A study of expressions denoting psychological time in english versus vietnamese in the lingt of cognitive linguistics

THE UNIVERSITY OF DANANG
UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE STUDIES

NGUYỄN VĂN VIỆT

A STUDY OF EXPRESSIONS DENOTING
PSYCHOLOGICAL TIME IN ENGLISH
VERSUS VIETNAMESE IN THE LIGHT
OF COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS

Major : ENGLISH LINGUISTICS
Code : 60.22.02.01

MASTER THESIS IN
SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES
(A SUMMARY)

Da Nang, 2017


This thesis has been completed at
University of Foreign Language Studies, The University of Da Nang

Supervisor: Trần Quang Hải, Ph.D.

Examiner 1: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Phạm Thị Hồng Nhung

Examiner 2: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hồ Thị Kiều Oanh

The thesis will be orally defended at the Examining Committee
Time: 09 September 2017

Venue: University of Foreign Language Studies
– The University of Da Nang

This thesis is available for the purpose of reference at:
- Library of University of Foreign Language Studies,
The University of Da Nang.


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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. RATIONALE
In the past few years, time has been of interest to linguists. It is
clear that different conceptions of time depend on various situations,
cultures and religions. As far as I am concerned, time has existed in
both physical form and human cognition. Based on human thoughts
and perceptions, time has been classified into the following
categories, including physical time, psychological time, biological
time, science time, time in philosopher’s perception, time in religious
perception. Time perception is characterized by the ability to
estimate duration or speed of time.
Among the categories of time, psychological time is the form of
sensing the pace of the flow of time experienced by human.
Conceptualization of the magnitude of time duration can vary from
individual to individual in different circumstances. Therefore, it
plays an important role in daily communication. In general,
expressions denoting psychological time seem to be combinations of
physical time with adjectives or adverbs in particular situations to
deal with subjective states of time experiencer.
From the practice of teaching English as a foreign language,

we have discovered that more learners tend to use expressions
denoting psychological time to express their emotions, and thoughts
in different communicative situations with their own purposes.


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Having a good grasp of such expressions seems to be a difficult task
for learners of English.
From the above-mentioned reasons, it is necessary for me to
carry out the thesis entitled “A Study of Expressions Denoting
Psychological Time in English versus Vietnamese in the Light of
Cognitive Linguistics” for the purpose of helping learners of English
language

understand

how to use expressions involved

in

psychological time more effectively to reach their communication
targets better.
1.2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
1.2.1. Aims
This study aims at analyzing and comparing expressions
denoting psychological time in English versus Vietnamese through
the cognitive linguistics. It is hoped that the results of this study can
help raise Vietnamese learners’ awareness of how to use expressions
denoting psychological time appropriately in English in order to
achieve their communicative purposes every day.

1.2.2. Objectives
In order to achieve these aims, this thesis focuses on the
main following objectives:
- To identify, describe, analyze and compare expressions denoting
psychological time quoted from artistic texts, literary works, poems,
and daily communicative situations.


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- To find out the similarities and differences between English and
Vietnamese in using psychological time.
- To suggest some ideas for teaching and learning how to use
psychological time more successfully.
1.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
a/ How can psychological time be expressed in English and
Vietnamese under the aspect of cognitive linguistics?
b/ What are the similarities and differences in using
psychological time expressions in English and Vietnamese?
1.4. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This study is restricted to dividing expressions denoting
psychological time into six main groups of psychological time: quick
passage of time, slow passage of time, “positive” feelings,
“negative” feelings, flashback and foreshadow.
The research does not focus on all expressions, but on more
frequently-used expressions like “all/in/through/during/only/for
/almost/actually/this/that/these /those+ adjs + Xtime” in English and
“cả/mấy/chuỗi/suốt/từng/hàng/cịn/mới đó mà đã/mới có + Xtime+
form

words”

or

“Xtime+

demonstrative

pronouns/adjs”

in

Vietnamese.
These expressions are explored in artistic texts, daily
conversations, literary works in English and Vietnamese.
1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study is hoped to be a practical piece of work to help
Vietnamese learners to have a comprehensive understanding of


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expressions denoting psychological time in English and Vietnamese
in different situations so as to get successful in cross-cultural
communication. More importantly, it can be used as a reliable source
of reference for those who are interested in psychological time under
the aspect of cognitive linguistics.
1.6. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
- Chapter 1: Introduction
- Chapter 2: Literature Review and Theoretical Background
- Chapter 3: Research Methods

- Chapter 4: Findings and Discussions
- Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW AND
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1. THE REVIEW OF PREVIOUS STUDIES
Until now, there have been a lot of published works on general
time

and

psychological

time

locally

and

internationally.

Internationally, the research “Cognitive Models of Psychological
Time” by Richard (1990) was to clarify and enrich what is known
about temporal aspects of cognitive processes. Concentrating on how
adult humans experience, remember, and construct time, its chapters
surveyed recent work on such topics as mental representations of
time, timing in movement sequences, time and timing in music, and
the processing of temporal information.

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In Vietnam, some researches were done locally at the University
of Danang. Initially, the thesis “Time Expressions and Time
Locations in English and Vietnamese.” by Hồ Quảng Hà (2001)
presented time expressions and time locations in English with
Vietnamese equivalents on the basis of contrastive analysis.
Secondly, the research “An Investigation into Adverbs and Adverbial
Phrases Expressing Time in English versus Vietnamese- A Cognitive
Semantic Perspective.” by Ngô Thị Mỹ Dung (2011) mentioned
some adverbs and adverbial phrases expressing time under the aspect
of cognitive linguistics as well as some clear distinctions between the
phrases denoting time in English and Vietnamese.
Thirdly, another thesis “An Investigation into Words and
Expressions Denoting Time in English versus Vietnamese- A
Cognitive Semantic Perspective.” by Nguyễn Thị Phương (2012)
dealt with time expressions in English versus Vietnamese on the
basis

of

cognitive

perspective.

Finally,

the

research

“An

Investigation into Conceptual Metaphors Denoting Time in Truyện
Kiều versus Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare.” by Nguyễn
Thị Ngọc Hiền (2016) was about a contrastive analysis of conceptual
metaphor denoting time in Truyện Kiều by Nguyễn Du and Romeo
and Juliet by Shakespeare on the background knowledge of cognitive
semantics.
As a matter of fact, the previous studies only mentioned the
concept of time, cognitive models of psychological time, time
expressions and time locations, conceptual metaphors in time. To the


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best of my knowledge, there has been no bilateral contrastive
analysis of expressions denoting psychological time in English and
Vietnamese in detail. Therefore, my study makes an attempt to
discover the related aspects still unsolved.
2.2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.2.1. Concept of Time and Classification of Time
According to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
(1948), “time is what is measured in minutes, hours, days, etc”. In
general, time is a measuring device for physical events running in
space. As far as I am concerned, there are different conceptions of
time in different cultures. Western culture sees time as being linear
from past to present and future, so we can see that time is usually
shown in arrows towards the right- future or ahead. These cultures
tend to change, move or evolve and be quite mobile. Meanwhile,
Eastern culture considers time as being cyclical. Through human
thoughts, time can be divided into the following categories: physical

time, psychological time, biological time, science time and so on. Of
all the types of time, physical time and psychological time are the
most typical categories of time in human daily life.
2.2.2. Differences between Physical Time and Psychological
Time
Richard (1983, p.216) asserted that “physical time or clock
time is cyclical, validly measured by using a clock, and is composed
of discrete duration”. In contrast, According to Simon (2008:29), the
term “psychological time” is viewed as time subjectively estimated


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without the aid of clocks and without direct guidance by such
external factors as the position of the sun. It includes both the direct
awareness of duration and judgement of time based on the number of
experiences that have intervened.
2.2.3. Cognitive Linguistics and Temporal Cognition
Geeracrts and Cuykens (2007:16) asserted:
Cognitive linguistics is a new school of modern language. It
conducts research language based on the experience of
feeling about the worldview as well as the ways in which
humans percept and conceptualize things and state of affair
of that worldview.
According to Gilles Fauconnier from Encyclopedia of
Cognitive Science, cognitive linguistics has emerged in the last
twenty-five years as a powerful approach to the study of language,
conceptual systems, human cognition, and general meaning
construction. It addressed within language the structuring of basic
conceptual categories, such as space and time, scenes and events,
motion and location, force and causation. Language does not

“represent” meanings, but it prompts for the construction of meaning
in particular contexts with particular cultural models and cognitive
resources. Therefore, cognitive linguistics goes beyond the visible
structure of language and investigates the considerably more
complex backstage operations of cognition that create grammar,
conceptualization, discourse, and thought itself.


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According to David Lee (2001, p.30), “different speakers of
the same language have variants on ways of interpretation and
encoding of a particular situation”. In cognitive linguistics, the
“frame” definition covers all intensional aspects of a thing,
including: concepts and cultures. The same thing is sometimes
expressed by different words with different meanings when being
put in different frames.
As we know, traditional grammar only focuses on forms,
structures and rules, while cognitive grammar focuses on language as
a tool of conceptualization to express human experience. In cognitive
grammar, its words and structures show psychological and social
experiences of the participants. The principles of cognition are the
most decisive factor of grammatical rules.
Vyvyan Evans (2005, p.8) concludes “A study of temporal
cognition is very important because it reveals the hidden depths of
the human mind and how dependent our perceived world is on the
nature and organization of the cognition which happened to evolve in
a human body”. According to Talmy (2000:4), “Research on
cognitive semantics is research on conceptual content and its
organization in language”. In cognitive semantics, language is the
mental manifestation and human language competence seems to be

an epistemic form, so there is an approach to internal language.
Language research is considered as a body of knowledge in thoughts
of individuals and communities together with cognitive psychology.


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As far as I am concerned, a word or an expression of the
same thing can be described in different ways in languages
depending on human views of the world. The point of view of
speakers seems to be movable. They can view the same thing from
different positions. As a result, cognitive linguistics will contribute
to semantic changes in speakers’ viewpoints.
2.2.4. Models of Cognitive Psychological Time
Richard (1990:1) asserted: psychological time consists of
three major aspects: succession, duration, temporal perspective.
According to Richard (1990, p.29), there are four kinds of
factors that influence psychological time. They are characteristics of
time experiencer, contents of a time period, activities during a time
and time-related behavior and judgements.

Figure 2.5. Factors Influence Psychological Time According to
Cognitive Models of Psychological Time.


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In short, psychological time refers to an organism’s timerelated experiences, behavior and judgements. The experience of
time, which is the perception, meaning, and use of time as duration,
past, now, future and so on, is inextricably associated with conscious
information processing, with the reflective mode of thinking.
Important characteristics of the time experiencer include such

variables as species, personality, interests, temporal perspective, and
previous experiences. The contents of a time priod include various
attributes of events, such as their number, complexity, modality,
duration, and so on. At the cognitive level, psychological time is
very complex.
2.2.5. Definitions
2.2.5.1. Expression
In English, according to Sebastian Lobner (2001, p.6),
“Expression is just a general term for words, phrases and sentences.
The term “expression meaning” covers, in particular, word meaning
and sentence meaning. The level of expression meaning constitutes
the central subject of linguistic semantics”, while In Vietnamese,
Diệp Quang Ban (1992, p.6) defines that “cụm từ là những kiến trúc
gồm hai từ trở lên kết hợp tự do vói nhau theo những quan hệ ngữ
pháp hiển hiện nhất định và không chứa kết từ ở đầu”. It means that
expressions are constructions with two words or more which are
freely combined with each other in accordance with certain
grammatical relations and without any connectives at the beginning.
2.2.5.2. Context


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According to Vyvyan Evans and Melanie Green (2006:
112), the context in which an utterance or usage event is situated is
central to the cognitive explanation. This is particularly true for word
meaning, which is protean in nature. This means that word meaning
is rather changeable.
2.2.5.3. Cognitive context
According to the Dictionary on Linguistic Definitions
by Nguyễn Thiện Giáp (2016), in cognitive linguistics, context is

considered as a mental phenomenon. Cognitive context consists of
explanations on time, places, events, communicators.
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODS
3.1. METHODOLOGY
The descriptive method and the contrastive analysis were
chosen to be the key methods for this thesis.
3.2. RESEARCH DESIGN
3.2.1. Sampling
The data for analysis are taken from American and
Vietnamese famous poetries, short stories, novels and literary works
in the 20th and 21st century to ensure the authenticity.
The samples under investigation were selected with 141
samples in English and 119 ones in Vietnamese from the abovementioned works. To identify phrases denoting psychological time,
we have to depend on particular contexts and subjective perceptions
of each participant.


12
3.2.2. Data Collection
There are the following steps to collect data from the
corpus.
-

Reading thoroughly the chosen American and Vietnamese

famous poetries, short stories, novels and literary works in the 20th
and 21st century written by Judith McNaught, Margaret Mitchell,
Enrich Segal, Nicholas Sparks, William Faulkner, Robert Frost
published by Random House Publisher, Macmillan Publisher, Pocket

Books Publisher, and by Hồ Xuân Hương, Xuân Diệu, Huy Cận, Chế
Lan Viên, Hàn Mạc Tử, Tố Hữu, Xuân Quỳnh, Đinh Hùng, Nguyễn
Du, Nhất Linh from Văn học Publishing House, Văn hóa Thơng tin
Publishing House, Thanh niên Publishing House, Đời nay Publishing
House,Trẻ Publishing House, Thời đại Publishing House, Thông tấn
Publishing House as well as some daily conversations in English and
Vietnamese.
-

Collecting 260 samples (141 in English and 119 in

Vietnamese) denoting psychological time, listing and grouping all of
them.
-

Analyzing them under the aspect of cognitive linguistics.

3.2.3. Data Analysis
The data collected were qualitatively and quantitatively
processed to investigate the similarities and differences of
expressions denoting psychological time in the two languages
mentioned. The following specific stages were involved:


13
- Firstly, the data were grouped into categories depending on their
syntactic and semantic features. Secondly, syntactically, the
classification of data was mainly based on the different conceptual
structures of expressions denoting psychological time.
semantically,

expressions

denoting psychological

Thirdly,

time

were

subcategorized based on cognitive semantic aspects in English
versus Vietnamese, such as quickness, slowness, positiveness,
negativeness, flashback and foreshadow.
- Through cognitive linguistics, analyzing the samples carefully
and then putting them into categories of psychological time.
- Comparing expressions of psychological time in English and its
Vietnamese equivalents on semantic and syntactic aspects.
- Drawing conclusions on semantics and cultural characteristics
of expressions denoting psychological time.
- Putting forward some implications for learning, and teaching
expressions denoting psychological time.
3.2.4. Research Procedures
The research was conducted with the procedures as follows:
- Collecting samples on different subgroups of expressions
denoting psychological time in English and Vietnamese.
- Calculating the frequency of occurrence to decide the focus
of the study.
- Analyzing the cognitive syntactic, and semantic features of
expressions denoting psychological time in both languages.

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- Making a comparison to find out the similarities and
differences of expressions denoting psychological time in two
languages in terms of cognitive linguistics.
- Making tables on frequency of occurrence of expressions
denoting psychological time in English and Vietnamese to see how
they work.
- Finding related problems based on the findings of the
study.
- Putting forwards some implications for teaching and
learning languages and giving some suggestions for further
researches.
3.3. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
Comparing and contrasting the uses and meanings of expressions
denoting psychological time in English and Vietnamese require
collecting 2 corpora of literary works to be studied and analyzed.
Since the whole research work relied on the corpora, it was essential
that these works be carefully read and that examples be carefully
selected so as to ensure a satisfying reliability of results.
In addition, in this study, materials consisting of cognitive
linguistic books are a totally authentic source of data, so the quality
of the data is quite reliable. The research design, research
methodology and research procedures were strictly followed.
With the above-mentioned factors, it can be said that
reliability and validity of the study are guaranteed.
CHAPTER 4

15
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1.

FEATURES

OF

EXPRESSIONS

DENOTING

PSYCHOLOGICAL TIME IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE
IN THE LIGHT OF COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS
4.1.1. Cognitive Syntactic and Semantic Features of
Expressions Denoting Psychological Time in English
As mentioned in the chapter 2, language is considered as a
tool of conceptualization. Words or expressions are formed by
human social and psychological experiences. In cognitive semantics,
lexical meanings are not fixed. Semantic structure is conceptual
structure. Conceptual structure is embodied. In English, expressions
denoting psychological time are demonstrated in the structures, such
as: “Xtime+ V (tenses)” or “Pre-determiner + Xtime”. The elements
“pre-determiners”, and “tenses” in main verbs as well as particular
contexts express psychological states of time experiencer. To sum
up, in English, expressions denoting psychological time include
various aspects of psychological states of an experiencer, including:
slowness,

quickness,

positiveness,

negativeness,

flashback,

foreshadow, which are normally expressed through tenses of main
verbs together with temporal nouns and pre-determiners denoting
subjective states, such as adverbs, prepositions, and adjectives in the
mental space. By investigating the materials as mentioned in the
chapter 3, we can summarize expressions denoting psychological
time in the following table.


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Table 4.2. A Summary of Cognitive Semantics of Expressions
Denoting Psychological Time in English.
Expressions
of
psychological

Classifications

Equivalent

Meanings

Meanings in

in English

Vietnamese

time
- foreshadow

how - trong khoảng

-in

long more

bao nhiêu thời
gian nữa thôi.

- flashback

- in the - trong cái thời
past+ Xtime

- quickness

- in quick - trong khoảng
khoắc/

+ Xtime

In+ Xtime

gian ấy/nọ/kia

vịng

trong
chỉ

mấy

ngày/giờ/phút/tuầ
n… thơi.
- slowness

-

during -

that

trong

time suốt/những

passing

ngày/tháng…ấy/

slowly

đó

- positiveness/

- in the -

negativeness

state

trong

of khoảng

the time/

những
khắc

hạnh phúc/ tràn


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ngập

moment

nước

mắt….như
thế/ấy/đó

-flashback

in - trong suốt mấy

-

consecutiv

ngày/tháng/năm

e periods ….. liền
of time in
the past
- slowness

-

in

a - trong khoảng

period of một
time

ngày/tháng….

passing

qua

slowly
For + Xtime

- quickness

-

in

a - đã năm

period of ngày/năm/
time

tháng/ thế

passing

kỉ…..rồi

quickly

- positiveness

- in a

- trong lúc hạnh

positive

phúc/hớn hở…ấy

period of
time


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- negativeness

-

in

a - hàng/ trong
suốt/nhiều

negative

period of tháng/tuần/năm..
trời

time
- slowness

- only in a short time

chỉ

mới

ba

ngày/tuần… thôi
hả.

after+ Xtime

- quickness

- a period - đã quá/ đã gần/
time đã

of

bốn

passing

ngày/năm…

quickly

hả.

in

rồi

a - trong ngàn ấy

-slowness+

-

negativeness

negative

năm/tháng…..

period of

-

time

ngày/tuần/tháng

suốt

cả

….trời
All/through/du

- flashback

- in “that” - suốt cái năm/
period of tháng/ngày…ấy/

ring + Xtime

đó

time
- positiveness

-

in

positive

a - cả một/ những
ngày

vui/hạnh

period of phúc.. ấy/đó
time
Xtime + Xtime
or Xtime + V

-

slowness+ -

negativeness

Xtime Ngày/tháng…..

passed

trôi qua/kéo dài


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slowly in lê

thê/

mấy

negative

ngày/tháng.. trôi

feelings

qua,

hết

ngày/tháng… đến
ngày/tháng.. khác
4.1.2.

Cognitive

Syntactic

and

Semantic

Features

of

Expressions Denoting Psychological Time in Vietnamese
In Vietnamese language, there are not any categories of
tenses to decide on particular contexts and subjective states like
English language. Grammatical features of Vietnamese language
include combinations. Grammatical features of words or expressions
mean word- word combinations to make meaningful sentences.
Psychological time in Vietnamese is made through the existence of
form words, such as: rồi, mới, liền, nữa, trời, thâu, trường, and so
on, together with temporal nouns. Vietnamese is a kind of isolated
language and there are not any changes about morphology. In
Vietnamese, there are lexical items only. They are presented as in the
figure 4.17.

(Form words) + Temporal Nouns + Form words= Psychological
Time Expressions
Figure 4.17. Formation of Psychological Time Expressions in
Vietnamese


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By investigating the samples extracted from the materials as

described in the chapter 3, the table 4.3 below indicates typical
expressions denoting psychological time in Vietnamese.
Table 4.3. A Summary of Cognitive Semantics of Expressions
Denoting Psychological Time in Vietnamese
Classifications

Markers Denoting Psychological Time in
Vietnamese
Mới đó mà đã/ mới đây mà đã/ mới có+

Quickness

Xtime + form word
Slowness

cả/mấy/chuỗi/từng/ hàng/suốt+ Xtime+
trường/trời/thâu/sâu;
full reduplication ( ngày ngày, đêm đêm,...) or
Xtime + adj (dài)+ form words

Positiveness

Xtime + adj positive

Negativeness

cả/mấy/chuỗi/từng/ hàng/suốt+ Xtime+
trường/trời/thâu/sâu;
Xtime + adjnegative+ form words or
full reduplication ( ngày ngày, đêm đêm,...)

Flashback

Temporal nouns + ấy/nọ/đó/kia/xưa/trước

Foreshadow

Xtime+ mai/nào/này/kia

4.2.

SIMILARITIES

AND

DIFFERENCES

BETWEEN

ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE EXPRESSIONS DENOTING
PSYCHOLOGICAL TIME IN THE LIGHT OF COGNITIVE
LINGUISTICS
4.2.1. Similarities


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Semantically,

English

and

Vietnamese

expressions

denoting psychological time have the following semantic features:
- First, expressions denoting psychological time express different
psychological states of time experiencer in particular contexts.
- Second, mostly, adjectives are frequently used together with
temporal phrases to express different classifications of psychological
time, especially positiveness and negativeness of experiencer.
4.2.2. Differences
In terms of cognitive syntactic features, in English, tenses
are used to put situations according to the time and representation of
situations is in mental space. Tenses are ways to locate time in
viewpoints of speakers (past, present and future). Main verbs in
various tenses are time-oriented and temporal nouns are combined
with

prepositions,

adjectives

or

adverbs,

like

“in/almost/for/during/through... + (adj)+ Xtime” to denote various
psychological states of time experiencer. Meanwhile, in Vietnamese,
as mentioned above, there are not any categories of tenses to orient
time. Expressions denoting psychological time are in combinations
of lexical items in a certain order: “(form words) +Xtime+ form
words or adjectives”. While in English, speakers use the combination
of grammatical devices and lexical items to express psychological
time, in Vietnamese, speakers tend to use the combination of lexical
devices together as the only means of expressing psychological time.


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4.3. RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF
EXPRESSIONS DENOTING PSYCHOLOGICAL TIME IN
THE LIGHT OF COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS
4.3.1. Frequency of Occurrence of Expressions Denoting
Psychological Time in English
Based on the analysis of the examples investigated from
the materials, I can summarize the relative frequency of expressions
denoting psychological time in English as in the table 4.4.
Table 4.4. Relative Frequency of Expressions Denoting
Psychological Time in English
Expressions

Occurrencies

%

In + Xtime

21

14,90%

For + Xtime

21

14,90%

Only + Xtime

9

6,40%

(Xtime) after+ Xtime

9

6,40%

All/through/during+ Xtime

21

14,90%

Adj/adv/demon + Xtime or Xtime + V

60

42,50%

4.3.2. Frequency of Occurrence of Expressions Denoting
Psychological Time in Vietnamese
By analysing the samples from the materials as mentioned
in the chapter 3, I can summarize the relative frequency of
expressions denoting psychological time in Vietnamese as in the
table 4.5.
Table 4.5. Relative Frequency of Expressions Denoting
Psychological Time in Vietnamese


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Expressions

Occurrencies

%

cả/mấy/chuỗi/từng/ hàng/suốt+ Xtime+

40

33,6%

Xtime + mai/nào/này/kia

4

3,36%

Xtime + ấy/nọ/đó/kia/xưa/trước

34

28,6%

Mới đó mà đã/ mới đây mà đã/ mới

6

5,03%

Xtime + adjectives + form words

31

26,05%

Xtime+ Xtime (full reduplication)

4

3,36%

trường/trời/thâu/sâu

có+Xtime + form word (rồi)

4.4. SUMMARY
English and Vietnamese expressions denoting psychological
time were introduced, discussed and analyzed to find out the
similarities and differences in terms of cognitive linguistics. A lot of
data from English and Vietnamese sources were quoted in support of
the comprehensive observation of using these expressions.
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
5.1. CONCLUSIONS
Psychological time is a special kind of time experienced by
each individual in particular situations depending on human
psychological states and certain social and cultures features.
Expressions denoting psychological time are formed by the
collocation

of

pre-determiners,

adjectives,

adverbs

denoting

subjective states in English and Vietnamese. In English, along with
the usage of tenses, most temporal nouns can be combined with other