim and objectives, scope, methods and design
of the study.
The second part of the study contains three chapters. Chapter one is devoted to the theoretical
background of the study. Chapter two is the investigation into some textbooks relating to library
study. The next chapter deals with methodology of the study, data collection, findings and discussion
and the proposed syllabus for the target students based on the previous chapters.
The last part of the study is a summary of the study including the conclusion of the study,
limitations of the study as well as suggestions for further study.
It is hoped that the results of the study can be helpful to those who are in charge of teaching ESP
for students of library study at NTTC in particular and those who are interested in teaching and

designing appropriate syllabuses for their target students in general.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
NTTC : National Teachers’ Training College
ESP : English for Specific Purposes
GE : General English
ELS : English for Library Study
SLS : Students of library study
List of figures and tables
Figure 1. Types of ESP ………………………………………………………………..……………..5
Figure2: Bases for language syllabus design ………………………………...………………………9
Figure 3 : Cohesive devices……………………………………………………..…………………..18
Figure 4 : Organization of information…………………………………………………...…………20
Table 1: Terms and acronyms in the selected texts………………………………….....…...………56
Table 2: Prefixes and suffixes in texts related to library study………….………………………….56
Table 3: Simple vs. complex sentences……………………………………………………………..56
Table 4: Active vs. passive sentences……………………………………………………………….56
Table 5: The teachers’ ranking of the objectives in the ESP reading course……….……………….57
Table 6: Teachers’ ranking topics relating to library study……………………………………...57,58
Table 7: English teachers’ ranking of Grammar and structures needed to be included in the
syllabus……………………………………………………………………………………………...58
Table 8: Teachers’ ranking of reading skills and language exercises…………………………...59,60
Table 9: English teachers’ ranking of language tasks………………………………………………61
Table 10 The students’ expectations in the ESP reading course…………………………………... 62
Table 11: Students’ ranking topics relating to library study………………………………………..63
Table 12 : Students’ ranking of reading skills and language exercises………………………….64,65
Table 13 : The proposed ESP reading syllabus for library study at NTTC……………………..34-38

Table of content
Acknowledgements
Abstract

List of abbreviations
List of figures and tables
PART I: INTRODUCTION…………….......………...........………..………………...…. 1
1. Rationale…………………………………........…………..........……..……………...….1
2. Aims and Objectives…………………………........…….…...........………………....…..2
3. Research questions…………………………………......……...........……………...…….2
4. Scope of the Study…………………………………….…………...........………....…….2
5. The significance of the study…………………………….…………...........……....…….2
6. Methods of study…………………………………………......…………..............………3
7. Design of the study…………………………………………..………………..............…3
PART II: DEVELOPMENT………………………….…………..........……..............…….4
CHAPTER I: LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………..……..............……4
1.1. An overview of ESP………………………………………………......…..............……4
1.1.1. Definitions of ESP………………………………………………........................……4
1.1.2. Types of ESP……………………………………………….............….…..............…5
1.1.3. Terminology…………………………………………………….................................6
1.1.3.1. Definition of terminology……………………………………………..............…....6
1.1.3.2. Classifications of terminology…………………………………..............….............6
1.1.3.2.1. Single terms……………………………………....................……………………6
1.1.3.2.2. Compound terms………………………………………….........…...…………... 6
1.1.3.3. Characteristics of terminology…………………………………................………..6
1.1.3.3.1. Accuracy……………………………………………...........………….........…….6
1.1.3.3.2. Systematicity……………………………………………..............…………........6
1.1.3.3.3. Internationality……………………………………….............…...……………...7
1.1.4. Acronyms………………………………………………………................………….7
1.2. Current views on syllabus design………………....……………………………........…7
1.2.1. Definition of syllabus………………………….…………………….......…………..7
1.2.2 Task, Function, Activity and Exercise…………………………………........………..8
1.2.3. Types of ESP syllabus………………………………………….……............………9
1.2.3.1. Language form syllabuses (Structural/ grammatical syllabus).................................9

1.2.3.2. Notional- functional syllabuses...............................................................................10
1.2.3.3. Situational Syllabuses..............................................................................................10
1.2.3.4. Topic - based syllabuses..........................................................................................10
1.2.3.5. Skill-based syllabuses..............................................................................................11
1.2.3.6. Task-based syllabuses.............................................................................................11
1.2.3.7. Communicative syllabuses......................................................................................11
1.2.3.8. Audio-lingual syllabuses.........................................................................................12
1.2.3.9. Analytic syllabuses..................................................................................................12
1.2.4. Approaches to language syllabus design....................................................................12
1.2.4.1. Language - centered approach...............................................................................12
1.2.4.2. Skills- centered approach........................................................................................12
1.2.4.3. Learning- centered approach...................................................................................13
1.2.5. Stages in syllabus design............................................................................................13
1.2.5.1. Needs Analysis (NA)................................................................................ ..............13
1.2.5.2. Aims and objectives setting.....................................................................................15
1.2.5.3. Selecting content.....................................................................................................15
1.2.5.4.Integrating tasks, grammatical and notional components........................................15
1.2.5.5. Grading content.......................................................................................................15
CHAPTER 2: INVESTIGATION INTO TEXTBOOKS RELATED TO LIBRARY
STUDY.................................................................................................................................17
3.1. Topics............................................................................................................................17
3.2. Terminology and acronyms...........................................................................................18
3.3. Cohesion........................................................................................................................18
3.4. Grammatical structures..................................................................................................19
3.4.1. Words.........................................................................................................................19
3.4.2. Sentences....................................................................................................................19
3.4.2.1. Simple and complex sentences................................................................................19
3.4.2.2. Active vs. passive sentences....................................................................................20
3.4.3. Text............................................................................................................................ 20
3.4.3.1. Organization of information....................................................................................20

3.4.3.2. Making a definition or explanation.........................................................................21
3.4.3.1. Some other characteristics.......................................................................................21
Summary..............................................................................................................................22
Chapter 3: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF DATA COLLECTION................................23
3.1 METHODOLOGY...............................................................................................................23
3.1.1. Situational factors......................................................................................................23
3.1.1.1. Institutional factor..................................................................................................23
3.1.1.2. Teacher factor ( Teachers of English at NTTC).....................................................23
3.1.1.3. Students factor (Students of library study)................................... .........................23
3.1.1.4. The teaching and learning English at NTTC..........................................................24
3.1.2. Subjects of the study...................................................................................................25
3.1.3. Instruments for collecting data...................................................................................25
3.1.3.1. Questionnaires.........................................................................................................25
3.2. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF DATA COLLECTION.................. ..............................................26
3.2.1. Needs perceived by the English teachers...................................................................26
3.2.1.1. Section 1: The teachers’ attitude towards ESP reading course for the second year
students of library study and the objectives perceived by them...........................................26
3.2.1.2. Section II: English teachers’ and subject teachers’ opinions on needed topics......27
3.2.1.3. Section III: Grammar and structures needed to be included in the syllabus...........27
3.2.1.4. Section IV: English teachers’ ranking of reading skills, language exercises and
language tasks needed to be included in the syllabus.............. ...........................................28
3.2.2. Needs perceived by the second year students of library study at NTTC...................28
3.2.2.1.Section I: The students’ attitude towards ESP reading course................................ 28
3.2.2.2. Section II: Needed topics perceived by the students...............................................29
3.2.2.3. Section III: Students’ ranking of reading skills, language exercises and language
tasks needed to be included in the syllabus..........................................................................29
3.3. DESIGNING AN ESP READING SYLLABUS FOR THE SECOND YEAR STUDENTS OF
LIBRARY STUDY AT NTTC........................................................................................................................30
3.3.1. Selecting the type of ESP syllabus............................................................................30
3.3.2. Aims and objectives of the reading syllabus ............................................................31

3.3.3. The selection and gradation of content in the syllabus..............................................31
3.3.3.1 Topics in the syllabus......................................................................... .....................31
3.3.3.2. Reading skills and exercises...................................................................................32
3.3.3.3. Language tasks........................................................................................................33
3.3.3.4. Grammar and structures..........................................................................................33
3.3.4. The proposed reading syllabus for the target students...............................................33
3.3.4.1. Time schedule..........................................................................................................33
3.3.3.4.2. The organization of the syllabus..........................................................................33
Summary..............................................................................................................................39
PART III: CONCLUSION..................................................................................................40
REFERENCES..................................................................................................................42
APPENDIXES...................................................................................................................46
APPENDIX 1......................................................................................................................46
APPENDIX 2......................................................................................................................51
APPENDIX 3.....................................................................................................................52
APPENDIX 4: Tables........................................................................................................56
PART I: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
The National Teachers’ Training College (NTTC) used to be the National College for
Early Childhood Teachers No1. Thus, library study is a new field of study at the college.
There have been students of library study since 2004. Although English has been taught at
NTTC since 1990 and English is a compulsory subject, ESP is only taught for students of
library study and computer science students. At the NTTC students take the General English
(GE) course with 150 periods. After finishing their GE course students of library will take
the ESP course of 60 periods.
According to the training curriculum, the ESP is to be delivered in the third semester of
the second year after two semesters of GE. The reading texts used for the ESP course are
selected by the teachers of the English section from different sources and they use them as
syllabus to plan the lessons. Since ESP has been a part of English teaching at the NTTC,
there has never been an official guidance or any suggestions for the ESP teachers. Those

who are responsible for teaching ESP for students of library study often choose the parts
from their own sources, which they personally think, are important and appropriate for their
learners without any investigation into the factors concerning ESP theories as well as the
learners’ need or target situation. As a result, consideration for students’ need, the aim and
objectives of the ESP course is nowhere to stay but is subjected to teachers’ subjective
options.
It is clear that a syllabus contributes to the success and fulfills the objectives of an English
course. A syllabus is an integral component in the process of the course design. Hutchinson
and Waters (1987, p.83-84) explain why we should have a syllabus by identifying the roles
of a syllabus. The syllabus, defining the constituent parts of language knowledge is a
practical basis for the division of assessment, textbooks and learning time. Apart from its
practical benefits, a syllabus gives more support to the teachers and learners in that it makes
the language-learning tasks appear manageable. A syllabus is an implicit statement of view
on the nature of what is taken to be the most important aspect of language learning. A
syllabus then tells the teacher and the student not only what to be learned but also why it is
to be learned.
The shortage of an appropriate syllabus for the second year students of library study at the
NTTC is a big and urgent question, waiting to be answered. And it is of great necessity and
significance to both teachers who are teaching ESP and students of library study. This is the
reason why the topic “Designing an ESP syllabus for the second year students of library
study at the NTTC” is the subject matter chosen for my thesis.
2. Aims and Objectives
The study aims at designing an appropriate ESP syllabus for the second year students of
library study at the NTTC. To achieve this aim, three objectives are set to be obtained.
 To develop a theoretical framework related to an ESP syllabus design.
 To conduct a Needs Analysis to identify the students’ learning situation, the learning
needs perceived by the teachers who are responsible for the ESP course, subject teachers,
and the second year students of library study.
 To propose an appropriate ESP syllabus for the target students based on the relevant
theories and the Needs Analysis.

3. Research questions
To attain these above aims and objectives the following research questions are raised:
 What are the students’ learning needs and target needs?
 What should be included in the syllabus?
The answer to these question help to develop an appropriate ESP syllabus for the second
year students of library study at NTTC.
4. Scope of the Study
The study limits itself to design an ESP reading syllabus for the second year students of
library study at the NTTC. The author of the study is concerned with the second year
students of library study, subject teachers and English teachers at the NTTC. Other
approaches to syllabus designs intended for students and other subjects at any other levels of
English language proficiency would be beyond the scope.
5. The significance of the study
It is hoped that the study can be both practically and theoretically helpful. In practice, the
study is hoped to solve a problem of setting up an ESP syllabus that is urgently necessary for
the second year students of library study at NTTC. It would give a smoother move to the
teaching and learning ESP for both concerning teachers and students. Furthermore, it help to
set the first official step to the teaching and learning ESP at the NTTC. That would integrate
both the learners’ learning Needs and the ESP course objectives. Theoretically, the study
may hopefully contribute something to the field of syllabus design and at the same time
would raise the concern of other teachers at NTTC.
6. Methods of study
Quantitative methods are employed to carry out this. Data is collected by means of survey
questionnaires an then quantitatively analyzed.
7. Design of the study
The study contains three main parts:
Part I: Introduction: that is for the rationale, aims and objectives, the research questions,
significance, scope, methodology and design of the study.
Part II: Development that consists of three chapters.
Chapter 1: ‘Literature review’ is devoted to the theoretical background that includes an

overview of ESP, and some current views on syllabus design.
Chapter 2: is the investigation into some texts extracted from some textbooks related to
library study to find out some main language feature of ESP reading texts.
Chapter 3: deals with the methodology describing situational analysis, subject of the study
and instruments for collecting data. The findings and analysis of the results collected from
the survey are also found in this chapter. And from that a proposed ESP syllabus for 2nd
year students of library study at NTTC is presented.
Part III: ‘Conclusion’ which offers a summary and limitations of the study as well as
some suggestions for further study.
PART II: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER I: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter will be devoted to theories related to the subject matter. The chapter is
divided into three parts: (1) an overview of ESP to highlight the characteristics of an ESP
course and factors to be taken into account in designing an ESP syllabus; (2) the discussion
of approaches to designing an ESP syllabus; and the steps to be taken in designing an ESP
reading syllabus.
1.1. An overview of ESP
1.1.1. Definitions of ESP
ESP (English for special purposes) has been defined by different researchers and scholars
from different points of views. Fitzjohn in Robinson (1980: 9) takes the time factor as a
characteristic feature of ESP. He points out ‘The very concept of ‘Special purposes’ implies
that foreign language study is a subsidiary contribution to another main interest, and that
there will normally be pressure to achieve the required level of linguistic competence in a
minimum of time.’ In regard to learners’ age Robinson cited in Long (1980: 9) states that
‘The number of people wanting to learn English for Specific Purpose is spiraling. By and
large these people have been students in tertiary education, and adult.’
Brumfit(1977: 7) and Munby (1978: 2) shares the same view when they take the learners’
needs as the most important factor in ESP. Brumfit states that: ‘First, it is clear that an ESP
course is directly concerned with the purposes for which learners need English, purposes for
which are usually expressed in functional terms.’

A definition which covers more detailed characteristics of an ESP course is produced by
Strevens (1988). He points out: ‘English for specific purposes is a particular case of the
general category of special - purpose language teaching. The same principles apply no
matter which language is being learned and taught. French for specific purposes. Russian
for specific purposes. Chinese for specific purposes - all of these exist and are constructed
on the same basis as English for specific purposes. The vastly greater demand for English
makes ESP more common than FSP, RSP, or CSP, but the principles are the same’
(Strevens, 1988: 1).
Although there have been many definitions of ESP given by different authors, the
Strevens’ (1988: 1) definition will be used in this study because it covers more detailed
characteristics of an ESP course. From the definition by Strevens, an ESP course has the
following characteristics:
•
Absolute characteristics.
ESP consists of English language teaching, which is (1) designed to meet specified needs
of the learner, (2) related in content (i.e. in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines,
occupations and activities, (3) centered on the language appropriate to those activities, in
syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics, etc and (4) in contrast with “General English”.
•
Variable characteristics.
ESP may be, but is not necessarily restricted as to the language skills to be learned (E.g.:
reading only, speech recognition only, etc.) and taught according to any pre-ordained
methodology
The above definitions imply two factors: (1) the broad meaning of the term ‘purpose’ and
(2) the syllabus bases on learners’ needs analysis to determine the content of the syllabus, the
materials and the method of teaching/ learning purposes.
1.1.2. Types of ESP
There are many types of ESP, but the major distinction is often drawn between EOP
(English for Occupational Purposes), EAP (English for Academic Purposes), and EST
(English for Science and Technology). Strevens (1977a cited in Munby, 1978:55) made a

classification of various types of ESP in the following figure:
Figure 1. Types of ESP (Munby: 156 taken from Strevens 1977 b)
ESP
EST
Other
EST
Occupational
(EOP)
Educational
(EEP)
Pre-experience
Simultaneous
Post-experience
Pre-study
In-study
Post-study
1.1.3. Terminology
Robinson (1991: 27) argues that particularly specialist vocabulary (or terminology), is a
key element of ESP. It means that terminology makes the basic distinction between ESP and
GE.
1.1.3.1. Definition of terminology
There have been many definitions of terminology but I here by cited 2 definitions.
In Longman dictionary of applied linguistics (1992: 376), terminology is defined as: the
special lexical items which occur in a particular discipline or subject matter.
Nguyen Thien Giap (1985:308) defines terminology as a special linguistic that consists of
word and fixed phrase providing precise definitions of objectives that belong to a particular
scientific area.
These definitions share the same view that terminology are specialist words used in
special fields or branches.
1.1.3.2. Classifications of terminology

Two main types of terms are mentioned according to their structural patterns: single terms
and compound terms.
1.1.3.2.1. Single terms
Single terms are made up of one word (usually a noun or a verb).
For example: accession (đăng ký); doublers (trang lót); dossier (hồ sơ)
1.1.3.2.2. Compound terms
Compound terms are composed of two or more than two words. For example: End notes
(lời chú cuối sách), library census (thống kê th viện), punched card (phiếu đục lỗ).
1.1.3.3. Characteristics of terminology
Three main characteristics of terminology have been given by many linguists. These are:
accuracy, systematicity and internationality.
1.1.3.3.1. Accuracy
Terms have the basic nuclear meaning and one concept has only one term for it and vice
versa. A scientific term expresses a scientific concept or definition precisely and
concretely. There is no connotation emotional meaning, polysemy, synonymy and anonym.
1.1.3.3.2. Systematicity
In every field of science there exists a limited system of concepts which are denoted by
certain terms and each term is in the relationship with other terms in the same system and its
value is also determined by this relationship. The term, therefore, depends closely on other
terms in the system.
1.1.3.3.3. Internationality
There is a number of terms that can be found in many languages without or with a little
bit difference in form. This makes up the third feature of terminology.
1.1.4. Acronyms
Acronyms are terms which are not written in full but by using initial letters of words that
form a group of words. Acronyms are frequently created within special topics and designate
products, appliances, and processes. Standard equivalent terms or deceptive terms are used to
translate acronyms. For example: PTLA: Publishers’ Trade List Annual, LIMS: Library
Information Management System.
1.2. Current views on syllabus design

1.2.1. Definition of syllabus
The notion of “syllabus” have been defined by different writers. In defining syllabus
there are several conflicting views on the distinction between syllabus design and curriculum
development. Some writers advocate the narrow view that draws a clear distinction between
syllabus design and methodology whereas some others adopt a broader view that argues that
the advent of communicative language teaching, the distinction between content and tasks is
difficult to sustain.
Yalden (1984: 14) and Breen (1984:49) believe that the syllabus replaces the concept of
‘method’, and it is seen as an instrument the teacher uses with the help of the syllabus
designer to achieve a degree of ‘fit’ between the needs, the aims of the learners, and the class
activities. ‘Any syllabus will express, however indirectly certain assumption about the
language, about the psychological process of learning, and about the pedagogic and social
within a classroom’ ( Breen, 1984:49)
Some other researchers such as Nunan (1988), Alen (1984: 49), Hutchinson and Waters
(1987: 80) hold the different view. They believe that syllabus and methodology should be
distinctive and separate.
According to Allen (1984: 49) ‘Syllabus ... is concerned with a specification of what units
will be taught’. Nunan (1988) shares the same view that a syllabus is a specification of the
content that is to be taught in a language program and the order in which it is to be taught.
All or any of the phonology, grammar, functions, notions can be found in a syllabus.
Hutchinson & Waters (1987: 80) state that ‘A syllabus is a document which says what
will (or at least what should) be learned’.
In short, a syllabus is now narrowly then broadly defined. For the sake of designing an
ESP syllabus for the second year students of library study at NTTC, the author attempts to
adapt the view that - A syllabus is concerned with what to be learned.
1.2.2 Task, Function, Activity and Exercise
It is necessary at this point to distinguish task, function, activity and exercise. This will
help to understand the issues discussed in the following sections and later help to choose
appropriate language units for the target syllabus.
Task

In Longman dictionary of language teaching & applied linguistics task is defined as ‘an
activity which is designed to help achieve a particular learning goal. The teacher’ choice of
tasks determines learning goals, how learning is to take place , and how is the result of
learning is demonstrated’. A number of dimensions of tasks including goals, procedures,
order, pacing, product, learning strategy, assessment, participation, resources, and
language influence their use in language teaching. (Longman, 1997; 373)
Function
Function is ‘ the purpose for which an utterance or unit of language is used. In language
teaching functions are often described as categories of behaviours; e.g.: requests, apologies,
complaints, offers, compliments.’ In linguistics, the functional uses of language are studied
in speech acts theory, sociolinguistics, and pragmatics.
In communicative approach to language teaching , a syllabus is often organized in terms
of different functions the learners need to express or understand.
Activity
In language teaching, ‘activities are defined as relatively short blocks of classroom time-
typically 10 to 20 minutes– during which students are arranged in a particular way’(Walter,
1986; 398). In this sense, an activity may consist of different tasks and that may carry out
different functions.
Exercise
Exercise is an activity or process involving a particular skill and it is designed to achieve
a result. In language teaching exercises are often used to practice grammar and structures as
well as to enforce lexical items.
1.2.3. Types of ESP syllabus
Some different ways of classifying syllabuses are employed by different researchers. In
this study the author would like to take the classification of syllabuses by Robinson
(1991:35). She classifies syllabuses into three main types as follows:
Figure2: Bases for language syllabus design (Sources: White (325); ovals, Breen
(270); rectangles, Allen (256) (In Robinson, 1991: 35)
1.2.3.1. Language form syllabuses (Structural/ grammatical syllabus)
In this kind of syllabus, syllabus input is selected and graded according to grammatical

notions of simplicity and complexity. The most basic aspects of such a syllabus are language
structures. The main advantage of this kind of syllabus is that the teaching is based on the
principle of working from the familiar to the unfamiliar. However, this kind of syllabuses
have been criticized because they focus only one aspect of language formal-grammar. Nunan
and Wilkins points out “Structurally graded syllabuses misrepresented the complex nature
of language as a system and tended to focus on only one aspect of language, that is, formal
grammar” (Nunan, 1988: 30).
Content
Skill Method
PRODUCT
Ends-driven
PROCESS
Means-driven
Language
Receptive/
Productive
focus
Learning
Skill
Acquisition
Process
Learning focus
Learner-led
Procedural
Cognitive
focus
Task-based
Non-analytic
Structural
focus

Form
TOPIC
Informational
focus
Task
SITUATION
Contextual
focus
Task-analytic
Notional/ task
focus
However, In fact structural syllabus is still commonly used in both GE and ESP courses
since it provides a commonly recognized set of structures which can be used as one criteria
for syllabus organization.
1.2.3.2. Notional- functional syllabuses
In contrast to the structural syllabus, this type of syllabus emphasizes the semantic
knowledge as primary and attempts to answer the question ‘What do the learners need to
express?’ (Wilkins, 1983:86). The learners and their communication are the focus of the
syllabus (Nunan, 1988:36). Thus, the main advantage of this type of syllabus is to provide
the teaching with ‘realistic learning task, real world language.
However this type of syllabus has some drawbacks. Firstly, it provides simple series of
isolated functions that can’t help to develop the learners’ communicative competence.
Secondly, the content is restricted to specific of use to perform many functions. Thirdly, the
functional content is presented in short utterances and units of discourse, large structure of
discourse may be ignored and the learners may fail to handle the new language in longer
discourse.
Despite its weakness, the notional/ functional syllabus is widely used in specific teaching
programmes for specific purposes because it based on specific discourse and needs analysis
to define the content of the course.
1.2.3.3. Situational Syllabuses

The situational syllabus treats the language as a social medium. ‘Language is always used
in a social context and cannot be fully understood without reference to that context’
(Wilkins, 1976:16). In most situational syllabus the content is highly relevant to the needs
and interests of the learners. Students’ knowledge of the world is used as an aid to learning
and provides realistic materials.
However, this type of syllabus also presents some shortcomings. Firstly, ‘there is
principle no way to grade situations in terms of difficulty or as to which ones need to be
learned before others’. Long and Crookes (1993).Secondly, there is no strong predictable
relationship between the situation and the language used in it, except for highly ritualized
language use Bell (1981: 54).
1.2.3.4. Topic - based syllabuses
This type of syllabus is based on the assumption that ‘text must be about something, thus
all textbooks have willy-nilly topic syllabus’ (Hutchinson, 1987:89).The main advantage of
this type of syllabus is that it ‘motivates’ the students and as a basis for the real ‘syllabus of
the language forms, tasks or whatever the course designers wish to focus on’ (Robinson
(1991:37). Topic-based syllabus deploys the content of the students’ work or specialist study
so it is of great importance to ESP. One objective of the ESP course may in fact be to teach
this specialist content (Robinson; 1991:36). However, Brown and Yule (1983:73) point out
some difficulty in grading and defining the semantic construct and also ‘the logic of the
subject may provide a non-linguistic rationale for the selecting and grading content’.
1.2.3.5. Skill-based syllabuses
Skill-based syllabuses ‘focus exclusively or principally on one of the four traditional
skills. However, the actual content of the course might be the language forms or functions,
as in content-based syllabuses.’ (Robinson, 1991:37).
The main advantage of this type of syllabus is that it helps to develop students’ skills and
strategies because it’s based on the assumption that ‘underlying and language behavior are
certain skills and strategies, which the learner uses in order to produce or comprehend
discourse’ (Hutchinson, 1987:69).
1.2.3.6. Task-based syllabuses
The main organizing principle of task-based syllabuses is activities or tasks. According to

Robinson (1991:39).The procedural or task-based syllabuses consist of a set of tasks or
activities ordered according to cognitive difficulty. Class time is devoted to performance of
the tasks and attention is only consciously directed to language if this is necessary for
completion of the task. A major concern is that students understand the task and what they
are doing, and do not act in a mechanical way.
Task-based syllabuses are of clear significance for ESP students. Robinson (1991: 40)
observes that in ‘using the medium of English, they should successfully perform a work or
study task’. However, the main difficulty of this type of syllabus lies in the degree of
contextual support, the cognitive difficulty of the task, the amount of assistance, the
language complexity, the psychological stress, and the amount and type of knowledge
background (Nunan, 1988).
1.2.3.7. Communicative syllabuses
This kind of syllabus is designed basing on the communicative approach to language
teaching which emphasizes that the goal of language learning is communicative competence
(Richards & Roger, 1986). This type of syllabus provides the language needed to express
and understand different kinds of functions and focuses mainly on the process of
communication, such as using language appropriately in different types of situations; using
language to perform different kinds of tasks; using language for social interactions with
other people.
1.2.3.8. Audio-lingual syllabuses
This type of syllabus is base on the beliefs that speaking and listening are the most important
language skills and each language has its own unique structure and rule system and learning
a language is forming habits. The audio-lingual method was used in the 1950s and
1960s,however, this method received a lot of criticisms because of its theory and techniques.
1.2.3.9. Analytic syllabuses
This kind of syllabus see the language behaviors as the starting point (e.g. descriptions,
requests, apologies, enquiries, and other speech acts). The vocabulary and grammar used for
different functions can be later analyzed (Wilkinsm, 1976). This kind of syllabus appears to
be a combination of some types of syllabuses.
All kinds of syllabus have their own advantages as well as disadvantages. For the sake of

designing an appropriate ESP syllabus for the second year students of library study the
combination or integration of syllabuses will be a good solution because the practice of a
single syllabus cannot guarantee the satisfaction of the students.
1.2.4. Approaches to language syllabus design
There have been different approaches to language syllabus design. Wikins (1976) makes a
useful distinction between analytic and synthetic approaches to language teaching.
Hutchinson and Water (1987: 65) suggests three ways: language- centered, skills- centered
and learning- centered. For the purpose of this paper, the later will be taken into account.
1.2.4.1. Language - centered approach
This approach ‘aims to draw as direct a connection as possible between the analysis of the
target situation and the content of the ESP course’ (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 65).
The starting point of this approach is learners and their needs but it’s restricted to the area
of language not the whole of language. And the criticism falls on its static procedure and it
can only cover the surface of the performance.
1.2.4.2. Skills- centered approach
This approach in ESP focuses on developing learners’ skills and strategies. It treats
learners as users of language rather than learners of language. The skills-centered approach
takes the learner more into account than the language- centered approach. After the ESP
course the learner will be keen on processing the information.
1.2.4.3. Learning- centered approach
The main concern of learning- centered approach is ‘to maximize learning’ (Hutchinson
and Water 1987: 72). In this approach learners are not the only one concern of the learning
process, and learning process is not totally decided and based on the learner but should be
seen in the context where it takes place. This approach deals with learning process not only
as a process of mentality but also a negotiating process taken place between individuals in
society. It doesn’t only pay attention to the learner’s competence itself but also to how the
learner acquires that competence.
needs and cannot guarantee the effectiveness of the course.
In order to design and ESP syllabus for the second year SLS at the NTTC, an integrated
approach will be the choice, the rationale for this to maximize the advantages and minimize

the drawbacks of each approach.
1.2.5. Stages in syllabus design
Different researchers have a variety of ways to look at the issue due to certain reasons.
The syllabus for the target students at NTTC will be designed by working out on the
following steps. (1) Needs analysis; (2) Goal setting; (3) Selecting and grading content.
Nunan (1988, 60) points out that the initial step in the process of designing a syllabus is to
carry out a needs analysis to assess the needs of the learners. Basing on the result of this
analysis, the aim and the objectives of the syllabus will be set up and the content of the
syllabus will be selected and graded
1.2.5.1. Needs Analysis (NA)
. Needs analysis is now seen as the logical starting point for the development of a
language program. Robinson (1991, 41) suggests that ‘ the decision as to which syllabus
type or types to employ will result from a judicious consideration of the students’ needs and
the objectives of the course, together with the institutional bias of the teaching institution’. It
implies that a material designer must analyze the needs of the learners for whom he or she
designs the materials. Richards (2001, 32) defines needs analysis as ‘ the process of
determining the needs for which a learner or a group of learners requires a language and
arranging the needs according to the priorities’.
* Needs : Firstly, needs refer to (1) students’ study or job requirements that are what
they have to be able to do at the end of their language course Widdowson (1981, 2), (2)
‘what the user-institution or society at large regards as necessary or desirable to be learnt
from a program of a language institution, (3) ‘what the students themselves would like to
gain from the language course’ Berwick (1989, 55). Under Hutchinson and Waters’
perspective, needs analysis include target needs and learning needs. Target needs refer to a
number of important distinctions: necessities, lacks and wants.
* Necessities: Necessity determined by the demands of the target situation, that is, what
the learner has to know in order to function effectively in the target situation (Hutchinson
and Waters, 1987, p.55). In other words, necessities are learners’ target proficiency- the
scope of the language knowledge and skills that the learner has obtained in order to fulfill the
study requirements after finishing the course. The analysis about the learners’ necessities

provides the syllabus designer with significant information about the characteristics of the
target language, which will determined the content of the syllabus.
* Lacks: The gap between the target proficiency and the existing proficiency of the
learners can be seen as the learners’ lacks (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987, 56).When
designing a syllabus the designer also needs to know what the learner knows already
(existing proficiency) in order ‘to decide which of the necessities the learner lacks’
(Hutchinson, 1987, 56).
* Wants: Can be considered as learners’ needs in a subjective sense. Learners’ motivation
always play an important role in the process of learning so syllabus designer cannot ignore
the learners’ perceptive wants.
In short, information about the target needs is of great importance to a syllabus designer.
To get that kind of information it is essential to ask questions about the target situation and
attitudes towards that situation of the participants in the learning process. Hutchinson and
Waters (1987, 59) suggest a target situation analysis framework as follow:
• Why is language needed?
• How will the language be used?
• What will the content areas be?
• When will the language be used?
1.2.5.2. Aims and objectives setting
Establishing the basis aims and objectives of the syllabus is very important since such
aims will in fact govern the whole process of the syllabus design as well as the syllabus
implementation. Aims refer to the underlying reasons for purposes of a course while
objectives describe what is to be achieved in a course. According to Nunan (1988, 61)
objectives can be useful, not only to guide the selection of the structures, functions, notions,
tasks, and so on, but also to provide a sharper focus for teacher. Thus, aims and objectives
of the syllabus determine the selections of contents and teaching procedures and activities
and there is an invaluable guide for evaluation as well. For all these reasons, the aims and
objectives of the syllabus should be clear , precise and appropriate.
1.2.5.3. Selecting content
That is the choice of linguistic content (vocabulary, grammar, etc) for a language course,

textbook, etc, including the use frequency counts, needs analysis and pedagogic grammar
procedures for selecting language items to include in a language course (Richard, Platt and
Webber, 1986: 253).Here, in ESP, vocabulary, particularly specialist vocabulary-
terminology is a key element (Robinson, 1991: 27).
1.2.5.5.Integrating tasks, grammatical and notional components
After selecting the content of the syllabus the next important step is to integrate these
notions, tasks, structures or lexis, topical and notional elements as well as grammatical ones
and tasks should be well integrated in such a way that the notion will be re-cycled
throughout the course with different structure at certain time, appropriately used in relevant
context.
1.2.5.5. Grading content
Grading of linguistic components is the next stage to be considered. Grading has been
defined as ‘the arrangement of the content of a language course or a textbook so that it is
presented in a helpful way. Gradation would affect the order in which words, word
meanings, tenses, structures, topics, tasks, skills, etc are presented. Gradation may be based
on the complexity of an item, its frequency in written or spoken English, or its importance
for the learner’ (Richard, Platt and Webber 1985:125).
Gibbons (in John, 1984: 136) suggests two criteria when grading the content of a
syllabus:
(1) Steady increase in the number of elements in the structures
(2) A component relationship between items