Tài liệu John Dow -- English Grammar in use doc

1
1 An Introduction to Word classes.............................................................................................4
1.1 Criteria for Word Classes...............................................................................................4
1.1.1 Meaning.................................................................................................................5
1.1.2 The form or `shape' of a word...............................................................................6
1.1.3 The position or `environment' of a word in a sentence ......................................... 6
1.2 Open and Closed Word Classes ..................................................................................... 7
2 Nouns ......................................................................................................................................8
2.1 Characteristics of Nouns ................................................................................................8
2.2 Common and Proper Nouns.........................................................................................10
2.3 Count and Non-count Nouns........................................................................................11
2.4 Pronouns.......................................................................................................................11
2.5 Other Types of Pronoun...............................................................................................13
2.6 Numerals ......................................................................................................................14
2.7 The Gender of Nouns...................................................................................................15
3 Determiners........................................................................................................................... 16
3.1 Numerals and Determiners........................................................................................... 17
3.2 Pronouns and Determiners ........................................................................................... 18
3.3 The Ordering of Determiners.......................................................................................19
3.4 Predeterminers..............................................................................................................19
3.5 Central Determiners .....................................................................................................20
3.6 Postdeterminers............................................................................................................ 20
4 Verbs .....................................................................................................................................21
4.1 The Base Form ............................................................................................................. 21
4.2 Past and Present Forms ................................................................................................22
4.3 The Infinitive Form...................................................................................................... 23
4.4 More Verb Forms: -ing and -ed....................................................................................23
4.5 Finite and Nonfinite Verbs........................................................................................... 24
4.6 Auxiliary Verbs............................................................................................................25
4.7 Auxiliary Verb Types................................................................................................... 25
4.8 The NICE Properties of Auxiliaries.............................................................................28

4.9 Semi-auxiliaries............................................................................................................29
4.10 Tense and Aspect .......................................................................................................29
4.11 Voice ..........................................................................................................................31
5 Adjectives..............................................................................................................................31
5.1 Characteristics of Adjectives........................................................................................32
5.2 Attributive and Predicative Adjectives ........................................................................34
5.3 Inherent and Non-inherent Adjectives ......................................................................... 35
5.4 Stative and Dynamic Adjectives .................................................................................. 36
5.5 Nominal Adjectives...................................................................................................... 37
5.6 Adjectives and Nouns................................................................................................... 38
5.7 Participial Adjectives ...................................................................................................39
5.8 The Ordering of Adjectives..........................................................................................44
2
6 Adverbs .................................................................................................................................47
6.1 Formal Characteristics of Adverbs...............................................................................47
6.2 Adverbs and Adjectives ...............................................................................................49
6.3 Circumstantial Adverbs................................................................................................50
6.4 Additives, Exclusives, and Particularizers...................................................................50
6.5 Wh- Adverbs.................................................................................................................51
6.6 Sentence Adverbs.........................................................................................................51
7 Prepositions...........................................................................................................................52
7.1 Complex Prepositions ..................................................................................................53
7.2 Marginal Prepositions ..................................................................................................54
8 Conjunctions.......................................................................................................................... 54
8.1 Coordination Types...................................................................................................... 56
8.2 False Coordination .......................................................................................................56
9 Minor word classes................................................................................................................ 57
9.1 Formulaic Expressions.................................................................................................57
9.2 Existential there............................................................................................................58
9.3 Uses of It ......................................................................................................................59

10 Introduces phrases...............................................................................................................59
10.1 Defining a Phrase ....................................................................................................... 60
10.2 The Basic Structure of a Phrase ................................................................................. 60
10.3 More Phrase Types..................................................................................................... 62
10.4 Noun Phrase (NP).......................................................................................................63
10.5 Verb Phrase (VP) .......................................................................................................64
10.6 Adjective Phrase (AP)................................................................................................64
10.7 Adverb Phrase (AdvP) ...............................................................................................65
10.8 Prepositional Phrase (PP)...........................................................................................65
10.9 Phrases within Phrases ............................................................................................... 65
11 Clauses and sentences .........................................................................................................66
11.1 The Clause Hierarchy.................................................................................................67
11.2 Finite and Nonfinite Clauses......................................................................................68
11.3 Subordinate Clause Types..........................................................................................69
11.3.1 Relative Clauses................................................................................................70
11.3.2 Nominal Relative Clauses................................................................................. 71
11.3.3 Small Clauses.................................................................................................... 71
11.4 Subordinate Clauses: Semantic Types .......................................................................72
11.5 Sentences....................................................................................................................74
11.6 The Discourse Functions of Sentences....................................................................... 74
11.6.1 Declarative ........................................................................................................74
11.6.2 Interrogative ...................................................................................................... 75
11.6.3 Imperative..........................................................................................................75
11.6.4 Exclamative.......................................................................................................76
11.7 The Grammatical Hierarchy: Words, Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences..................... 76
3
12 Form and Function..............................................................................................................77
12.1 Subject and Predicat...................................................................................................78
12.2 Characteristics of the Subject.....................................................................................79
12.3 Realisations of the Subject......................................................................................... 81

12.4 Some Unusual Subjects.............................................................................................. 83
12.5 Inside the Predicate ....................................................................................................84
12.6 The Direct Object.......................................................................................................84
12.7 Realisations of the Direct Object ...............................................................................85
12.8 Subjects and Objects, Active and Passive..................................................................86
12.9 The Indirect Object..................................................................................................... 86
12.10 Realisations of the Indirect Object...........................................................................87
12.11 Adjuncts ...................................................................................................................87
12.12 Realisations of Adjuncts...........................................................................................88
12.13 Sentence Patterns from a Functional Perspective ....................................................89
12.14 Some Untypical Sentence Patterns........................................................................... 91
13 Functions and Phrases.........................................................................................................93
13.1 Complements..............................................................................................................94
13.2 Complements in other Phrase Types..........................................................................95
13.3 Adjuncts in Phrases.................................................................................................... 96
13.4 Complements and Adjuncts Compared...................................................................... 97
13.5 Specifiers....................................................................................................................98

4


1 An Introduction to Word classes

Words are fundamental units in every sentence, so we will begin by looking at these.
Consider the words in the following sentence:

my brother drives a big car
We can tell almost instinctively that brother and car are the same type of word, and also that
brother and drives are different types of words. By this we mean that brother and car belong
to the same word class. Similarly, when we recognise that brother and drives are different
types, we mean that they belong to different word classes. We recognise seven MAJOR word
classes:


Verb
be, drive, grow, sing, think
Noun
brother, car, David, house, London
Determiner
a, an, my, some, the

Adjective
big, foolish, happy, talented, tidy
Adverb
happily, recently, soon, then, there
Preposition
at, in, of, over, with
Conjunction
and, because, but, if, or

You may find that other grammars recognise different word classes from the ones listed here.
They may also define the boundaries between the classes in different ways. In some
grammars, for instance, pronouns are treated as a separate word class, whereas we treat them
as a subclass of nouns. A difference like this should not cause confusion. Instead, it highlights
an important principle in grammar, known as GRADIENCE. This refers to the fact that the
boundaries between the word classes are not absolutely fixed. Many word classes share
characteristics with others, and there is considerable overlap between some of the classes. In
other words, the boundaries are "fuzzy", so different grammars draw them in different places.
We will discuss each of the major word classes in turn. Then we will look briefly at some
MINOR word classes. But first, let us consider how we distinguish between word classes in
general.
1.1 Criteria for Word Classes
5
We began by grouping words more or less on the basis of our instincts about English. We
somehow "feel" that brother and car belong to the same class, and that brother and drives
belong to different classes. However, in order to conduct an informed study of grammar, we
need a much more reliable and more systematic method than this for distinguishing between
word classes.
We use a combination of three criteria for determining the word class of a word:

1. The meaning of the word

2. The form or `shape' of the word
3. The position or `environment' of the word in a sentence

1.1.1 Meaning
Using this criterion, we generalize about the kind of meanings that words convey. For
example, we could group together the words brother and car, as well as David, house, and
London, on the basis that they all refer to people, places, or things. In fact, this has
traditionally been a popular approach to determining members of the class of nouns. It has
also been applied to verbs, by saying that they denote some kind of "action", like cook, drive,
eat, run, shout, walk.
This approach has certain merits, since it allows us to determine word classes by replacing
words in a sentence with words of "similar" meaning. For instance, in the sentence My son
cooks dinner every Sunday, we can replace the verb cooks with other "action" words:

My son cooks dinner every Sunday
My son prepares dinner every Sunday
My son eats dinner every Sunday
My son misses dinner every Sunday
On the basis of this replacement test, we can conclude that all of these words belong to the
same class, that of "action" words, or verbs.
However, this approach also has some serious limitations. The definition of a noun as a word
denoting a person, place, or thing, is wholly inadequate, since it excludes abstract nouns such
as time, imagination, repetition, wisdom, and chance. Similarly, to say that verbs are "action"
words excludes a verb like be, as in I want to be happy. What "action" does be refer to here?
So although this criterion has a certain validity when applied to some words, we need other,
more stringent criteria as well.

6
1.1.2 The form or `shape' of a word
Some words can be assigned to a word class on the basis of their form or `shape'. For example,

many nouns have a characteristic -tion ending:

action, condition, contemplation, demonstration, organization, repetition
Similarly, many adjectives end in -able or -ible:

acceptable, credible, miserable, responsible, suitable, terrible
Many words also take what are called INFLECTIONS, that is, regular changes in their form
under certain conditions. For example, nouns can take a plural inflection, usually by adding
an -s at the end:

car -- cars
dinner -- dinners
book -- books
Verbs also take inflections:

walk -- walks -- walked -- walking

1.1.3 The position or `environment' of a word in a sentence
This criterion refers to where words typically occur in a sentence, and the kinds of words
which typically occur near to them. We can illustrate the use of this criterion using a simple
example. Compare the following:

[1] I cook dinner every Sunday
[2] The cook is on holiday

In [1], cook is a verb, but in [2], it is a noun. We can see that it is a verb in [1] because it takes
the inflections which are typical of verbs:

I cook dinner every Sunday
I cooked dinner last Sunday

I am cooking dinner today
My son cooks dinner every Sunday
And we can see that cook is a noun in [2] because it takes the plural -s inflection

The cooks are on holiday
If we really need to, we can also apply a replacement test, based on our first criterion,
7
replacing cook in each sentence with "similar" words:

Notice that we can replace verbs with verbs, and nouns with nouns, but we cannot replace
verbs with nouns or nouns with verbs:

*I chef dinner every Sunday
*The eat is on holiday

It should be clear from this discussion that there is no one-to-one relation between words and
their classes. Cook can be a verb or a noun -- it all depends on how the word is used. In fact,
many words can belong to more than one word class. Here are some more examples:

She looks very pale (verb)
She's very proud of her looks (noun)
He drives a fast car (adjective)
He drives very fast on the motorway (adverb)
Turn on the light (noun)
I'm trying to light the fire (verb)
I usually have a light lunch (adjective)
You will see here that each italicised word can belong to more than one word class. However,
they only belong to one word class at a time, depending on how they are used. So it is quite
wrong to say, for example, "cook is a verb". Instead, we have to say something like "cook is a
verb in the sentence I cook dinner every Sunday, but it is a noun in The cook is on holiday".

Of the three criteria for word classes that we have discussed here, the Internet Grammar will
emphasise the second and third - the form of words, and how they are positioned or how they
function in sentences.

1.2 Open and Closed Word Classes
Some word classes are OPEN, that is, new words can be added to the class as the need arises.
The class of nouns, for instance, is potentially infinite, since it is continually being expanded
as new scientific discoveries are made, new products are developed, and new ideas are
explored. In the late twentieth century, for example, developments in computer technology
have given rise to many new nouns:
Internet, website, URL, CD-ROM, email, newsgroup, bitmap, modem, multimedia
8
New verbs have also been introduced:
download, upload, reboot, right-click, double-click
The adjective and adverb classes can also be expanded by the addition of new words, though
less prolifically.
On the other hand, we never invent new prepositions, determiners, or conjunctions. These
classes include words like of, the, and but. They are called CLOSED word classes because
they are made up of finite sets of words which are never expanded (though their members
may change their spelling, for example, over long periods of time). The subclass of pronouns,
within the open noun class, is also closed.
Words in an open class are known as open-class items. Words in a closed class are known as
closed-class items.
In the pages which follow, we will look in detail at each of the seven major word classes.
2 Nouns

Nouns are commonly thought of as "naming" words, and specifically as the names of "people,
places, or things". Nouns such as John, London, and computer certainly fit this description,
but the class of nouns is much broader than this. Nouns also denote abstract and intangible
concepts such as birth, happiness, evolution, technology, management, imagination, revenge,

politics, hope, cookery, sport, literacy....
Because of this enormous diversity of reference, it is not very useful to study nouns solely in
terms of their meaning. It is much more fruitful to consider them from the point of view of
their formal characteristics.
2.1 Characteristics of Nouns
Many nouns can be recognised by their endings. Typical noun endings include:

-er/-or
actor, painter, plumber, writer
-ism
criticism, egotism, magnetism, vandalism
-ist
artist, capitalist, journalist, scientist
-ment
arrangement, development, establishment, government
-tion
foundation, organisation, recognition, supposition
9

Most nouns have distinctive SINGULAR and PLURAL forms. The plural of regular nouns is
formed by adding -s to the singular:

Singular Plural
car cars
dog dogs
house houses

However, there are many irregular nouns which do not form the plural in this way:

Singular Plural

man men
child children
sheep sheep

The distinction between singular and plural is known as NUMBER CONTRAST.
We can recognise many nouns because they often have the, a, or an in front of them:

the car
an artist
a surprise
the egg
a review
These words are called determiners, which is the next word class we will look at.
Nouns may take an -'s ("apostrophe s") or GENITIVE MARKER to indicate possession:

the boy's pen
a spider's web
my girlfriend's brother
10
John's house
If the noun already has an -s ending to mark the plural, then the genitive marker appears only
as an apostrophe after the plural form:

the boys' pens
the spiders' webs
the Browns' house
The genitive marker should not be confused with the 's form of contracted verbs, as in John's
a good boy (= John is a good boy).
Nouns often co-occur without a genitive marker between them:

rally car
table top
cheese grater
University entrance examination
We will look at these in more detail later, when we discuss noun phrases.

2.2 Common and Proper Nouns
Nouns which name specific people or places are known as PROPER NOUNS.

John
Mary
London
France
Many names consist of more than one word:

John Wesley
Queen Mary
South Africa
Atlantic Ocean
Buckingham Palace
Proper nouns may also refer to times or to dates in the calendar:

January, February, Monday, Tuesday, Christmas, Thanksgiving
All other nouns are COMMON NOUNS.
11
Since proper nouns usually refer to something or someone unique, they do not normally take
plurals. However, they may do so, especially when number is being specifically referred to:

there are three Davids in my class
we met two Christmases ago

For the same reason, names of people and places are not normally preceded by determiners
the or a/an, though they can be in certain circumstances:

it's nothing like the America I remember
my brother is an Einstein at maths

2.3 Count and Non-count Nouns
Common nouns are either count or non-count. COUNT nouns can be "counted", as follows:

one pen, two pens, three pens, four pens...
NON-COUNT nouns, on the other hand, cannot be counted in this way:

one software, *two softwares, *three softwares, *four softwares...
From the point of view of grammar, this means that count nouns have singular as well as
plural forms, whereas non-count nouns have only a singular form.
It also means that non-count nouns do not take a/an before them:

Count Non-count
a pen *a software

In general, non-count nouns are considered to refer to indivisible wholes. For this reason,
they are sometimes called MASS nouns.
Some common nouns may be either count or non-count, depending on the kind of reference
they have. For example, in I made a cake, cake is a count noun, and the a before it indicates
singular number. However, in I like cake, the reference is less specific. It refers to "cake in
general", and so cake is non-count in this sentence.
2.4 Pronouns
Pronouns are a major subclass of nouns. We call them a subclass of nouns because they can
sometimes replace a noun in a sentence:
12

Noun Pronoun
John got a new job ~He got a new job
Children should watch less television ~They should watch less television

In these examples the pronouns have the same reference as the nouns which they replace. In
each case, they refer to people, and so we call them PERSONAL PRONOUNS. However, we
also include in this group the pronoun it, although this pronoun does not usually refer to a
person. There are three personal pronouns, and each has a singular and a plural form:

Person Singular Plural
1st
I we
2nd
you you
3rd
he/she/it they

These pronouns also have another set of forms, which we show here:

Person Singular Plural
1st
me us
2nd
you you
3rd
him/her/it them

The first set of forms (I, you, he...) exemplifies the SUBJECTIVE CASE, and the second set
(me, you, him...) exemplifies the OBJECTIVE CASE. The distinction between the two cases

relates to how they can be used in sentences. For instance, in our first example above, we say
that he can replace John

John got a new job ~He got a new job

13
But he cannot replace John in I gave John a new job. Here, we have to use the objective form
him: I gave him a new job.
2.5 Other Types of Pronoun
As well as personal pronouns, there are many other types, which we summarise here.

Pronoun Type Members of the Subclass Example
Possessive
mine, yours, his, hers, ours,
theirs
The white car is mine
Reflexive
myself, yourself, himself,
herself, itself, oneself,
ourselves, yourselves,
themselves
He injured himself playing
football
Reciprocal
each other, one another They really hate each other
Relative
that, which, who, whose,
whom, where, when
The book that you gave me
was really boring

Demonstrative
this, that, these, those This is a new car
Interrogative
who, what, why, where,
when, whatever
What did he say to you?
Indefinite
anything, anybody, anyone,
something, somebody,
someone, nothing, nobody,
none, no one
There's something in my
shoe

Case and number distinctions do not apply to all pronoun types. In fact, they apply only to
personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, and reflexive pronouns. It is only in these types, too,
that gender differences are shown (personal he/she, possessive his/hers, reflexive
himself/herself). All other types are unvarying in their form.
Many of the pronouns listed above also belong to another word class - the class of
determiners. They are pronouns when they occur independently, that is, without a noun
following them, as in This is a new car. But when a noun follows them - This car is new -
they are determiners. We will look at determiners in the next section.
A major difference between pronouns and nouns generally is that pronouns do not take the or
a/an before them. Further, pronouns do not take adjectives before them, except in very
14
restricted constructions involving some indefinite pronouns (a little something, a certain
someone).
While the class of nouns as a whole is an open class, the subclass of pronouns is closed.
2.6 Numerals
Numerals include all numbers, whether as words or as digits. They may be divided into two

major types. CARDINAL numerals include words like:

nought, zero, one, two, 3, fifty-six, 100, a thousand
ORDINAL numerals include

first, 2nd, third, fourth, 500th
We classify numerals as a subclass of nouns because in certain circumstances they can take
plurals:

five twos are ten
he's in his eighties
They may also take the:

the fourth of July
a product of the 1960s
And some plural numerals can take an adjective before them, just like other nouns:

the house was built in the late 1960s
he's in his early twenties
the temperature is in the high nineties
In each of our examples, the numerals occur independently, that is, without a noun following
them. In these positions, we can classify them as a type of noun because they behave in much
the same way as nouns do. Notice, for example, that we can replace the numerals in our
examples with common nouns:

he is in his eighties ~he is in his bedroom
the fourth of July ~the beginning of July
a product of the 1960s ~a product of the revolution

Numerals do not always occur independently. They often occur before a noun, as in

15
one day
three pages
the fourth day of July
In this position, we classify them as determiners, which we will examine in the next section.
Finally, see if you can answer this question:
Is the subclass of numerals open or closed?
2.7 The Gender of Nouns
The gender of nouns plays an important role in the grammar of some languages. In French,
for instance, a masculine noun can only take the masculine form of an adjective. If the noun is
feminine, then it will take a different form of the same adjective - its feminine form.
In English, however, nouns are not in themselves masculine or feminine. They do not have
grammatical gender, though they may refer to male or female people or animals:

the waiter is very prompt ~the waitress is very prompt
the lion roars at night ~the lioness roars at night

These distinctions in spelling reflect differences in sex, but they have no grammatical
implications. For instance, we use the same form of an adjective whether we are referring to a
waiter or to a waitress:

an efficient waiter ~an efficient waitress

Similarly, the natural distinctions reflected in such pairs as brother/sister, nephew/niece, and
king/queen have no consequence for grammar. While they refer to specific sexes, these words
are not masculine or feminine in themselves.
However, gender is significant in the choice of a personal pronoun to replace a noun:

John is late ~He is late

Mary is late ~She is late

16
Here the choice of pronoun is determined by the sex of the person being referred to. However,
this distinction is lost in the plural:

John and Mary are late ~They are late
John and David are late ~They are late
Mary and Jane are late ~They are late

Gender differences are also manifested in possessive pronouns (his/hers) and in reflexive
pronouns (himself/herself).
When the notion of sex does not apply -- when we refer to inanimate objects, for instance --
we use the pronoun it:

the letter arrived late ~it arrived late

3 Determiners

Nouns are often preceded by the words the, a, or an. These words are called DETERMINERS.
They indicate the kind of reference which the noun has. The determiner the is known as the
DEFINITE ARTICLE. It is used before both singular and plural nouns:


Singular Plural
the taxi the taxis
the paper the papers
the apple the apples

The determiner a (or an, when the following noun begins with a vowel) is the INDEFINITE

ARTICLE. It is used when the noun is singular:

a taxi
a paper
an apple
The articles the and a/an are the most common determiners, but there are many others:
17

any taxi
that question
those apples
this paper
some apple
whatever taxi
whichever taxi
Many determiners express quantity:

all examples
both parents
many people
each person
every night
several computers
few excuses
enough water
no escape
Perhaps the most common way to express quantity is to use a numeral. We look at numerals
as determiners in the next section.
3.1 Numerals and Determiners
Numerals are determiners when they appear before a noun. In this position, cardinal numerals

express quantity:

one book
two books
twenty books
In the same position, ordinal numerals express sequence:

first impressions
second chance
third prize
The subclass of ordinals includes a set of words which are not directly related to numbers (as
first is related to one, second is related to two, etc). These are called general ordinals, and they
include last, latter, next, previous, and subsequent. These words also function as determiners:

next week
last orders
previous engagement
subsequent developments
18
When they do not come before a noun, as we've already seen, numerals are a subclass of
nouns. And like nouns, they can take determiners:

the two of us
the first of many
They can even have numerals as determiners before them:

five twos are ten
In this example, twos is a plural noun and it has the determiner five before it.
3.2 Pronouns and Determiners
There is considerable overlap between the determiner class and the subclass of pronouns.

Many words can be both:


Pronoun Determiner
This is a very boring book This book is very boring
That's an excellent film That film is excellent

As this table shows, determiners always come before a noun, but pronouns are more
independent than this. They function in much the same way as nouns, and they can be
replaced by nouns in the sentences above:


This is a very boring book ~Ivanhoe is a very boring book
That's an excellent film ~Witness is an excellent film

On the other hand, when these words are determiners, they cannot be replaced by nouns:


This book is very boring ~*Ivanhoe book is very boring
That film is excellent ~*Witness film is excellent

19
The personal pronouns (I, you, he, etc) cannot be determiners. This is also true of the
possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his/hers, ours, and theirs). However, these pronouns do
have corresponding forms which are determiners:


Possessive Pronoun Determiner
The white car is mine My car is white
Yours is the blue coat Your coat is blue

The car in the garage is his/hers His/her car is in the garage
David's house is big, but ours is bigger Our house is bigger than David's
Theirs is the house on the left Their house is on the left

The definite and the indefinite articles can never be pronouns. They are always determiners.
3.3 The Ordering of Determiners
Determiners occur before nouns, and they indicate the kind of reference which the nouns have.
Depending on their relative position before a noun, we distinguish three classes of
determiners.



Predeterminer Central Determiner Postdeterminer Noun
I met all my many friends

A sentence like this is somewhat unusual, because it is rare for all three determiner slots to be
filled in the same sentence. Generally, only one or two slots are filled.
3.4 Predeterminers
Predeterminers specify quantity in the noun which follows them, and they are of three major
types:
1. "Multiplying" expressions, including expressions ending in times:

twice my salary
20
double my salary
ten times my salary
2. Fractions

half my salary
one-third my salary

3. The words all and both:

all my salary
both my salaries
Predeterminers do not normally co-occur:

*all half my salary

3.5 Central Determiners
The definite article the and the indefinite article a/an are the most common central
determiners:

all the book
half a chapter
As many of our previous examples show, the word my can also occupy the central determiner
slot. This is equally true of the other possessives:

all your money
all his/her money
all our money
all their money
The demonstratives, too, are central determiners:

all these problems
twice that size
four times this amount

3.6 Postdeterminers
Cardinal and ordinal numerals occupy the postdeterminer slot:

the two children
his fourth birthday
This applies also to general ordinals:
21

my next project
our last meeting
your previous remark
her subsequent letter
Other quantifying expressions are also postdeterminers:

my many friends
our several achievements
the few friends that I have
Unlike predeterminers, postdeterminers can co-occur:

my next two projects
several other people

4 Verbs

Verbs have traditionally been defined as "action" words or "doing" words. The verb in the
following sentence is rides:
Paul rides a bicycle
Here, the verb rides certainly denotes an action which Paul performs - the action of riding a
bicycle. However, there are many verbs which do not denote an action at all. For example, in
Paul seems unhappy, we cannot say that the verb seems denotes an action. We would hardly
say that Paul is performing any action when he seems unhappy. So the notion of verbs as
"action" words is somewhat limited.
We can achieve a more robust definition of verbs by looking first at their formal features.

4.1 The Base Form
Here are some examples of verbs in sentences:
[1] She travels to work by train
[2] David sings in the choir
[3] We walked five miles to a garage
[4] I cooked a meal for the family
Notice that in [1] and [2], the verbs have an -s ending, while in [3] and [4], they have an -ed
ending. These endings are known as INFLECTIONS, and they are added to the BASE FORM
of the verb. In [1], for instance, the -s inflection is added to the base form travel.
Certain endings are characteristic of the base forms of verbs:


22
Ending Base Form
-ate concentrate, demonstrate, illustrate
-ify clarify, dignify, magnify
-ise/-ize baptize, conceptualize, realise

4.2 Past and Present Forms
When we refer to a verb in general terms, we usually cite its base form, as in "the verb travel",
"the verb sing". We then add inflections to the base form as required.



Base Form + Inflection

[1] She
travel
+
s

to work by train
[2] David
sing
+
s
in the choir
[3] We
walk
+
ed
five miles to a garage
[4] I
cook
+
ed
a meal for the whole family

These inflections indicate TENSE. The -s inflection indicates the PRESENT TENSE, and the
-ed inflection indicates the PAST TENSE.
Verb endings also indicate PERSON. Recall that when we looked at nouns and pronouns, we
saw that there are three persons, each with a singular and a plural form. These are shown in
the table below.


Person Singular Plural
1st Person
I we
2nd person
you you
3rd Person

he/she/John/the dog they/the dogs

23
In sentence [1], She travels to work by train, we have a third person singular pronoun she, and
the present tense ending -s. However, if we replace she with a plural pronoun, then the verb
will change:
[1] She travels to work by train
[1a] They travel to work by train
The verb travel in [1a] is still in the present tense, but it has changed because the pronoun in
front of it has changed. This correspondence between the pronoun (or noun) and the verb is
called AGREEMENT or CONCORD. Agreement applies only to verbs in the present tense.
In the past tense, there is no distinction between verb forms: she travelled/they travelled.
4.3 The Infinitive Form
The INFINITIVE form of a verb is the form which follows to:


to ask
to believe
to cry
to go
to protect
to sing
to talk
to wish

This form is indistinguishable from the base form. Indeed, many people cite this form when
they identify a verb, as in "This is the verb to be", although to is not part of the verb.
Infinitives with to are referred to specifically as TO-INFINITIVES, in order to distinguish
them from BARE INFINITIVES, in which to is absent:

To-infinitive Bare infinitive
Help me to open the gate Help me open the gate

4.4 More Verb Forms: -ing and -ed
So far we have looked at three verb forms: the present form, the past form, and the
infinitive/base form. Verbs have two further forms which we will look at now.
[1] The old lady is writing a play
[2] The film was produced in Hollywood
The verb form writing in [1] is known as the -ing form, or the -ING PARTICIPLE form. In
24
[2], the verb form produced is called the -ed form, or -ED PARTICIPLE form.
Many so-called -ed participle forms do not end in -ed at all:
The film was written by John Brown
The film was bought by a British company
The film was made in Hollywood
All of these forms are called -ed participle forms, despite their various endings. The term "-ed
participle form" is simply a cover term for all of these forms.
The -ed participle form should not be confused with the -ed inflection which is used to
indicate the past tense of many verbs.
We have now looked at all five verb forms. By way of summary, let us bring them together
and see how they look for different verbs. For convenience, we will illustrate only the third
person singular forms (the forms which agree with he/she/it) of each verb. Notice that some
verbs have irregular past forms and -ed forms.


Base/Infinitive
Form
Present Tense
Form

Past Tense
Form
-ing Form -ed Form
cook he cooks he cooked
he is
cooking
he has
cooked
walk he walks he walked
he is
walking
he has
walked
take he takes he took he is taking he has taken
bring he brings he brought
he is
bringing
he has
brought
be he is he was he is being he has been
4.5 Finite and Nonfinite Verbs
Verbs which have the past or the present form are called FINITE verbs. Verbs in any other
form (infinitive, -ing, or -ed) are called NONFINITE verbs. This means that verbs with tense
are finite, and verbs without tense are nonfinite. The distinction between finite and nonfinite
verbs is a very important one in grammar, since it affects how verbs behave in sentences.
Here are some examples of each type:


25

Tense
Finite or
Nonfinite?
David plays the piano Present Finite
My sister spoke French on holiday Past Finite
It took courage to continue after
the accident
NONE -- the verb has the
infinitive form
Nonfinite
Leaving home can be very
traumatic
NONE -- the verb has the -
ing form
Nonfinite
Leave immediately when you are
asked to do so
NONE -- the verb has the -
ed form
Nonfinite
4.6 Auxiliary Verbs
In the examples of -ing and -ed forms which we looked at, you may have noticed that in each
case two verbs appeared:

[1] The old lady is writing a play
[2] The film was produced in Hollywood
Writing and produced each has another verb before it. These other verbs (is and was) are
known as AUXILIARY VERBS, while writing and produced are known as MAIN VERBS or
LEXICAL VERBS. In fact, all the verbs we have looked at on the previous pages have been
main verbs.

Auxiliary verbs are sometimes called HELPING VERBS. This is because they may be said to
"help" the main verb which comes after them. For example, in The old lady is writing a play,
the auxiliary is helps the main verb writing by specifying that the action it denotes is still in
progress.
4.7 Auxiliary Verb Types
In this section we will give a brief account of of each type of auxiliary verb in English. There
are five types in total:


Passive be
This is used to form passive constructions, eg.
The film was produced in Hollywood