Sự thể hiện của tình thái hóa qua phụ ngữ tình thái trong các bài phát biểu bằng tiếng Anh tại lễ tốt nghiệp: Phân tích theo quan điểm ngữ pháp chức năng

S6 12 (242)-2015

NG6N NGC & D6I S6NG

31

svr THE HBgN CUA TINH THAI HOA
QUA PHV NGf TINH T H A I TRONG CAC

BAI
P H A T B I E U B A N G T I E N G A N H TJ^l L £ TOT NGHIEP:
PHAN TICH THEO QUAN DifeM N G C P H A P CHU'C NANG
REALIZATION OF MODALIZATION THROUGH MODAL ADJUNCTS IN ENGLISH
COMMENCEMENT ADDRESSES: A SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS
TRlTONG x m A N H
(Ths; Dfi hQC Ngo^i ngfr, B H Q G Hft N$i)
Abstract: M. A. K. Halliday's Systemic Functional Grammar theoiy of modality is used to
investigate the realization of modalization by using modal adjuncts in live English
commencement addresses. Modalization is realized through ten categories of modal adjuncts.
Among them, usuality. Intensity, and time adjuncts are employed most frequently in the chosen
speeches.
Key words: modalization; modal adjunct; systemic fimctional grammar.
1. DSn nh$p
NgQ- phdp chite nfing h$ th6ng (Systemic
functional grammar) ducc gidi thi$u iln diu
t^i Anh nfim 1958 vd sau dd tfii l)c nfim 1994
bdi Michael Alexander Kirkwood Halliday
(M. A. K. Halliday). LI thuydt ngtt phdp chlic
nfing h$ th6ng nghi€n curu ngdn ng& trong m$t
m ^ g ludri h$ th6ng md ^ nghTa du^c t^o ra
didng qua sv nhfhig s}f l^a chpn c6 li6n h$

ch$t chg vdi nhau. Thu§t ngtt chiic nSng dimg
dk ndi den quan dilm c&a Halliday vh v i ^ ^
nghTa cua ngdn ngtt chOra d^ng ba thdnh phm
siSu chfic nflng Id: y nghTia tu tirdng
(ideational), ngdn bdn (textual), vd lt€n nhin
(interpersonal). Trong so ba thdnh phin trgn,
si6u chute nfing liSn nhdn Id sy thl hl^n ciia
vi$c lya chpn cdc cdng cy ngtt phdp cOa ngudi
ndi nhim tfto ra cdc m6i quan h$ gitta ngabi
ndi vd ngudi nghe. Sy v|in dyng t^t si£u chiic
nfing ndy ciia ngdn ngQ s6 t^o ra cho ngdn bdn
cd dupc hi$u qud tfch cyc trong vi^c thi^t l$p
m6i quan h$ li€n nhdn phiic tfip vd da d^ng
giOB ngudi t ^ ra ngdn bdn vd ngirdi t i ^ nh|b
ngdn bdn. Cdng cy ngD' phdp t^o ra m6i li6n
nhdn dd c6 the phong phfi song mdt trong
nhthig cdng cy hi^u qud nhit phdi ke den Id
tinh th&i (modali^) ndi chung hay tinh thdi
hda (modalization) ndi rieng.

Vdi mong mu6n tim hlku vh si8u chite nfing
li€n nhdn, tdc gjd cfia bdi bdo dfi nghiSn cfhi ve
sy the hi$n ciia tlnh t h ^ thdng qua cdc phy
ngQ' tinh thdi trong nfim bdl phdt bilu t^i cdc
le tot nghiap ciia cdc diln gid ndi tilng Anh
n6i tilng Id Steve Jobs (200S), Bill Gates
(2007), Barbara Kingsolver (2008), J. K.
Rowling (2008) vd Barack Obama (2009).
Nhfhig bdl phdt bilu ndy dup'c lya chpn Id do
chfing diu dk dirpc hudng fing rdt ni^rtfi mi

bdi cdc sinh vi€n t9i cdc trudng d^i hpc md cdc
diln gid du^c mdi tdi phdt bieu. Gdp phin tao
nia sy thdnh cdng cho cdc bdi phdt bilu ay
hin phdi do cdch sii dyng ngdn ngCt vd ciing
khto lto vd linh hofit ciia cdc diln gid. Chfnh
cdng cy ngdn ngtt md hp lya chpn d3 tfio ra spi
dfiy vd \Hjjlh g ^ kit hp vdi ngirdi nghe. Theo
quan dilm ciia tdc gid bdi vilt ndy thl spi dfiy
ay dirpc t ^ ra chfnh bdi m6i liSn h$ lidn nhfin
vd quan trpng Id dupc thl hi$n qua tlnh thdi
hda.
Nghign cfiu ndy tfip trung trd ldi cfiu hdi:
tinh thdi hda dugc the hi$n nhu thl ndo thdng
qua cdc phy ngO* tinh thdi trong nfim bdi phdt
bilu ciia cdc diln gid ndi tilng Anh dya tr6n
quan diln! ngft phdp chiic nfing h$ th6ng?
2. M$t v&i khdi nifm quan ylu
Zl. nnh thdt vd fSn/r thdl Ma


32

N G 6 N N G C & Bin

S6NG

S 6 12 (242)-2015

Trudc hit cln phdi chi ra ring khdi ni$m chiing the hi^n. Phfim trit -y nghTa diu li£n
tinh thdi (modali^) vd tinh thdi hda quan den phdn dodn (proposition) vfi cdi sau

(modalization) theo quan dilm ciia M.A.K li€n quan din khiln n ^ i (proposal). Khi ho^
Halliday Id cdc khdi n i ^ khdc nhau. Hai thu$t d$ng giao tilp hudng tdi Id de trao dhi thdng
ngU tieng Vi^t dupc dCUig d dfiy cung nhu tin thl cu thl hi^n hlnh thiic m$t phdn dodn.
nhilu thu$t ngft khdc nhu phy i ^ tinh thdi, Cdn khi ho^t d$ng giao tilp hudng tdi Id de
tdc tli tlnh thdi hitu dinh,... dupc tdc gid bdi nghi ho$c ydu clu tfic Id khi dd m$t hdnh d$ng
vilt tham khdo bdn djch ciia Hodng Vfin Vfin.
ndo dd cln phdi dupc thyc hi^n thl cfi thl hi$n
Theo Halliday (1994). tbih thdi Id ddnh gid hlnh thlic m^t khiln ngh}.
ciia ngudi ndi v l cdc khd nfing ho$c sy bfit
Tlnh thdi hda phfin dnh ddnh gid cda ngtrfri
bu$c trong dieu md anh ta ndi. l l n h thdi thl ndi din khd nfing xdy ra ciia cfic phdn dodn.
hi^n nhftng sy lya chpn trong ngdn ngft vd Halliday (1994) tilp tyc phfin tdch tlnh diii
nhttng lya chpn ay nim ^ t t a hai cyc "cd" vd hda thdnh hai miic d$ khdc nhau Id: cdc m ^
'Ididng". Chiing bao g6m todn bO cdc mure dp d$ xfic suit (cd till/ rit c6 till/ chfic chin) \i
trung gian nim gi&a hai cyc ly.
cic miic dO thudng xuydn (thinh thodng/
Trong ngft phdp chiic nfing h$ th6ng, tinh thudng thudng/ ludn ludn). Cdc miic d$ xdc
thdi (modality) dupc chia ra thdnh tlnh thdi suit tuong duong vdi cd (khfing djnh) ho$c
hda (modalization) vd bien thdl (modulation) khdng (phli djnh) trong khi cdc mure d^ diudng
dya dieo hai lo^i hofit dpng giao tiep md chung xuygn tuong umg vdi cd vd khdng. Tlnh thdi
lign quan cung nhu hai ph^m trii f ngJiTa md hda cd thl dupc md tfi ngin gpn sau dfiy:
CO
!_
PI'hdi I dodn
,
KHONG
khd nfing
khfing dinh

xfic suit (cd ho^c k^ng)

2.2. Phy ngit 6nh thdi
Theo Halliday, tinh thdi hda dupc thl hi^n
chu ylu qua tdc tur tlnh thdi hftu djnh (d$ng tCr
thih thdi) vd phy ngQ- tinh thfii. Trong khudn
khd bdi nghidn cfhi ndy, tfic gid t^p tnmg vdo
cdc nhdm phy ngit tinh thdi cd thl dupc sdr
dyng dl the hign tinh thdi hda.
L09I Ki^D
V nghfa
Vfdv
xdc sudt
thudng
XUVSD

dien hlnh
"ITwlc
sSnsdng
b6n phfln
thtri elan
rOrdng

trung gian

TiNH T H A I HOA

k h i nfing nhu thS
ndo?
thu&ng xuy6n nhu tht
ndo?
diln hlnh nhu d i l

ndo?
sin sdng nhu t h l ndo?
bfit b u ^ nhu tht
ndo?
khindo?
rO rdng nhu tht ndo?

,

phfi dinh

thudng xuygn (c6 vd khdng)
Halliday (1994, fr. 49) djnh nghTa phy ngft
tinh thdi Id "phy ngft diln t& sy ddnh gid cda
ngudi ndi lign quan din sy phti hpp cda thdng
di$p." Cdc phy ngft tlnh thdi dupc phdn chia
thfinh hai lo^i chfnh Id thuc vd binh ludn. Tk
cfi cfic lo9i trgn d u p c t 6 n g h p p t r o n g bdng sau:

probably (khd ndng), possibly (cd tht), certainly (chiic
ehan), perhaps (c616)
usually (thudng), sometimes (thinh thodng), always (lu'^'^
lufin), (n)ever (khdng bao gifr/bao gid)
cccasionally (thhih thodng), generally (nhin dnmg),
regularly (Uiufmg xuy£n), for die most part Cpbln nhiiu)
willingly (tlnh nguyfn), readily (sin sdng), gladly (hAn
hanh), certamly (chfic ch4n), easily (dS ddnp*)
deflnitety (diM kho^), absolutely (ti^r^ doi), at all costs
( b ^ g mpi gid), by all means (bfing moi cdch)
yet (chua), still (v3n), aheady (dfi), once (c6 ldn)

of course (dl nhifin), surely (bita nhifin), obvious^ (lO
rdng)


33

NG6N NGC & Bdl S6NG

S6 12 (242V2015
cudng d$

cudng d$ nhu thl just (chO, even (th^m chf), actually (thyc ra), in tact (thyc
nto?
tl)
d mftc dQ ndo?
quite Odia khd), ahnost (hdu nhu), scarcely (bilm khi),
^solutely (hodn todn)
quan dilm
tdi nghi
in my opinion (theo quan dilm ci^ tfii), to my mmd (theo
cdch ng^ cda tdi)
c6ngnh|n
tdi cdng nhdn
frankly (ndi difing ra), to be honest (ndi thyc)
thuylt phyc tdi ddm bdo vdi ban really (dtpc ddy), believe me (hSy tin tfii)
Blnh tfalnhcdu
tdi yfiu cdu ban
please (ldm on), kindly (mfit cdch trfin trpng)
hi^n
gid djnb

tfii cho Id
evidently (hiln nhi&i), presumably (cd thl dodn chtnag)
mong mudn mong mufin nhu tfai (un)fortun3tely (may mfin/ khfing may), regrettably (th$t
ndo?
ddng tile), hopeliilly (hy vpng Id)
bdo luu
tin cfiy nhu dil ndo?
at first (luc d^u), tentatively (udm thit), provisionally (mQt
cdcb t^m thdi), looking back on it (nhin lai nd)
thdm dinh
h9p If nhu thl ndo?
broadly speaking (ndi rfing ra), in general (nhin chung)
nh^y cdm nhu thl (un)wisely
ddnh gid
(khfin
ngoan/khfing
khfin
ngoan),
ndo?
understandably (cd dil hilu dupc),foolishly(ngu xudn)
dydodn
du^c chd dpi nhu thl to my surprise (trudc sy ngfic nhiln cda tfii), as expected
(nhu dy dodn), by chance (tlnh cd)
nio?
Bdng 1. Phfl ngit tinh thdl (Halliday, 1994, tr. 49,82, 83)
3. Kit qufi phfin tich ngft lifu
Sau khi phdn tich nfim bdi phdt bilu dS chpn, kit qud cho thiy khdng phdi tit cd cdc kilu phy
ngft tinh tiifii li$t kd trong bdng 1 diu dupc v ^ dyng dl thl hi$n tlnh thdi hda. Tren thyc tl, mudi
kilu phy ngtt tlnh thdi dfi dupc sii dyng dl hi§n tinh thfii hda. Dudi dfiy Id bdng tSng hpp s6
lupng cy the tdng kilu phy ngit tinh thdi xult hi^n trong titng bdi phdt bilu.

mt^cdQ

Kilu phy ^ ^ ^ ^
nefr tinh t h ^
thuimg
1
xuygn
cudiiR d$
2
thfri Rian
3
xic suSt
4
mirc dp
5
cdtm n h ^
6
bonph$n
7
quan diem
8
thuvSt phuc
9
riSiinR
10

Tdm

Steve
Jobs

Bill Gates

Barbara
Kingsolver

J.
K. Barack
Rowling
Obama

Ting

13

13

8
8
7
5
1

19
5
2
2
1

4

19

10

59

8
11
4
2

6
8
1
2
3

17
13
4

S8
45
18
11
6
2
1
1

1
202

1

1
1

1
1
42

42

Bdng 2. Phf ngit tinh thdl trong cdc bii phdt
Bing 2 trlnh My s6 li$u th6ng k€ s6 lin cic
Viia phv ngft tlnh thii dui^c sOt dving d^ the
hi$n tlnh thii h6a tiong tiimg bii phit bik.
Trong nim bii phit b i k du^c phin tich, phv
ngtt tinh thii dugc sft dvng nhieu nhdt vdi 46

31

1
41

46

biiu
I k trong bii phit bi^u cia Barack Obama. Ci

hai diSn gii Steve Jobs v i Bill Gates d k d sk
Iln si!r dvng cic k i k phy ngtt tlnh thii nhu
nhau li 42 Ifin trong moi bii ke ttia. Trong khi
dd, nhi v|n J. K. Rowling c6 s6 I k sij* dyng


34

N G 6 N N G t r & B(n

phy ngft tinh thdi ft hon song theo rdt sdt hai
diln gid trdn vdi 41 ldn. Bdi phdt bilu cd sy
xuat hi$n cdc phy ngft tinh thdi ft nhat vdi 31
lan thu$c vl Barbara Kingsolver.
Bdng tren cfing chi ra mudi nhdm phy ngft
tinh thdi d u ^ sii dyng trong cdc bdi phdt bleu
vd duoc sfip xip theo thii ty tdn sudt xudt hi^n
tii cao din thdp. Nhdm kilu phy ngft ddn ddu
ve tdn sudt d u ^ sii dyng t h u ^ ve phy ngtt
tinh thdi chi miic dQ thudng xuydn, cudng d$,
vd thdi gian vdi s6 ldn xudt h i ^ tuong ung Id
59, 58, 45 ldn. Trong dd, bdi phdt bilu ciia J.
K. Rowling cd s6 lupng phy ngit thudng
xuydn dagc sii dyng nhieu nhdt Id 19 ldn.
Ciing vdi con so 19 ldn nhung dd Id s6 phy
ngft cudng d$ dugc sii dyng trong bdi diln
tiiuylt ciia Bill Gates. S6 lupng phy ngit tiidi
gian dupc sd dyng nhilu nhdt 13 ldn trong bdi
ndi cOa Barack Obama. Nhttng kilu phy ngtt
tinh thdi xudt hi^n khd h ^ chl Id xdc suat,

miic do vdi ting s6 18 vd 11 ldn sur dyng trong
cd nfim bdi phdt bilu. Nfim nhdm phy ngit tlnh
thdi cdng nh$n, b6n ph$n, quan dilm, thuylt
phyc, rd rdng dupc sii dyng vdi s l lupng rdt
khidm t6n vdi chl m$t hay vdi lan xudt hi^n.

S6NG

S 6 12 (242)-2015

dupc Sli dyng d l the hi|n tinh thdi hda. Bon cii
nhu trong bdi phdt bieu ciia Bill Gates, dng
ndi: "Dad, I always told you I'd come back
and get my de^ee" (Bill Gates, 2007; Bl, cvln ludn ludn ndi vdi b6 rfing con sS quay Ifd
vd ldy tdm bfing ciia con). Phy ngft tinh thdi
thudng xuydn "always" (lu6n ludn) dupc xip
trong nhdm tit thuQc miic dQ cao vd d diy khi
Sli dyng. Bill Gates mu6n thl hi$n sy khd chju
khi dng phdi nhfic dl nhfic Ifii rdt nhilu 1 ^ vdi
cha mlnh v l viQc quay trd l9i tnrdng d^i hpc.
d miic dQ trung bhih vd thdp, cd thl t^t g$p
"sometimes" (thinh thodng) vd "never" (khdng
bao gid) dupc sii dyng trong cdc cix sau:
"Sometimes life hits you in the head with a
bricK^ (Thinh thodng cuQc song gidng vdo d^u
bfui mQt vidn g ^ h ) vd " / never graduated
ffom university (Tdi chua bao gid tot nghi$p
d^i hpc; Steve Jobs, 2005). Khi cdc phy ngQ
"sometunes" hay '*never" dupc sii dyng, tinh

khfing dinh hay phii dfnh ciia cii khdng cdn d^t
miucc t6l da. Thay vdo dd, cdc gid trj tnmg gian
hay tlnh thdi hda dupc the hi^n. "Thhih
thodng" cd nghia Id cd liic cd, cd liic khdng.
Khdng phdi 10c nto cuQc sing cfing khd khfin
nhung ddi khi nhiing rfic r6i bdt ngd cQng cd
X6t v l do da d^ng trong v i ^ sii dyng cdc the $p.dln trong cuQc s6ng ciia m5i ngudi.
Idiu phy rigtt tlnh thdi, kit qud cung chi ra Tuong ty, "chua bao gid" s6 hodn todn khdc
rdng nit dien gid J. K. Rowling Id ngudi din vdi "khdng". Steve Jobs ndi "Tdi chua bao gjd
ddu vdi v i ^ bd da diing tdi tdm trdn mudi kieu t6t nghiQp d^i hpc" dn chiia thdi dQ cfia dng
phy ngft tinh thdi trong bdi diln thuylt cOa khi nhdn mfmh vl^c mlnh chua tCmg cd ^ djnh
mhih. Trong khi dd, Barbara Kingsolver dfi hay ^ muln phdi t i t nghiQp d^i hpc.
diing bdy trdn mudi kilu vd Barack Obama
diitig sdu tren mudi kilu. Hai diln gid - hai
Thif hai, hai phy ngit thdi thdi cudng d$
dng "tnim cdng ngh$" Id Steve Jobs vd Bill dupc sii dyng nhilu nhdt Id "even" ( t h ^ chQ
Gates cd dilm chung khi cimg sii dyng tifim vd "just" Ichi) bdi IS chiing ldn lupt dupc sli
trong mudi kilu phy ngft tinh thdi dupc l i ^ kd dyng 19 vd 17 lan trong todn bQ nfim bdi ph&
d bdng trdn.
bilu. Nhta chung, hai phy ngft tlnh thdi cudng
dQ ndy dupc diing de nhdn m^nh mQt hdnh
4. Thdo Iu$n
Trong phdn ndy, tdc gid xin dupc phdn tich dQng hay tr^ng thdi vd chfta dyng trong dd thdi
mpt vdi vf dy miiih hpa cho vi$c sii dyng phy dQ cOa ngudi phit ngdn. Barack Obama
ngit thih thdi de hi$n tlnh thdi hda trong cdc (2009) da ndi "Icome to affirm that one's title,
bdi phdt bilu d3 chpn. Cdc vf dy dy cung t§p even a title like President ofthe United States,
tiung vdo ba kilu phy ngft tlnh thdi dupc sur says very little about how wc// one's life has
dyng nhilu nhdt Id thudng xuydn, cudng dQ, been led*. (Tdi khdng dpih rfing mQt chiic
danh ciia u d6, th|Un chl Id ting thing Hoa
vd thdi gian.

Thu nhdt, cdc phy ngft ttah thdi thudng K^, cho bilt rdt ft v l cuQc sing ciia ngudi d6
da trd ndn t i t d?p nhu till ndo). 6 dfiy, khdng
xuydn vdi miic dO tCt cao, trung blnh den thdp


S6 12 (242)-201S

NG6N NGtr & B6I S6NG

chi dimg d viQc ndi chung chung "chiic danh
ciia ai dd" md Obama cdn din ra mQt vf dy cy
till nhu chlic danh ting thing Hoa K^ dl nhdn
m ^ ve khodng cdch v l vd bdn ngodi vdi
cuQc sing thyc sy ciia mSi ngudi. Xdt din phy
ngit tinh tiidi "just" ta cd thl bfit g&p trong "I'm
just observing' (Tdi chi dang quan sdt;
Barbara Kmgsolver, 2008). Bd muln nhdn
m^nh din hdnh dQng d a i ^ xdy ra d hiQn tfu Id
"quan sdt" md khdng kdm tiieo bdt kl hdnh
dQng ndo khdc.
Thik ba, nhftng phy ngii tinh thdi thdi gian
dupc Sli dyng khd phong phii nhu "now" (bdy
gid), "already" (da), "just" (viia mdi),...Trong
dd, "now" dupc sii dyng nhilu nhdt. MQt vf dy
cho thdy sy xudt hiQn ciia phy ngfi ndy Id "I'm
fine now" (BSy gid tdi on; Steve Jobs, 2005).
Trong tilng Anh, viQc sit dyng thdi hiQn tfii
don gidn nhu trong cit ndy da dfi d l chl ra
t r ^ g thdi hiQn t^i ciia chii thl md khdng cdn
thdm **now". Tuy nhidn, Steve Jobs van sii

dyng phy ngtt tinh thdi ndy de khfing dinh
t r ^ g tiidi mang tfnh t^m thdi chii khdng mang
tfnh ddi Ifiu. Cd till "bdy gid" till dng dy cdm
thdy In, song mQt liic ndo dd d cuQc sing hiQn
t^i ttfuig thdi dy sS khdng cdn dupc duy tri.
Ndi din hai phy ngft ttah thdi tiidi gian
"already" vd "just" thl bdn thdn chiing da cd sy
khdc biQt v l m$t ^ nghTa. "Already" dupc
dilng d l chi mQt hdnh dQng dfi xdy ra trudc
thdi dilm ndi cdn "just** Id dl chl mQt hdnh
dQng vita mdi xdy ra rdt gdn thdi dilm ndi,
Cd thl thdy, mudi kilu phy ngit tinh thdi
dupc sd dyng diu c6 nhftng dnh hudng nhdt
dinh v l ^ nghia ciia cdu. Tuy nhidn, d dfiy tdc
gid chl mdi bdn vl ba kilu dupc sit dyng nhilu
nhdt cDng nhu dua ra mQt vdi vf dy tifiu bilu
dl phdn tich cy till. Cdc phy nga ttah tiidi khi
dupc sft dyng deu nhfim myc dfch thl hiQn
nh§n dinh hay ddnh gid ciia ngudi phdt ngdn
vdi nQi dung phdn dodn md hp dua ra.
5. K i t lu^n
Geoff Thompson (1996) cho rflng, tinh thdi
Id mQt khfa c^iJi vd ctmg phirc t^p trong ngft
phdp tilng Anh. Do vgy, d l nghidn cfhi kT
ludng vh vdn d l ndy cdn rdt nhilu thdi gian vd

35

cdng sftc. Nghidn cftu ndy hi vpng dfi ddng
^ p mQt phdn nhd trong viQc nghien ciru tinh

thdi tilng Anh trong cdc bdi phdt bilu cy thl.
Tuy v$y, trong khudn k h i bdi vilt, tdc gid mdi
chi t|lp trung vdo ttai hilu sy thl hiQn cila ttah
thdi hda qua phy ngft ttah thdi trong nfim bdi
phdt bilu cua cdc diln gid ndi tilng Anh md
chua di sfiu vdo cdc vdn dl khdc lidn quan din
ttah thdi. Kit qud cua nghifin cftu chl ra rfing,
tinh thdi hda trong cdc phdn dodn cfta cdc bdi
phdt bilu dupc the hiQn thdng qua mudi kilu
phy ngft tinh thdi. Trong dd ba kilu dupc sft
dyng nhieu nhit Id phy ngtt tinh thdi thudng
xuyfin, cudng dQ vd thdi gian. Sy v ^ dyng
khdo ldo vd linh ho^t cdc phy ngit tinh thdi
giftp cdc phdt ngdn thl h i ^ quan thdi dQ ciia ngudi ndi doi vdi nQi dung md hp
muln tmyln d^t.
T A I U%\} THAM K H A O
1. Halliday, M. A. K. (2012), oSn lu^
ngft
phip DHQG.
2. Halliday, M. A. K. (1985), An introduction to
functional ^ammar. London: Arnold.
3. Halliday, M. A. K. (1994), An introduction to
fimctional ff-ammar. London: Arnold.
4. Thon^Kon, G. (1996), Introducing fimctional
grammar. London: Arnold.
5. Gates, B. (2007), Remarks of Bill Gates Harvard commencement 2007,
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