Exploring the textbook english for life in teaching english speaking to adult beginners = khai thác giáo trình english for life để dạy nói tiếng anh cho người lớn ở trình độ sơ cấp luận văn thạc sĩ giáo dục học

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
VINH UNIVERSITY

---  --TRAN THI HUE

EXPLORING THE TEXTBOOK “ENGLISH FOR LIFE”
IN TEACHING ENGLISH SPEAKING TO
ADULT BEGINNERS
( Khai thác giáo trình “English for Life” để dạy nói tiếng Anh
cho người lớn ở trình độ sơ cấp)

Master Thesis in TESOL

Vinh, 2011
1


MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
VINH UNIVERSITY

---  --TRAN THI HUE

EXPLORING THE TEXTBOOK “ENGLISH FOR LIFE”
IN TEACHING ENGLISH SPEAKING TO
ADULT BEGINNERS
( Khai thác giáo trình “English for Life” để dạy nói tiếng Anh
cho người lớn ở trình độ sơ cấp)

Field: Theory and Methodology of English Language Teaching
Code: 60.14.10

Master Thesis in TESOL
Supervisor: NGUYEN THI VAN LAM, M.A.

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Vinh, 2011

Statement of Authorship
The thesis named “ Exploring the textbook “English for Life” in teaching English
speaking to adult beginners” above has been submitted for the degree of Master of Arts.
I, the undersigned, hereby declare that:
• I am the sole author of this thesis.
• I have fully acknowledged and referenced the ideas and work of others, whether
published or unpublished, in my thesis.
• I have prepared my thesis specifically for the degree of Master of Arts while under
supervision at Vinh University
• My thesis does not contain work extracted from a thesis, dissertation or research paper
previously presented for another degree or diploma at this or any other university.
Vinh, 2011

Tran Thi Hue

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Acknowledgement

The study could not have been completed without the help of my teachers and
friends during the time of my doing it.

First of all, I would like to express my sincere and deep gratitude to my
supervisor, Ms Nguyen Thi Van Lam (M.A) for her constant encouragement, delibrate
guidance, generous support and invaluable critical feedback during the writing of this
study.
In particular, I wish to thank Mr Ngo Dinh Phuong and other staff members of
Foreign Languages department of Vinh university for their continuous encouragement
and support.
I also wish to thank all my friends, colleagues and classmates who have kindly
given their advice and enthusiastically helped me with useful source materials for the
completion of this thesis.
Finally, I would also like to thank my parents for their support and
encouragement during the process of writing this thesis.

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Abstract
Many language learners regard speaking ability as the measure of knowing a
language. These learners define fluency as the ability to converse with others, much
more than the ability to read, write, or comprehend oral language. They regard speaking
as the most important skill they can acquire, and they assess their progress in terms of
their accomplishments in spoken communication. However, many English teachers still
spend the majority of class time on reading and writing practice almost ignoring
speaking and listening skills. It is the fact that teaching and learning conditions in our
city have some certain limitations. Students from high schools and universities are aware
of the importance of communicating in English in their real life but they are only taught
much more about reading and writing to pass the exams with high scores. Therefore,
these students come to some English centers to learn general English programme with
the aims at developing the four skills and at the end of the course they can communicate
successfully.

First of all, besides the acknowledgements, the table of contents, the introduction,
in chapter one we give here some concepts concerned with the investigation. In chapter
two we deal with the theoretical background that we base on to explore the textbook to
teach English speaking to adult beginners. The next chapter presents research
methodology with the research questions and the research procedure (including Planning
for the intervention, Implementation, Evaluation and Data collection). In chapter findings
and discussion, we come up with an overview of the centre and the syllabus, then the
data analysis, findings and discussions, implications

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and sample lessons. The last


chapter is conclusion in which we come to the final conclusion for the whole study, its
limitation and suggestions for further study. And then some reference books are listed
before appendix part.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS..........................................................................................1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................6
1.1. Rationale............................................................................................................6
1.2. Aims of the study...............................................................................................7
1.3. Research questions.............................................................................................8
1.4. Scope of the study..............................................................................................8
1.5. The method of the study.....................................................................................8
1.6. Organization of the study...................................................................................9
CHAPTER 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND.................................................11
2.1. The framework of materials and methods........................................................11
2.1.1. Contextual factors.........................................................................................11
2.1.1.1. Learners......................................................................................................12
2.1.1.2. Setting........................................................................................................13
2.1.2. The syllabus..................................................................................................14
2.2. Current approaches to materials design...........................................................15
2.2.1. The impact of the communicative approach.................................................15
2.2.2. Current approach to materials design............................................................16
2.2.2.1. Multi-syllabus............................................................................................16
2.2.2.2. The lexical syllabus....................................................................................17
2.2.2.3. The process syllabus..................................................................................17
2.3. Evaluating a textbook ......................................................................................18
2.3.1. Reasons to evaluate materials.......................................................................18

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2.3.2. Criteria to evaluate materials........................................................................19
2.3.2.1. The external evaluation..............................................................................20
2.3.2.2. The internal evaluation...............................................................................21
2.3.2.3. The overall evaluation................................................................................22
2.4. Exploring a textbook........................................................................................22

2.4.1. Reflective teaching........................................................................................23
2.4.2. Reflection process.........................................................................................24
2.5. Teaching adults................................................................................................27
2.5.1. Principles of adult learning...........................................................................28
2.5.1.1. Motivation..................................................................................................29
2.5.1.2. Experience..................................................................................................29
2.5.1.3. Level of engagement..................................................................................29
2.5.1.4. Applying the learning.................................................................................30
2.5.2. Principles of teaching adults.........................................................................30
2.5.2.1. Make sure adult students understand “Why”.............................................31
2.5.2.2. Respect that students have different learning styles...................................31
2.5.2.3. Allow students to experience what they are learning.................................32
2.5.2.4. When the student is ready, the teacher appears..........................................33
2.5.2.5. Encourage adult students...........................................................................33
2.6. Types of classroom speaking performance......................................................34
2.6.1. Imitative........................................................................................................34
2.6.2. Intensive........................................................................................................34
2.6.3. Responsive....................................................................................................35
2.6.4. Transactional (dialogue)...............................................................................35
2.6.5. Interpersonal (dialogue)................................................................................35

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2.6.6. Extensive (monologue).................................................................................36
2.7. Principles for designing speaking techniques..................................................36
2.7.1. Use techniques that cover the spectrum of learner needs, from
language-based focus on accuracy to message-based focus on interaction,
meaning and fluency...............................................................................................36
2.7.2. Provide intrinsically motivating techniques..................................................36

2.7.3. Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts.................37
2.7.4. Provide appropriate feedback and correction................................................37
2.7.5. Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening.....................37
2.7.6. Give learners opportunities to initiate oral communication..........................37
2.7.7. Encourage the development of speaking strategies.......................................37
2.8. Retelling technique..........................................................................................38
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY..........................................................................40
3.1. Determining on research questions..................................................................40
3.2. Planning for the Intervention...........................................................................41
3.3. Implementation................................................................................................41
3.4. Evaluation........................................................................................................42
3.5. Data collection.................................................................................................43
CHAPTER 4. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS..................................................44
4.1. An overview of the language centre and the syllabus......................................44
4.1.1. An overview of the Asem Link Languages centre, Vinh city,
Nghe An province..................................................................................................44
4.1.2. The syllabus..................................................................................................44
4.1.3. Skills lesson..................................................................................................45
4.2. Data analysis....................................................................................................46

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4.2.1. Results of survey questionnaire for evaluating the textbook and
skills lesson.............................................................................................................46
4.2.1.1. Frequently used activities in skills lessons.................................................47
4.2.1.2. Teachers and students’ interest in the activities in a skills lesson..............48
4.2.1.3. The evaluation of the activities in the skills lesson....................................50
4.2.1.4. The effectiveness of the activities..............................................................51
4.2.1.5. Teachers and students’ evaluation about some other related points

in the textbook.........................................................................................................52
4.2.2. Results of survey questionnaire for students.................................................53
4.2.2.1. Some of the problems that students cope with in learning English
speaking skills in the classroom.............................................................................53
4.2.2.2. Students’ attitudes toward retelling activity in skills lesson......................55
4.2.2.3. Some benefits that students can achieve after learning with retelling
activity....................................................................................................................56
4.2.2.4. Students’ opinions about this teaching approach.......................................58
4.3. Findings and discussions..................................................................................59
4.3.1. Findings from survey questionnaire for evaluating the textbook and skills
lesson......................................................................................................................59
4.3.2. Findings from survey questionnaire for students after learning with
retelling activity......................................................................................................60
4.3.2.1. Findings from Section A about some of the problems that students cope
with in learning English speaking in skills lesson classroom................................60
4.3.2.2. Findings from Section B about retelling activity in the skills lesson.........61
4.3.2.3. Findings from Section C about some benefits from retelling activity.......62
4.3.2.4. Findings from Section D about students’ opinions about this teaching

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approach..................................................................................................................63
4.4. Implications......................................................................................................65
4.5. Sample lessons.................................................................................................67
4.5.1. The guided teaching and learning sequence..................................................67
4.5.2. Retelling activity sequence in skills lesson with reading passage.................68
4.5.3. Retelling activity sequence in skill lesson with listening passage................69
CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION................................................................................70
5.1. Summary..........................................................................................................70

5.2. Limitation.........................................................................................................72
5.3. Suggestions for further study...........................................................................72
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................74
APPENDIX.............................................................................................................76

Chapter 1. Introduction

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1.1. Rationale
Speaking is the productive skill in the oral mode. It is more complicated than it
seems at first and involves more than just pronouncing words. Successful speaking
activities in class can create great improvement of students’ speaking skills, so language
teachers should try to design and administer such activities. Nowadays, there is a recent
trend toward skills integration instead of separating the four skills of a curriculum.
Curriculum designers are taking more of a whole language approach whereby each skill
is treated as one of two or more interrelated skills. A course that deals with speaking
skills, then, will also deal with related listening, reading, and writing skills. This
integrated speaking class models students the real-life integration of language skills and
they can acknowledge the link among several skills. Students are given a chance to
diversify their efforts in more meaningful tasks rather than being forced to participate in
a course that limits itself to one mode of performance.
During the time of teaching English for beginners in Asem Link Language
Centre, I have found some difficulties in the process of teaching speaking skills such as
they have nothing to say, they are under pressure or inhibited, mother tongue use, etc.
These difficulties not only prevent students from achieving language skills but also pose
some problems for teachers in designing and motivating students in the speaking class.
In this study, we would like to evaluate the textbook “English for life” in its
realistic teaching and learning situations, find out what is appropriate and inappropriate

when using this textbook, and explore this textbook in teaching English speaking for
adult beginners at Asem Link Languages Centre in Vinh city in order to help our
students develop their speaking skills to fulfill their needs for communication and for
their jobs. Moreover, through the techniques to develop speaking skills, we also would
like to provide some guidance to help teachers at the beginning level design and apply
appropriate methods to improve students’ ability.

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Many language learners regard speaking ability as the measurement of knowing a
language. These learners define fluency as the ability to converse with others, much
more than the ability to read, write, or comprehend oral language. They regard speaking
as the most important skill they can acquire, and they assess their progress in terms of
their accomplishments in spoken communication. However, many English teachers still
spend the majority of class time on reading and writing practice almost ignoring
speaking and listening skills. It is the fact that teaching and learning conditions in our
city have some certain limitations. Students from high schools and universities are aware
of the importance of communicating in English in their real life but they are only taught
much more about reading and writing to pass the exams with high scores. Therefore,
these students learn general English programme with the aims at developing the four
skills and at the end of the course they can communicate successfully. Facing with these
problems, as an English teacher at Asem Link Language Centre, I want to deal with how
to develop speaking skills for beginner students by exploring the skills lesson in the
textbook “English for life” with retelling activity. Hopefully, this study will much help
English teachers in my centre to better their teaching, motivate my students in their
learning, especially to improve their speaking.
1.2. Aims of the study
This study aims to evaluate the textbook used at Asem Link Languages centre for
beginning level to find out what is appropriate and inappropriate when adapting the

textbook “English for life” to teach English speaking. This study, to some extent,
mentions ways to evaluate a textbook to teach other skills such as listening, reading or
writing because the four skills are integrated in one lesson in the textbook. This study
also aims to investigate how to explore the textbook, particularly the skills lesson in the
textbook to teach speaking successfully and students are able to speak after each topic
presented.

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This study also provides a useful part of basic knowledge on the framework of
materials and methods, criteria and techniques to evaluate a textbook, on current issues
in teaching speaking in general, particularly in this English centre. We hope the results of
this study will help teachers in providing some extra activities to teach English speaking
with the textbook and help students overcome difficulties in learning speaking skills and
be able to speak about certain topics at beginning level.
1.3. Research questions
This study aims to answer the following questions:
- What is appropriate and inappropriate in using the textbook “English for life” to teach
English speaking to beginners?
- What do students perceive of the benefits of retelling activity to their English learning?
1.4. Scope of the study
In this study, we pay attention to evaluating the skills lesson in the textbook
“English for life” for beginning level and finding out how to explore this textbook in
teaching speaking for beginners at Asem Link Language Centre . It is limited to only the
skills lesson in the textbook “English for life” at beginning levels and speaking skills in a
small range of twenty topics. Though the vocabulary, grammatical items, cultural
features or techniques can be expanded, they all relate to the topics and their aims are to
enhance speaking skills about those topics. We do not pay much attention on evaluating,
teaching and providing activities for the other skills.

1.5. The method of the study
To do this study the author uses both qualitative and quantitative research
methods.
Qualitative research method has its roots in social science and is more concern
with understanding why people behave as they do: their knowledge, attitudes, beliefs,
fears, etc. Therefore, in order to get information about learners when they learn English

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speaking skill with the textbook “English for Life”, the author has to observe their
studying in the real classes. I by myself observe students’ responses in my classes.
Quantitative research method is concerned with counting and measuring things,
producing in particular estimates of averages and differences between groups. In this
study, I utilize questionnaire for teachers and learners to get information about teaching
and learning speaking skill in Asem Link center.
After collecting information, all the data will be analyzed and drawn into the
conclusion.
1.6. Organization of the study
Besides the Introduction and Conclusion which begins and concludes the thesis,
the thesis consists of three main chapters. Each of it will serve a particular function.
Chapter one – The introduction , it is designed so as to explain the reason why the topic
deserves to be studied. It then provides clearly all the objectives that this research aims
at. It is also in this section that we are concerned with the scope and the organization of
the study.
Chapter two – The Literature review, this chapter is designed to review of previous
studies related to problem under investigation. In this chapter, I’d like to begin by
looking briefly some previous studies related to the research that is carried out. Basing
on those studies, I will start to develop my research about speaking skills in the way of
using retelling activity in skills lesson.

Chapter three -

Research Methodology, Chapter three is where research methods

presented. Five main key points of this chapter are (i) Determining on research questions,
(ii) Planning the intervention, (iii) Implementation, (iv) Evaluation and (v) Data
collection.
Chapter four - Findings and Discussions. In this chapter, we focus on presenting the
result of the research. After providing the statistical results concerning about evaluation
the textbook and students’ opinions when learning with retelling activity, a discussion

15


will be provided which serves as the basis of the later findings. Moreover, in this part, we
also answer the research questions that we make in the study before we make the
research. Later on, the implications and sample lessons are given after the finding found
from survey questionnaire.
Chapter five - Conclusion. The last part Conclusion will have a brief look about the
study that is carried out above. It, then also provides the limitation of the study and some
suggestions for further study.

Chapter 2. Theoretical background

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This chapter will discuss several evaluation, communicative and exploring issues
which serve as theoretical foundation for the study. First a brief review on the framework
of materials and methods, including theories about contextual factors and the syllabus are

provided. Then the issues on evaluating a textbook: reasons and criteria are given. The
overview of teaching adults with principles of adult learning and principles of teaching
adults are presented. Besides, the theory about exploring a textbook and retelling activity
are clarified as it is apparent that one cannot use an approach in his work without
understanding what it is and what concerns.
2.1. The framework of materials and methods
According to Jo McDonough and Christopher Shaw (1993) in the book “Materials
and methods in ELT”, they explored general implications of context and syllabus and
tried to relate them to familiar and specific teaching situations.
In simple terms, the overall goals of a language teaching programme usually
derive from an analysis of the reasons why a group of learners in a particular
environment needs to learn English: these goals may be stated in general, educational, or
very specific terms. Besides, they may be set out in the large-scale categories of a
national language policy with many associated implications for the development of the
curriculum. The statement of goals, then related to the learners and conditioned by the
setting, leads to the selection of an appropriate types of syllabus content and
specification. The broad syllabus outline will in turn have direct implications for the
more detailed design and selection of materials and tests, the planning of individual
lessons and the managements of the classroom itself.
2.1.1. Contextual factors
In their book “Materials and methods in ELT”, Jo McDonough and Christopher
Shaw (1993) also examine the contextual factors in a detailed way:
2.1.1.1 Learners

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According to Jo McDonough and Christopher Shaw (1993), the key
characteristics of the learner that might affect planning and form part of the common
frame of reference as language teachers. The following key factors must be seen as

interrelated:
- Age: as with age, this may help in the specification of topics and learning activities.
- Level of proficiency in English: teachers will wish to know learners’ level of
proficiency in English even their classes are based on a mixed proficiency principle
rather than streamed according to level.
- Aptitude: This can most usefully be thought of as a specific talent as something that
learners might show themselves to be “good at”.
- Mother tongue: this may affect, for instance, the treatment of errors or the selection of
syllabus items- areas of grammar or vocabulary and so on.
- Academic and educational level: this helps to determine intellectual content, breadth of
topic choice, or depth to which material may be studied.
- Attitudes to learning, to teachers, to the institution, to the target language itself and to
its speakers.
- Motivation: at least insofar as it can be anticipated. Obviously a whole range of factors
will affect this.
- Reasons for learning: with many adult learners, it is often possible to carry out quite a
detailed analysis of needs.
- Preferred learning styles: which will help in the evaluation of the suitability of different
method, for instance whether problem-solving activities could be used, or whether pupils
are more used to rote learning.
- Personality: which can affect methodological choices such as a willing acceptance of
role play and an interactive classroom environment, or a preference for studying alone,
for example.
2.1.1.2. Setting

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Setting is referred as the whole teaching and learning environment, in a wide
sense: it is the factors falling under this heading which will determine whether the aims

of a language programme, defined with reference to the learners’ needs and
characteristics, are actually feasible and realistic. In certain situations, the setting itself
may be so significant that it provides the foundation for the specifications of aims. In the
majority of circumstances, however, the setting is more likely to condition the way in
which goals are carried out, and indeed the extent to which they can be.
The following factors, in some combination and with varying degrees of
significance, will influence course planning, syllabus design, the selection of materials
and resources, and the appropriateness of methods:
- The role of English in the country: the role of English in the country relates to linguistic
environment, and to whether English is spoken in the community outside class or
alternatively never heard.
- The role of English in the school and its place in the curriculum.
- The teachers: their status, both at national and institutional levels, their training, mother
tongue, attitudes to their job, experience, expectations.
- Management and administration: who is responsible for what level of decision,
particularly which are the control points for employment of staff, budgets, resource
allocation and so on. Additionally, the position of teachers in the overall system needs to
be understood.
- Resource available: books and paper, audio-visual materials, laboratories, computers,
reprographic facilities and so on. Design and choice of teaching materials will be
particularly affected by resource availability, as will the capacity to teach effectively
across a range of language skills.
- Support personnel: administrators, secretaries and technicians , and their specific roles
in relation to the teaching staff.
- The number of pupils to be taught and the size of classes

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- Time available for the programme, both over a working year, and in any one week or

term. Many teachers would also consider that time of day is a significant factor.
- Physical environment: the nature of the building, noise factors, flexibility of tables and
chairs, size of room in relation to size of class, heat and cold, and so on.
- The socio-cultural environment: this can often determine the suitability of both
materials and methods
- The types of tests used, and ways in which students are evaluated. They may also be
external in the form of a public and national examination, or internal to the institution
and the course.
- Procedures for monitoring and evaluating the language teaching programme itself.
2.1.2. The syllabus
When the goals of an English teaching programme have been set out and the
contextual factors affecting its implementation have been established and understood.
The next step in the task of planning is to select a type of syllabus which is relevant to
the learners for whom it is intended, appropriate to the situation, and which fulfills the
aims as closely as possible.
The syllabus can be seen as the overall organizing principle for what is to be
taught and learned. Richard and Rogers (1986) have proposed a useful framework for the
comparison of language teaching methods which illustrates the place of the syllabus in
the programme planning. Their model has three distinct levels, which they term
approach, design and procedure. Approach is the most general level, and refers to the
views or beliefs, or theories of language and language learning on which planning is
based. The next level, design, is where the principle of the first level are converted into
the more practical aspects of syllabuses and instructional materials. It is here that
decisions are taken about the arrangement of content to be taught and learnt, the choice
of topics, language items to be included in the programme. Finally, procedure refers to
techniques and the management of the classroom itself. The present book loosely follows

20

both this model and its philosophy, by focusing on material (design) and methods
(procedure), and trying to show how they all have an explicit basis in theory (approach).
There are five types of syllabus:
- Grammatical or structural: it is organized according to a list of grammatical structures,
and is one that will readily be recognized by most English language teachers
- Functional- notional: it is based on the communicative and interpersonal uses to which
language is put and highlights what people do through language..
- Situational: this presents a set of everyday situations or settings.
- Skills based: this focuses on language skills, and is concerned with what learners do as
speakers, learners, readers and writers.
- Topic based: this syllabus uses topics or themes as its starting point.
Most syllabuses are based on a combination of two or more of the types of above
syllabus.
2.2. Current approaches to materials design
2.2.1. The impact of the communicative approach
According to Jo Cough and Christopher Shaw (1993), communicative approach
to syllabus and materials design has had the greatest significance world-wide for the
current practice of English language teaching. Communicative design criteria permeate
both general coursebooks and materials covering specific language skills, as well as the
methodology of the classroom. The publication of teaching materials is designed
according to communicative principle. The followings are claims for communicative
materials:
- “ for students interested in using language rather than learning more about structure…
students learn to use the appropriate language they need for communicating in real life”
- “…is a dynamic, functionally-based course book. It is an intensely practical book,
giving the students opportunity for thorough and meaningful rehearsal of the English
they will need for effective communication”

21

- “…to use the language to communicate in real life”
- “…teaches students to communicate effectively by understanding and controlling the
relationship between language forms and functions”
- “…places emphasis on developing skills of discourse within a wide range of
communicative settings. It actively trains the learner in important discourse functions…
All the language practice is presented in real-life contexts and related to the learners’
own experience.”
The certain terms recur: communication, real-life, use, functions, appropriate,
meaningful, context, setting and discourse
2.2.2. Current approaches to materials design
2.2.2.1. Multi-syllabus
There is a single organizing principle which provides the material to be taught and
learned in each unit or section of the course. It is likely that learners will not only be
expected to formulate rules and manipulate structures in a vacuum, they will probably be
given a situation or a topic as a context for practice. According to Swan (1985:79), he
justifies this approach in the following terms:
“When deciding what to teach to a particular group of learners, we need to take
into consideration several different meaning categories and several different formal
categories. We must make sure that our students are taught to operate key functions…to
talk about basic notions…to communicate appropriately in specific situations…to
discuss the topics which correspond to their main interests and needs…At the same time,
we shall need to draw up a list of phonological problems… of high priority structures
and of the vocabulary which our students will need to learn. In addition, we will need a
syllabus of skills…”
This kind of multi-syllabus is looking straightforwardly in terms of merging of
two broad approaches. One of these is concerned with a view of language in use, and
includes categories of function, context and language skill. The other is a version of a

22

more formal linguistic syllabus, and is comprised of elements of grammar, pronunciation
and vocabulary. A multi-syllabus build on a range of communicative criteria at the same
time as acknowledge the need to provide systematic practice in the formal properties of
language.
2.2.2.2. The lexical syllabus
Some course books have taken the whole spread of organizing principles, others
have chosen to give particular emphasis to specific areas. One area that has recently
received considerable attention is that of vocabulary or lexis. It is typical of many current
course books that they are concerned to rationalize vocabulary as content and to base
teaching on an understanding of the psychological mechanisms whereby people learn
and remember lexical items. The multi-syllabus concept means that vocabulary is
selected according to the other dimensions on which the materials are built.
We have discussed the principle of the multi-syllabus and have shown how some
course books have highlighted and developed one particular area of design vocabulary.
2.2.2.3. The process syllabus
The most labels attached to this kind of syllabus design proposal are “process”,
“task-based” and “procedural”. The essence is described by Breen (1987): “One of the
major sources of impetus for the recent interest in alternative methodologies has been an
intensified theoretical and research focus upon the language learning process and, in
particular, the contributions of the learners to that process” (1987:159). The focus here is
on “how” rather than “what”. This contains the far-reaching implication that syllabuses
cannot be fully worked out in advance but must evolve as learners’ problems and
developing competence gradually emerge.
This approach to syllabus design has been worked out in detail by Prabhu (1987)
with three categories of problem-solving task:
- Information-gap activities, for example, where each person in a pair has only part of the
required information

23


- Reasoning -gap activities, for example making a decision or an interference based on
given information.
- Opinion-gap activities, for example taking part in a discussion of an issue, or
completing a story.
Materials from this point of view then become sources for the development of tasks and
are only loosely, not fully, pre-constructed.
2.3. Evaluating a textbook
2.3.1. Reasons to evaluate materials
According to Cunningsworth (1984), very few teachers do not use published
course materials at some stage in their teaching career. Regularly, they think using
published textbook is that they do in their professional life. However, in the open-market
situations and in the situations that a Ministry of Education produces materials which are
subsequently passed on to the teacher for classroom use, we will wish to clarify the
distinction between them. These scenarios lead to the difference in the nature of the
evaluation process.
In the first place, in the open-market situations, teachers have many chances to
select materials and to convince colleagues and a Director of Studies with respect to this
material. They have a good deal of choice in the selection of appropriate materials so the
need being able to discriminate effectively between all the course books available.
However, there are many situations in the world that teachers have limited choice and
they are handed materials by a Ministry or a Director and they have to try best to get
benefits of the materials in their teaching. In this situations, teachers are likely to
evaluate the textbook and find out how they can make effective use of materials in the
classroom.
Another factor to consider is that the textbook may be used for years because of
considerable professional and financial pressure to select a course book for an ELT
programme. Moreover, in many contexts, materials are often seen as being the core of a

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particular programme and often are the most visible presentation in the classroom, the
book may be the only choice open to them. The evaluation, therefore, is considered as an
appropriate choice which may waste funds and time and it may cause demotivation on
students and other colleagues.
In the open-market situation, some teachers can select a good textbook,
particularly in contexts where the assimilation of stimulating, authentic materials can be
difficult to recognize. For other teachers who have to work with materials given by the
Ministry of Education or some similar body, may find the materials very limiting and
probably find the best way to adapt materials to meet the needs of their particular
context.
Moreover, Sheldon (1988:245) addresses a lack of cultural appropriacy of some
textbook, that is the thinking underlying the textbook writing may be different from or in
conflict with the assumptions held by the teachers. It is clear that course book assessment
is fundamentally a subjective and rule-of-thumb activity, we need some model given that
everyone in the field will need to evaluate materials at some time or other.
2.3.2. Criteria to evaluate materials
According to Jo McDonough and Chrishtopher Shaw, criteria to evaluate material
can be examined in two stages: an external evaluation and an internal evaluation. An
external evaluation offers a brief overview of the materials from the outside (cover,
introduction, table of content), which is then followed by a closer and more detailed
internal evaluation. It is difficult to certain which criteria and constraints can operate
actually in ELT contexts worldwide and the criteria will be as comprehensive as
possible for the majority of ELT situations on a worldwide basis.
2.3.2.1. The external evaluation
At this stage of evaluation, we include criteria which will provide a
comprehensive, external overview of how materials have been organized. We can

examine the organization of materials by looking at:

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