Phát triển năng lực liên văn hóa của học sinh bậc THCS thông qua tương tác với học sinh nước ngoài sử dụng skype trong các giờ dạy tiếng anh

THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

LE THUY NGA

DEVELOPING LOWER-SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’
INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE BY INTERACTION WITH
FOREIGN STUDENTS USING SKYPE IN ENGLISH CLASSES
(Phát triển năng lực liên văn hóa của học sinh bậc THCS thơng qua tương
tác với học sinh nước ngồi sử dụng Skype trong các giờ dạy tiếng Anh)

M.A THESIS

Field: English Linguistics
Code: 8220201

THAI NGUYEN – 2019


THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

LE THUY NGA

DEVELOPING LOWER-SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’
INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE BY INTERACTION WITH FOREIGN
STUDENTS USING SKYPE IN ENGLISH CLASSES
(Phát triển năng lực liên văn hóa của học sinh bậc THCS thơng qua tương tác
với học sinh nước ngồi sử dụng Skype trong các giờ dạy tiếng Anh)

M.A. THESIS

(APPLICATION ORIENTATION)
Field: English Linguistics
Code: 8220201
Supervisor: Dr. Nguyen Thanh Long

THAI NGUYEN – 2019


DECLARATION
----------------*****---------------I certify that the minor thesis entitled “Developing lower-secondary school
students’ intercultural competence by interaction with foreign students using Skype
in English classes” is my own study in the fulfillment of the requirement for the
Degree of Master of Arts at Foreign Language Faculty, Thai Nguyen University.
Thai Nguyen, July 15, 2019

Le Thuy Nga

Approved by
SUPERVISOR

Dr. Nguyen Thanh Long


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to those who gave me the
possibility to complete this thesis.
First and foremost, my gratitude goes to my supervisor, Dr. Nguyen Thanh
Long for his patient guidance and insightful advice throughout the duration of the
study despite his busy schedule. Without his assistance, motivation, enthusiasm and
immense knowledge, this study would not have been completed. However,

shortcomings and errors, if any, in this thesis are my own.
Second, I’m especially thankful to teachers from School of Foreign
Languages, Thai Nguyen University for their valuable advice and spiritual support
in the preparation and completion of this study.
I also would like to thank Ms. Hoang Thi Hai Yen (English Teacher, Doan
Thi Diem Ha Long School), Ms. Bui Thi Kim Ngan (English Teacher, Doan Thi
Diem Ha Long School) and five students of Doan Thi Diem Ha Long School who
participated in the pilot study, contributing greatly to the finalization of the
interview and as a result, to the completion of the research.
I am so grateful to Ms. Ha Thi Trang (Head of English Department, Doan
Thi Diem Ha Long School) for contacting the participants for my research. I am
also indebted to all of the participants for their invaluable responses to my
interview. Without them, this research would not have been possible.
Last but not least, I dedicate this thesis to my loving family, my husband, my
daughter and my son for their ongoing support and love.


ABSTRACT
Language teaching and learning can be seen as a great means to develop the
intercultural awareness of language learners, which is the ultimate goal of language
education in this era. English, as widely accepted, has become an international
language and the number of non-native English speakers has outnumbered native
ones by twice. In this sense, English language teaching and learning must include in
itself the development of intercultural awareness in the learner. One key purpose of
English teaching is to develop learners’ awareness of cultural differences reflected
in languages. Therefore, the teacher’s role needs to include that of helping learners
to realize that thoughts and views of different nationalities and different types of
societies about nature and human society are quite different. Therefore, it is of great
importance to address culture as an integrated part of the language teaching and
learning process, so as to help students to have a good command of necessary

cultural knowledge, to develop intercultural skills, and to raise their intercultural
awareness.


TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ iv
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... v
Abbreviations ............................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ............................................................................... ix
PART A: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1
1.

Research topic area ............................................................................................ 1

2.

The study context............................................................................................... 2

3.

Focus of the study .............................................................................................. 3

4.

Rationale of the study ........................................................................................ 4

5.

Structure of the thesis ........................................................................................ 5

PART B: DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................................ 7
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................... 7
1.1

Intercultural competence ........................................................................................ 7

1.2 Motivation ................................................................................................................ 11
1.3

Technology, CALL and ICT, and Skype in ELT ................................................ 12

1.3.1 Technology ....................................................................................................... 12
1.3.2 CALL and ICT .................................................................................................. 15
1.3.3 Skype ................................................................................................................ 17
1.4 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 20
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................. 21
2.1 Field site and participants .................................................................................... 22
2.2. Data collection methods ..................................................................................... 23
2.2.1 Interviews ..................................................................................................23


2.2.2 Classroom Observation .............................................................................25
2.2.3 Participants’ diaries and reflections ..........................................................26
2.3 Data analysis methods ......................................................................................... 27
2.4 Ethical considerations and data reliability ........................................................... 28
CHAPTER 3: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................... 30
3.1 Students’ conceptualizations of intercultural competence .................................. 30
3.2 Students’ motivation on learning English by interactions in English using
Skype 33
3.2.1 A proactive approach to learning tasks .....................................................33

3.2.2 Students’ emotional reactions in interactive lessons .................................35
3.3 Components of intercultural competence developed from interactions with
culturally different people.......................................................................................... 37
3.4 Discussion ............................................................................................................ 39
PART C: CONCLUSION .............................................................................................. 41
1. Summary of the key findings ................................................................................. 41
2. Pedagogical implications of the study ................................................................... 42
3. Limitations of the study ......................................................................................... 43
4. Recommendations.................................................................................................. 44
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 46
APPENDIXES ................................................................................................................. I
Appendix 1: Interview guide ........................................................................................ I
Appendix 2: Classroom observation protocol ........................................................... III
Appendix 3: Diaries and/or reflection instructions......................................................V


Abbreviations
CALL:

Computer Assisted Language Learning

CEFR:

The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages

ELT:

English Language Teaching

IC:

Intercultural Competence

ICC:

Intercultural Communicative Competence

ICT:

Information and Communications Technology

FL:

Foreign Language

PPT:

PowerPoint


LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 1. Byram’s model of five components of intercultural communicative
competence, from Byram.
Table 2.1 Demographic information about participants
Table 2.2 Interviews
Table 2.3 Classroom observations


PART A: INTRODUCTION
This thesis examines how interactions on Skype with culturally different peers

using English help lower-secondary school students’ development of intercultural
competence. This first section, Research topic area is followed by the other four
sections including Study context, Focus of the study, Rationale for the study, and
Structure of the thesis. Section 1 introduces the research topic area of the present study.
Section 2 of the chapter describes the study context with a summary of the history of
language education in Vietnam in general and foreign language teaching and learning
in Doan Thi Diem Ha Long School in particular. Section 3 describes the focus of the
study, which states the overarching research question and sub-research questions. The
rationale for the study will be presented in section 4. The last section reveals the
structure for the presentation of the thesis.
1. Research topic area
In this day and age, mobility has become a part of every student’s life. Most
students now have a chance to visit other countries for educational purposes and learn
more about other cultures. Therefore, learning foreign languages has become the norm
in the globalized world. It is inevitable that students need a certain level of intercultural
knowledge and competence to be able to survive in new cultures and educational
contexts. In this respect, one’s understanding of the new cultures, as well as his/her
own culture, has a central role to become a globalized citizen. Learning a language
without culture is a recipe for becoming what Bennett (1993) calls a “fluent fool”. A
fluent fool is someone who speaks a foreign language well, but does not understand the
social and philosophical content of that language.
Hence, the foreign language teachers’ role has become increasingly important
since they serve as a medium to teach both the language and the culture of the foreign
language. In this regard, Jiang (2000) states: "Language and culture are inseparable."
Moreover, over time, more and more English teachers realize that when the lesson is


integrated with cultural factors, students will acquire and improve communication
skills. Kramsch (1998: 1) emphasized in his study that: "Culture in language learning is
not an expendable fifth skill, tacked on, so to speak, to the teaching of speaking,

listening, reading, and writing. It is always in the background, right from day one,
ready to unsettle the good language learners when they expect it least, making evident
the limitations of their hard-won communicative competence, challenging their ability
to make sense of the world around them". This means that culture is not a fifth skill in
language teaching, associated with listening, speaking, reading and writing. This is the
basis for pointing out the limits of communication capacity, challenging learners'
abilities and pointing out the meaning of the world. Thus, regarding the need to
investigate culture and culture teaching in different context of foreign language
teaching, the study explores the relevance of how interactions on Skype with culturally
different peers using English help lower-secondary school students’ development of
intercultural competence.
2. The study context
Teaching and learning foreign languages, especially the teaching English in
Vietnam, attracts the attention of many social classes. Chronologically, the teaching of
English in Vietnam can be divided into three main periods: the first period extends
from the beginning of the French invasion of Vietnam up to 1954, the second period,
from 1954 to 1975; and the third period, from 1975 to 1986. During the twenty years
since national reunification in 1975, the teaching and learning of foreign languages
have experienced many major changes, and after each change a language usually
emerges as the main one taught in school. Before 1986, Russian was a compulsory
language at universities and at many institutions there were much more teachers of
Russian than the ones of English. In 1986, when the Vietnamese Communist Party
initiated its overall economic reform, conditions for a thorough look at the role of
foreign languages in national development started to emerge. The period from 1986 up


to present is characterized by the rapid growth and expansion of English in Vietnam.
This English boom began in December 1986, when at its Six National Congress the
Vietnamese Communist Party initiated an overall economic reform known as Đổi mới
(Renovation), opening the door of Vietnam to the whole world. In such context,

English becomes the first (nearly and only) foreign language to be taught in Vietnam. It
is a compulsory subject from grade 3 to grade 12 in most of schools in Vietnam in
general and in Ha Long in particular. English is taught in schools, universities and even
foreign language centers across the country. Most primary schools in Ha Long City
including Doan Thi Diem Ha Long School are now teaching English to pupils in grade
1, 2 instead of 3 as starting class in the project “Teaching and learning foreign
languages in the national education system between 2008-2020” by the Ministry of
Education.
The linguist Robert Lado defines the goal of learning a foreign language as “the
ability to use it, understanding its meanings and connotations in terms of the target
language and culture, and the ability to understand the speech and writing of natives of
the target culture in terms of their great ideas and achievement” (Lado, 1964: 25)
Therefore, the English teaching inevitably involves the culture teaching of target
language.
It has long been assumed that language and culture are strongly linked to each
other and an important aspect of learning a foreign language is learning its culture.
However, teachers in different classrooms in different parts of the world still ignore the
importance of teaching culture as a part of language study.
3. Focus of the study
The study aims to examine how interactions on Skype with culturally different
peers using English help lower-secondary school students’ development of intercultural
competence.


In order to fulfill these overall aims, three specific objectives that have been
identified, including:
1. To explore lower-secondary school students’ perceptions of intercultural
competence;
2. To examine lower-secondary school students’ motivation to learn English
regarding the use of Skype in English classes to interact with foreign students

and teachers;
3. To assess student preferences regarding intercultural competence development
in culture-learning activities.
The overarching research question formulated for this research is as follows:
How do Skype sessions assist lower-secondary school students develop their
intercultural competence?
The sub-questions of the study were:
(1) How do lower-secondary school students perceive intercultural competence?
(2) To what extent do lower-secondary school students are motivated to learn
English by interactions in English using Skype?
(3) What components of intercultural competence do interactions with culturally
different people via Skype develop?
4. Rationale of the study
Vietnam is also experiencing an exponential increase in the use of ICT in
education and has taken steps to create favourable condition to incorporate ICT into its
education system (Dang et al., 2013). The most crucial strategies for ICT adoption in
education in Vietnam are contained in Directive No. 55/2008/CT-BGDDT and
Decision No. 1400/QD-TTg. The former is seen by Dang et al. (2013, p.13) as a


‘turning point in the strengthening of ICT use in education in Vietnam for the period
2008-2012’ whereas the latter is ‘a national project’ on FL teaching and learning for
the period 2008-2020 focusing on ‘professional development for teachers, ICT use in
teaching and learning foreign languages and investment in technical facilities’. In order
to achieve such aim, ICT application in lower-secondary education is very important.
Research context for this study is not an exception.
This study investigates the use of Skype in English classes in Doan Thi Diem
Ha Long School in North Vietnam. More specifically, it seeks to develop lowersecondary school students’ intercultural competence through interaction with foreign
students using Skype in English classes and hopefully to propose suggestions for
improving English speaking classes. Doan Thi Diem Ha Long School has been known

as a free-stress studying environment and gained much reputation so far. The English
teaching curriculum which was well-designed with full MOET syllabi integrated with
international English programs helps students be active, confident, independent and
develop themselves mentally and physically. Students of Doan Thi Diem Ha Long
School are enjoying a large number of lectures accompanied with PPT and virtual
learning, especially in the classes of more instructional teaching hours. It is worth
noticing that for the purpose of this study, Skype which has been used in English
classes is ‘a sub category of the larger field of virtual learning and technology’.
Witnessing the prevalence of virtual learning in English classes at Doan Thi Diem Ha
Long School, I was wondering whether or not they have positive educational impacts
on students’ perceptions of intercultural competence.
5. Structure of the thesis
The research paper consists of three parts: A, B and C. Part A, Introduction is
followed by the other two parts: Development and Conclusion. The Introduction has
provided the research topic area, the study context, the focus of the study and the
rationale of the study.


Following Part A, there are 3 chapters in Part B including Literature Review,
Methodology and Findings and discussion. Chapter 1 sets up a theoretical background
for the study by dealing with a number of fundamental concepts and extant literature
relating to intercultural competence, technology in FL teaching which motivates and
generates the above addressed research questions. This chapter also reviews some
major results found from empirical studies concerning the use of virtual learning in
education in general and in ELT in particular, contributing greatly to the understanding
of the theoretical background of the study. Gaps in previous studies are then
highlighted at the end of Literature Review, validating the significance of the study.
Chapter 2 describes the methodological approach of the study. The choice of
qualitative approach is explained with justification for this approach provided in order
to enrich data and help answer the research questions. The three sources: interview,

observation and students’ diaries and reflections on the Skype sessions are clearly
identified and stated in this chapter. The ethical issues of the study will be discussed at
the end of this chapter while data reliability and validity will be addressed along the
chapter where relevant.
Chapter 3 reveals key findings from an analysis of the research data collected
through the interview and participants’ diaries. Moreover, the class’ observation is also
carried out to know intercultural competence aspects in interactive learning activities.
Furthermore, it presents a detailed interpretation of the findings concerning students’
attitudes toward Skype sessions and its assistance in developing their intercultural
competence. The research question will be addressed on the basis of these findings
which are discussed in relation to relevant findings from previous studies.
The last part, Conclusion is devoted to summerizing the findings of the study,
focusing on pedagogical implications of the study, indicating limitations of the study,
and presenting recommendations for further research so as to enhance the values of
intercultural competence through virtual learning tools.


PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
The previous chapter outlined the three objectives of the study, which are (1) to
explore lower-secondary school students’ attitudes towards intercultural competence;
(2) to assess student preferences regarding the use of Skype in English classes to
interact with foreign students and teachers; and (3) to assess student preferences
regarding intercultural competence development in culture-learning activities. In order
to address these objectives, this chapter provides the theoretical background and
foundation for the research prior to a description of research metholody employed for
the study.
This chapter will review a large body of relevant literature. Since the focus of this
study is on the student preferences regarding intercultural competence development in
culture-learning activities, it is necessary to begin by looking at the definition of

culture, and then deal with intercultural competence. Second, the studies and literature
regarding the use of technology and that of virtual learning in ELT will be reviewed;
and the theoretical framework of key factors influencing individual acceptance of the
technology adoption in an educational context will be described. Last but not least, the
gaps in previous studies will be clearly identified at the end of Literature review,
validating the significance of the study.
1.1 Intercultural competence
In the last decades, Intercultural Competence was reintroduced as Intercultural
Communicative Competence (ICC) as the result of its impact on foreign language
teaching. (López-Rocha & Arévalo-Guerrero, 2014). It is necessary to distinguish
between Intercultural Competence and Intercultural Communicative Competence.
According to Byram (1997), the first refer to people’s “ability to interact in their own
language with the people from another country and culture,” while ICC takes into


account language teaching and focuses on “the ability to interact with people from
another country and culture in a foreign language” (p. 71). In Byram’s (1997) view, a
person who has developed ICC is able to build relationships while speaking in the
foreign language; communicates effectively, taking into consideration his own and the
other person’s viewpoint and needs; mediates interactions between people of different
backgrounds, and strives to continue developing communicative skills. Byram (1997),
in his model of intercultural communicative competence, puts much importance on the
language (linguistic competence) and also identity and cultural understanding in his
conceptualization. He argues that a comprehensive definition of intercultural
communicative competence should include the social context and non-verbal
dimensions of communication. For him the components of intercultural competence are
attitudes, knowledge, skills and complemented by the values one holds because of
one’s belonging to a number of social group. These values are part of one’s social
identities. Byram (1997) asserts that the foundation of intercultural competence is in
the attitudes of the intercultural speaker.

Intercultural competence, or IC, refers to the ability to understand cultures,
including the learners’ own, and use this understanding to communicate with people
from other cultures successfully, notably in their own language. This competence is a
key component of intercultural communicative competence, which refers to the ability
of language learners to communicate with people who come from other cultural
backgrounds using the target language.
Indeed, to facilitate language learners to develop Intercultural Communication
Competence, language teachers, especially those teaching English as Second Language
(ESL), should first be competent intercultural communicators with great confidence
and sufficient experience, (Zhang, A Study on ESL Teachers’ Intercultural
Communication Competence, 2017).
Byram’s (1997) model comprises the dimensions of Attitudes, Knowledge, Skills
and Critical Cultural Awareness. In this study, I draw on Byram’s model because it


provides the most comprehensive framework to understanding the intercultural
competence and, thus far, it is considered to be the most influential model in the
educational field.

Skills
Interpret and relate

Knowledge
Of self and other, Of
interaction
Individual and societal

Education

Attitudes

Political education

Relativizing self

Critical cultural awareness

Valuing other

Skills
Discover and/or interact
Figure 1. Byram’s model of five components of intercultural communicative
competence, from Byram (1997, p.34)
Attitudes are essential and form the foundation for further development of the
student’s intercultural competence (Byram, Gribkova, & Starkey, 2002). To relativize
yourself and value the other, he argues that we need respect for other cultures and
cultural diversity, openness, curiosity and discovery. The learners need to have a real
motivation for learning and understanding people that are different from themselves.
Knowledge refers to several different issues. The knowledge that the students
need is not just cultural specific knowledge about a specific national culture, but they
need cultural general knowledge about concepts that are important for understanding
how communication between people with different backgrounds can be influenced,
such as ethnocentrism, stereotypes and values.


In addition to attitudes and knowledge, the intercultural speaker also needs a set
of skills. Byram et al. (2002, p.8) point out a reason why this is an important both for
learners and teachers.
No teacher can have or anticipate all the knowledge which learners might at
some point need. Indeed many teachers have not had the opportunity

themselves to experience all or any of the cultures which their learners
might encounter, but this is not crucial. The teacher’s task is to develop
attitudes and skills as much as knowledge, and teachers can acquire
information about other countries together with learners; they do not need
to be the sole or major source of information.
From Byram’s (1997) model, we can see that skills refer to two different
elements of intercultural competence regarding skills of interpretation and relation and
critical cultural awareness.
Culture is always part of foreign language teaching. Culture and language are
intertwined in a symbiotic balance of power. To remove the cultural component from a
language study eliminates the very fiber, which creates the texture and depth of
communication. Competence communication is interaction that is perceived as
effective in fulfilling certain rewarding objectives in a way that is also appropriate to
the context in which the interaction occurs (Myron & Jolene, 2013). Almost all studies
on the relationship between language, communication and culture are based on the
exploration of cultural values. Culture and communication are inseparable.
The majority of teachers in North Vietnam seemed to limit culture to the
behavioral aspect of culture, especially language behavior (Nguyen, 2013) and they did
not consider their EFL teaching in a wider context of intercultural communication, i.e,
communication between learners and native and, importantly, non-native speakers of
the target language (Nguyen, 2014). In addition to that, teachers often gave culture a
minor role in the classroom (Nguyen, Harvey & Grant, 2016). However, students have
strong motivation to take part in intercultural online exchanges in English and high
levels of interest in other cultures (Wach, 2013).


Culture plays a very important part in language teaching, which is widely
acknowledged by English teaching circle, (Wang, 2011). Language is both a part of
culture and at the same time the deepest cultural reflection. English now seems to be a
global language including a lot of implications for language’s learning and teaching.

Further, it is essential to acknowledge student preferences to be able to produce wellconstructed interactive activities and deliver effective talk, bringing about more
favourable experiences in the classroom. Several studies have revealed that perceived
usefulness and likability have direct impacts on attitudes toward the use of technology
in education and especially, in foreign language teaching and learning (Davis, 1989;
Albirini, 2006; Yunus, 2007; Zhang, 2010; Dang et al., 2013). Therefore, this study
aims to develop lower-secondary school students’ intercultural competence through
interaction with foreign students using Skype in English classes and hopefully to
propose suggestions for improving English speaking classes
1.2 Motivation
Motivation is the natural human capacity to direct energy in pursuit of a goal.
Human beings are purposeful. People are constantly learning, and when they do, they
use their energy through attention, concentration, action and imagination to make a
sense of the world. Most learning in schools, work and social life is active and
volitional, constructing meaning from experiences and the information available, such
as when solving a problem or engaging in a conversation. There is substantial evidence
that motivation is consistently and positively related to educational achievement.
Motivation is important because throughout life, the motivated person will surpass the
less motivated person in performances and outcomes, even though both have similar
capacity and the same opportunities.
Motivation refers to the root of a person’s desire to foster intercultural
relationships and can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Put simply, if a person isn’t motivated to


communicate with people from different cultures, then the components of intercultural
communication competence do not really matter.
What is culturally relevant to individuals evokes an intrinsic motivation – acting
or responding for satisfaction of what one is doing (solving an important problem, e.g.
budgeting money for food and rent) or the value of what one is doing (learning how to
care for children friends or family). All people want is to be effective at what they
value. What individual value engages them emotionally. If a person has a healthy

curiosity that drives him or her toward intercultural encounters in order to learn more
about self and others, then there is a foundation from which to build additional
competence-relevant attitudes and skills. This intrinsic motivation makes intercultural
communication a voluntary, rewarding, and lifelong learning process. Motivation can
also be extrinsic, meaning that the desire for intercultural communication is driven by
an outside reward like money, power, or recognition. While both types of motivation
can contribute to ICC, context may further enhance of impede a person’s motivation to
communicate across culture.
The more powerful the feeling that accompanies an experience, the more likely
it will be remembered. Strong emotions release hormones, including adrenaline and
cortisol, that heighten alertness and enhance the memory of experience. These
hormones are likely to be present while some of one’s strongest memories, like deep
joy romance, are being made.
1.3 Technology, CALL and ICT, and Skype in ELT
1.3.1 Technology
Technology has been employed to facilitate language learning for a long time
(Salaberry, 2001; Dudeney & Hockly, 2007). Dudeney and Hockly (2007) affirm the
increasing importance of the use of technology, which is expected to be ‘a normal part


of ELT practice in the coming years’ (p. 7). One of the reasons for this is due to the
fact that ‘[younger] learners are growing up with technology, and it is a natural and
integrated part of their lives’. (Dudeney & Hockly, 2007, p.8). In other words, the use
of technology in classrooms is viewed as an inevitable trend in which ‘the use of
technology in teaching [has become] as natural as the use of books or pens and paper’
(Dudeney & Hockly, 2007, p.8)
‘Technology’ is referred to by Zhao (2003, p.8) as ‘an ill-defined concept’
encompassing ‘a wide range of tools, artifacts, and practices, from multimedia
computers to the Internet, from video tapes to on-line chat rooms, from web pages to
interactive audio conferencing’. Technological resources which are currently deployed

in FL teaching and learning include audio devices, video, television and radio
broadcasts, telephone, computers, and Internet (Fitzpatrick, 2004). Meanwhile, ICT is
defined by Fitpatrick and Davies (2003) as an educational technology in which
computers play a very important role or that is to say, as a computer-based or internetbased technology for the purpose of FL teaching and learning. Along with the
widespread use of computers, such acronyms as CALL and ICT have been recognized
globally and attracted more attention from educators, teachers and students. It should
be acknowledged that the appearance journals devoted to technology and language
education proves the increasing awareness of the importance of technology in language
learning and teaching. Zhao (2003) and Stockwell (2007) list some of the most
important journals including CALICO Journal, CALL, Language Learning and
Technology, ReCALL and system.
Technology has been employed to facilitate language learning for a long time
(Salaberry, 2001; Dudeney & Hockly, 2007). If the blackboard, according to Dudeney
and Hockly (2007), is classified as a form of technology, then technology has been
applied in language teaching for centuries. Dudeney and Hockly also affirm the
increasing importance of the use of technology which is expected to be ‘a normal part


of ELT practice in the coming year’ (p.7). It should be acknowledged that the birth of
journals devoted to technology and language education, in which some of the most
important journals listed Zhao (2003) and Stockwell (2007) are CALICo Journal,
CALL, Language Learning and Technology, ReCALL and System, demonstrates the
increasing awareness in the importance of technology in FL teaching and learning.
Oommen (2012) asserts that it has become common when such ‘technological
tools’ as ‘PCs, laptop, …[and] overhead projector, …’ are used to deliver instructions
in the classroom and ‘it has been found very effective’ (p.54). This can be explained by
the following reasons. First, ‘[younger] learners’, as stated by Dudeney & Hockly
(2007, p.7), ‘are growing with technology, and it is a natural and integrated part of their
lives’. This is to say, the use of technology in classrooms is viewed as an inevitable
trend in which ‘[we] have gone from the era of “chalk-to-chalk”… to PPT slides’

(Craig & Amernic, 2006, p.149) and ‘the use of technology in teaching [has become]
as natural as the use of books or pens and paper’ (Dudeney & Hockley, 2007, p.8).
Secondly, thanks to technology, it has been able to bring a wide range of ways for
students and teachers to practice English and assess performance (Dudeney & Hockley,
2007). It is increasingly clear that English which has emerged as a global language ‘is
being used in technologically mediated contexts’ (ibid.). As a result, instead of
constantly adopting conventional teaching methods, ‘new techniques and materials’ are
required to be developed ‘so that global language learners can meet the challenges of
the emerging global civilization and use the global language for their diverse needs’
(Oomnen, 2012, p.54).
However, Zhao (2003, p.8) clearly argues that ‘[a] specific technology may hold
great educational potential, but, until it is used properly, it may not have any positive
impact at all on learning’. Therefore, to assess the effectiveness of any technological
resource is not to assess the effectiveness of the technology itself, but to assess the
effectiveness of its use, leading to the importance of defining what the intelligent use of


an educational technology is. As proposed by Mayer and Moreno (2003), in order to
know whether or not the use of any technology is intelligent, it is necessary to take into
account three aspects: cognition, instruction and technology. Veronikas and
Shaughnessy (2005) help clarify these three components by asking questions
concerning (1) the way that people learn (cognition); (2) the way that the learning
experience can be facilitated (instruction); and (3) the way that the instruction and
learning can be improved with the assistance of technology (technology). Savoy et al.
(2009) noted that among these components, much attention has been paid to the third
one since one objective that researchers attempt to achieve is to evaluate how effective
the use of educational technologies is. When it comes to the use of Skype in the
classrooms, the author is also passionate about exploring the student perspectives on
how Skype enhances instruction and learning during the lecturers.
1.3.2 CALL and ICT

Along with the widespread use of computers in FL teaching and learning, such
acronyms as CALL and ICT have been recognized globally and attracted more
attention from educators, teachers and students.
The use of computers in FL teaching dates back to the 1960s (Warschauer and
Healey, 1998). Warschauer and Healey famously divide the history of CALL into three
main phases which are behaviouristic CALL, communicative CALL, and integrative
CALL. Each stage has its own features and has witnessed changes caused by both
technological and pedagogical developments. Warschauer and Healey (2000), in spite
of the popularity of their analysis of the history of CALL in 1998, suggest another
framework which is inconsistent with the previous one in terms of technology. These
inconsistences shall be discussed briefly bellow.
First of all, behaviouristic CALL was conceived in the 1950s but not utilized until
the 1960s and 1970s (Warschauer and Healey, 1998) whereas the first place is called


Structural CALL and dated to the 1970s-1980s in their 2000 publication. This mode
featured ‘repetitive language drill, referred to as drill-and-practice (or, pejoratively as
“drill-and-kill”)’ (Warschauer and Healey, 1998, p.57).
Secondly, communicative CALL which is dated to the 1980s and 1990s in
Warschauer and Healey’s publication (2000) was previously said to have appeared in
the late 1970s and early 1980s when the first mode was being rejected theoretically and
pedagogically and when there were higher possibilities to implement individual work,
resulting from the appearance of personal computers. In this stage, ‘computer-based
activities’ should introduce students the way to use forms rather than provide the
forms, teach students grammar through a process of inductive discovery rather than
through deductive explanations, create more opportunities for students to produce their
own utterances instead of just repeating after language samples, and ‘use of the target
language predominantly or even exclusively’ (Warschauer and Healey, 1998, p.57).
Obviously, communicative CALL focused on what students did with other students
while learning languages on the computers rather than on what they did on the

computers. Meanwhile, speaking of an attitude or purpose, communicative CALL was
defined by Seedhouse (1995) as ‘an approach in which the teacher’s main purpose is to
produce interaction amongst the learners, and in which the software is seen as means to
that end’ (p.21).
However, the second mode also ‘began to come under criticism’ by the late 1980s
and early 1990s (Warschauer and Healey, 1998, p.57). This stage is, according to
Warschauer and Healey (2000), dated to the 21st century. The last stage was termed by
Warschauer (1996b) as integrative CALL which aims to achieve the integration of four
different skills (listening, reading, speaking and writing) and of technology with the
learning of language. Students are encouraged to ‘use a variety of technological tools
as an ongoing process of language learning and use, rather than visiting the computer
lab on a once a week basis for isolated exercises’ (p.58). All these changes have led to