Ve_mau_vao_hinh_qua_trai_cay
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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
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2. The role of context
in interpretation
2.1. Pragmatics & discourse context
2.2. The context of situation
2.3. The expanding context
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Pragmatics & discourse context
Some basic concepts:
Reference
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The pragmatic approach: necessary in
doing discourse analysis.
DA is more concerned with the relation
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Reference
Traditional view: relationship which
holds b/t words & things: words refer to
things. (Lyons 1968)
Modern view: it is the speaker who
refers (by using some appropriate
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Referring is not sth an expression does;
it is sth that someone can use an
expression to do.
Reference is an act in which a
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What are the referents?
Shakespeare takes up the whole bottom
shelf.
Picasso’s on the far wall.
Where’s the cheese sandwich sitting?
He’s over there by the window.
Vietnam wins the Suzuki Cup.
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Is it legal for a man to marry his
widow’s sister?
Have you stopped beating your wife?
Would you like anther biscuit?
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Presupposition
what is taken by the speaker to be the
common ground of the participants in the
conversation. (Stalnaker 1978)
Defined in terms of assumptions that the
speaker makes about what the hearer is likely
to accept without challenge. (Givon 1979)
Constant under negation: the presupposition
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Implicatures
Used by Grice (1975) to account for what a
speaker can imply, suggest, or mean, as
distinct from what the speaker literally says.
(more being communicated than is said)
<b>Conventional implicatures: </b>
determined by the conventional meaning of
the words used (e.g. but, even, yet, and)
Do not depend on special contexts for their
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He is an Englishman, he is therefore, brave.
Mary suggested black, but I chose white.
Even John came to the party. He even helped
tidy up afterwards.
Yesterday, Mary was happy and ready to
work.
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<b>Conversational implicatures:</b>
Derived from a general principle of
conversation plus a number of maxims
which speakers will normally obey.
The general principle: the Cooperative
Principle (Grice 1975) (p. 31)
This principle is supported by the
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What’s the trouble?
There is a woman sitting on a park bench and
a large dog lying on the ground in front of the
bench.
Man: Does your dog bite?
Woman: No.
(The man reaches down to pet the dog. The
dog bites the man’s hand.)
Man: Ouch! Hey! You said your dog doesn’t
bite.
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She: You remind me of the ocean.
He: Wild, romantic and restless?
She: No, you just make me sick.
Lady (at a party): Where is that pretty maid
who was passing out cocktails a while ago?
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Inference
The process by which the hearer/reader
arrives at the intended meaning of the
speaker/writer.
Inferences: the meanings arrived at by
the hearer/reader.
E.g. (p. 33)
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]
Bases for inferencing (Leech 1984)
The conventional conceptual meaning
of the utterance.
The assumption that the speaker is
observing the cooperative principle, and
assuming the hearer to assume that
too.
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The context of situation
The non-linguistic factors that contribute
and constrain our interpretation of
discourse.
Features of context:
1. Firth (1984):
A: The relevant features of participants
(their verbal & non-verbal actions)
B: The relevant objects.
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2. Halliday’s terms of context:
Field of discourse: subject matter
Tenor of discourse: interpersonal
relations b/t the participants.
Mode of discourse: channels/ways by
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Hymes’ terms of context:
1. Addressor & addresse
2. Audience
3. Topic
4. Setting
5. Channel
6. Code
7. Message-form
8. Event
9. Key
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Co-text
The stretch of language that occurs before
or after the utterance which needs to be
interpreted.
Language material, linguistic factors.
1. The storm landed at dawn.
2. A fly landed on his nose.
3. We shall be landing shortly.
4. She has gone and my arms are empty. I
survey
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The expanding context
Lyons’ statement (p 51)
Discourse exists in dynamic,
ever-changing contexts.
Context is re-created in the process of
communication.
New factors are added: deitic roles,
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<b>The principle of ‘local interpretation’ </b>
<b>& of ‘analogy’</b>
The principle of local interpretation
instructs the hearer not to construct a
context any larger than he needs to
arrive at an interpretation.
The principle of analogy enables the
hearer/listener to interpret discourse in
light of his past experience &
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