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A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.
Wireless Sensors
and Instruments
Networks, Design,
and Applications
Halit Eren
Boca Raton London New York
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Published in 2006 by
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Eren, Halit, Ph. D.
Wireless sensors and instruments : networks, design, and applications / Halit Eren.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-3674-0 (alk. paper)
1. Wireless communication systems--Design and construction. 2. Electronic instruments--Design
and construction. 3. Sensor networks--Design and construction. I. Title.
TK5103.2.E74 2005
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Dedication

Dedicated to Semra, Ahmet, Suheyla, and Duygu

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© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Preface

The evolutionary tree representing the growth of instruments and instru-
mentation technology is marked by a major fork. One branch is representing
stand-alone instruments fulfilling the tasks of the requirements of dedicated
measurements. Another branch is represented by instruments that can be
networked to cooperatively work with many others to measure the variables
of complex systems. Neither of these branches is new. What is new is that
the networking of instruments can be done without the need for physical
hard-wired connections. Wireless connectivity and networkability opens up
many possibilities of research, development, and applications that we could
not even dream of in the near past. Instruments can now be networked by
new and novel techniques while they are on the move in their individual
environments performing their tasks.
Many of us are very familiar with a number of wireless devices ranging
from mobile and cordless telephones, pagers, garage door openers, remote
controllers, home entertainment equipment controllers, and so on. The pro-
liferation of wireless systems in consumer products and industrial applica-
tions is so fast that a progressive involvement in technology development
is vital for many governments and industrial establishments to maintain
competitiveness. This book will be helpful to highlight the expansion of
wireless systems in instrumentation and measurements.
Instrumentation requires a broad knowledge involving a diverse range of
disciplines, such as measurement science, design and construction of elec-
tronic circuits, understanding of IC technology, appreciation of theory and
practice of wireless communication systems, networks, protocols, and stan-
dards. This book is specifically written to provide sufficient knowledge to
enable the readers to understand the underlying principles in wireless instru-
mentation and networks. Particular emphasis is given to the wireless com-

munication systems since it is an important area of science and technology
that is expanding very rapidly thus impacting all aspects of our daily lives.
It is also one of the most promising areas of research and development.
Wireless communication technologies have become very popular and there
are hundreds of wireless equipment manufacturers and perhaps as many
standards. Understanding the benefits and shortfalls of each equipment and
associated standards can make the selection and implementation easier. In
this respect this book provides guidance to state-of-art of wireless technology
as it offers many benefits in measurement applications. Some of the benefits
can be lowering the wiring costs, simplifying data transfer, extending the
distance of communication, enabling remote monitoring, and providing flex-
ibility in the networking of the devices.

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The purpose of

Wireless Sensors and Instruments: Networks, Design, and
Applications

is to provide knowledge and guidance for engineers, scientists,
designers, researchers, and students who are involved in measurement and
instrumentation. This book covers concepts in instruments and instrumen-
tation, electromagnetic wave propagation, radio engineering, digital net-
works, wireless sensors and instruments design and applications. Each
chapter includes descriptive information for professionals, students, and
technical staff involved in measurement and control. Numerous equations
are given to assist engineers and scientists who wish to solve problems that
arise in a fields other than their specialties.

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Acknowledgments

Many people have directly and indirectly contributed to this book. I thank
the people, colleagues and those whose paths I have crossed during my
working life. My particular thanks are to Professor Kit Po Wong at Hong
Kong Polytechnic University for providing encouragement to go ahead with
this book while I was appointed visiting professor at his institution. Writing
books is a lonely affair requiring major commitments and a great deal of
patience and determination. The encouragement of Kit Po has been
extremely valuable when I needed it most. I would like to thank my col-
leagues at Gazi University, Department of Electrical and Computer Engi-
neering, Ankara, for providing an office and computer facilities in the initial
and final stages of writing.
I would like to thank all the companies that provided information on their
products and granted permission to reprint some of the images of their
equipment. In particular my appreciations are extended to Steven Arms of
Microstrain Inc.; Wayne Magnes of Oak Ridge National Laboratory; Graham
Moss of Elprotech; Randy Culpepper of Texas Instruments; Colleen Cronin
of Analog Devices, Inc.; Colin Pickard of Oregon Scientific; and Shana Jacob
of CrossBow Inc.
Special thanks are extended to the CRC Press staff who made this book
possible, especially to Nora Konopka for guiding the book through comple-
tion; also thanks to Helena Redshaw, Manager of Editorial Project develop-
ment; and Jay Margolis, Project Editor, for their patient and professional
involvements in putting it all together.

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Author

Halit Eren, Ph.D., received the B.Eng. degree in 1973, the M.Eng. degree in
electrical engineering in 1975 and the PhD degree in control engineering
from the University of Sheffield UK. He earned an MBA from Curtin Uni-
versity of Technology, Western Australia in 1998 majoring in international
management and leadership.
Dr. Eren has been lecturing at the Curtin University of Technology since
1983, first at the Kalgoorlie School of Mines and then School of Electrical
and Computer Engineering, Perth, Western Australia. He served as the head
of the Department of Electronic and Communication for some time.
Dr Eren's expertise lies in the area of instruments, instrumentation systems,
and networking; electronic portable instruments, signal processing; and
engineering mathematics. He has been researching in wireless and portable
instruments for more than 17 years, mainly in the areas of electromagnetic,
ultrasonic and infrared techniques, fieldbus, telemetry, and telecontrollers.
He serves as a consultant to many industrial and government organizations.
Dr. Eren has contributed to more than 150 conferences, journals and trans-
actions and various books published by the CRC Press and John Wiley &
Sons.
Dr Eren is the author of the book entitled

Electronic Portable Instruments:
Design and Applications

published by the CRC Press in 2004. This second
book on wireless sensors and instruments networks, design and applications

forms a synergy with the first book as the application of modern technology
is producing a large number of portable and wireless instruments.

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Introduction

Instruments are essential for measuring physical variables in industrial oper-
ations, consumer products, environmental monitoring, research and devel-
opment (R&D), transportation, military, space exploration, avionics, and so
on. A collection of instruments form an instrumentation system, which may
be responsible for numerous measurements in a complex process. Instru-
ments are networked to communicate directly with each other or via inter-
mediate devices such as computers, microprocessors, or controllers. Today,
traditional instrumentation systems communicate through wired media.
However, communication between instruments by wireless techniques is
developing rapidly and gaining broad acceptance. It is very likely that wire-
less instruments will replace their wired counterparts in the very near future.
In recent years, considerable progress has been made in instruments and
instrumentation systems due to the employment of integrated circuit tech-
nology, analog and digital components, efficient and low-power micropro-
cessors, intelligent sensors, radio frequency (RF) communication technology,
and protocols and standards supporting networks. In particular, cost-effec-
tive RF products have expanded suddenly to unimaginable dimensions.
Devices such as cellular and cordless telephones, private and public tele-
phone systems, wireless modems, radio frequency identification (RFID), and
wireless sensors and instruments have rapidly penetrated into all aspects of
our lives. Most of these devices were initially available as rare and expensive
luxury items, but are now used by consumers, industry, and scientific and

other communities. With this growth in demand, small and large semicon-
ductor and system vendors are competing for a larger market share by
introducing a diverse range of RF products.
Most people are familiar with a number of wireless control and commu-
nication systems used in everyday life. Mobile cellular telephones, cordless
telephones, hand-held walkie-talkies, pagers, garage door openers, remote
controllers, home entertainment equipment controllers are some of the exam-
ples that can be mentioned. The proliferation of wireless systems in con-
sumer products and industrial applications is so fast that a progressive
involvement in technological developments are vital for governments and
industrial establishments alike if they want to stay competitively in the
rapidly changing field of wireless communication systems and their appli-
cations.
Today’s wireless networks were largely developed for mobile telephones
and service mainly voice-based applications. Nevertheless, this is changing
rapidly, with great emphasis being placed on wireless data transmission and
wireless access to the Internet. For example, the aim of third-generation

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wireless systems, which provide access to the Internet, video, etc., is to make
personal communication available anywhere at any time. Similarly, the
application of wireless techniques to measurement and instrumentation is
enabling configuration of wireless instrumentation networks in many appli-
cations, ranging from intelligent buildings to implantable wireless sensors
used for human health improvement.
Wireless instrumentation requires a broad knowledge involving a diverse
range of disciplines, including measurement science, design and construc-
tion of electronic circuits, understanding of integrated circuit (IC) technology,

appreciation of the theory and practice of wireless communication systems,
networks, and protocols and standards. In this book, all these concepts will
be explained sufficiently to enable readers understand the underlying prin-
ciples in wireless instrumentation and networks. Particular emphasis will
be placed on wireless communication systems, since it is in this area that
science and technology are expanding. Wireless communication systems are
also a promising area of research, with thousands of researchers concentrat-
ing on the topic.
International standards are rapidly emerging in wireless technology as
applied to sensors and instruments. Some of important ones are Bluetooth,
HiperLAN, and the IEEE 802 standards for communication and networks,
and the IEEE 1451 family of standards for sensors. These standards are
gaining wide acceptance. Communication among devices involved can take
place as point-to-point or point-to-multipoint. This gives considerable flex-
ibility in network configuration and communication algorithms can be tai-
lored to improve system reliability and adaptability.
This book is a reflection of information on the latest technologies in the
field of wireless sensors, instruments, and networks. Engineers and scientists
who are not trained in electrical engineering will find the book very infor-
mative without overwhelming them with detailed information.
This book was written for students and practicing scientists and engineers
who are already familiar with technical concepts in electronics, probability
theory, communication theory, basic electromagnetic theory, networks, and
operational aspects of networks. However, the information given combines
materials from many different disciplines, therefore it is highly unlikely that
all readers will have the necessary basic knowledge for the topics covered.
Therefore necessary concepts throughout the book are developed from prin-
ciples to accommodate a wide range of readers from different backgrounds.
This approach makes it attractive for practicing engineers and scientists who
are involved in instruments and instrumentation in their disciplines. The

book is also recommended as a useful teaching tool for undergraduate and
postgraduate students who are likely to be involved with the design and
operation of modern instruments and networks.
This book contains five chapters. The first three chapters provide informa-
tion on measurements, instruments, sensors, communication systems, and
networks. Information provided in these three chapters is brought together
in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5.

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In Chapter 1, brief but essential background information on measurements,
instruments, instrumentation, sensor technology, communication systems,
and networks is given. Wireless communication of instruments has been
developing remarkably fast and is becoming common practice in industrial
and many other applications. Wireless communication technology is able to
address the needs of effective and efficient communication in all types of
instruments and instrumentation systems. Digital instruments and their
associated theory, methods, and components are highlighted. Since digital
sensor technology forms the backbone of all types of modern instruments,
extensive discussions are presented on this topic. Wireless instrument com-
munication and its applications in industrial environments have been stud-
ied. It has been shown that noise, interference, and distortion can play a
significant role in the operation of instruments and their associated networks.
Chapter 2 concentrates on modern communication systems. The chapter
starts with the principles of electromagnetic wave propagation and expands
to important characteristics of electromagnetic radiation, such as losses, fad-
ing, reflection, refraction, and attenuation. The necessary electronic compo-
nents for successful RF communication are discussed. Applications of digital
communication techniques are making wireless sensors, instruments, and

networks possible, thus the fundamentals of digital communication technol-
ogy are explained in detail. Modern communication methods, modulation,
and multiplexing techniques, frequency spreading, and multiple access
methods are also discussed and examples are given.
Chapter 3 discusses networks, protocols, standards, and topologies. Net-
works are collections of interoperational devices linked together by a com-
munication medium and supported by suitable software. Networking of
hardware and software resources is essential to bring multiple devices
together to provide efficiency by enabling the exchange of information, cre-
ating collaborative operations, and sharing the functions of equipment and
devices. In this chapter, the types of network topologies, protocols, and
standards relevant to wireless networks are explained. The security of wire-
less networks is highlighted and the methods are discussed. The knowledge
and experience gained in wired network technologies can be applied directly
to wireless operations. Newly emerging wireless technologies such as the
IEEE 802 family of standards and Bluetooth, among others, are discussed.
In Chapter 4, the construction of wireless sensors and instruments is intro-
duced and examples are given. Instrument communication protocols are
revisited and current technologies applied in wireless instruments and sen-
sors are explained. Modern wireless sensor and instrument networks can
produce using embedded or modular designs. These networks can be
expanded using bridges, routers, and repeaters. The construction of wireless
sensors and instruments is discussed and many examples are provided.
Power issues of wireless networks are also addressed. Wireless sensor net-
works and wireless integrated sensor networks are detailed. Applications of
Bluetooth and IEEE 802 technologies are demonstrated.

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Chapter 5 is dedicated to the applications of wireless sensors and instru-
ments—ranging from complex industrial plants to tracking wildlife in the
wilderness. New application areas are being added as vendors of wireless
sensors and instruments respond to consumer demands by offering a diverse
range of wireless devices. In this chapter, examples of wireless sensors,
instruments, and networks are provided in the following areas: specific
applications, commercial applications, R&D, industrial applications, human
health, environmental applications, RFID, consumer products, and other
applications.
This book reflects the current state of the art in wireless sensors and
instrument technology and provides guidance to students, researchers, prac-
ticing engineers, and scientists. I hope you enjoy it, as well as gain valuable
knowledge from it, so that you can put this knowledge in use in the area of
your interest.

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Table of Contents

1

Instruments and Instrumentation ................................................. 1

1.1 Measurements ................................................................................................2
1.2 Instrument Architecture and Instrumentation.......................................... 3
1.2.1 Signals and Signal Conditioning ....................................................3
1.2.2 Types of Instruments ........................................................................6
1.3 Digital Instrument Hardware and Software .............................................8
1.3.1 Components of Digital Instruments ............................................10

1.3.2 Microprocessors and Microcontrollers ........................................ 11
1.3.3 Input and Output............................................................................14
1.3.4 Signal Conversion ...........................................................................15
1.3.5 Digital Signal Processing ...............................................................20
1.4 Sensor Technology and Advanced Sensors.............................................21
1.4.1 Sensing Materials ............................................................................21
1.4.2 Process of Developing Sensors .....................................................24
1.4.3 Trends in Sensor Technology and IC Sensors ............................25
1.4.4 Sensor Arrays and Multisensor Systems.....................................28
1.4.5 Smart Sensors...................................................................................29
1.5 Instrument and Sensor Communication and Networks.......................32
1.5.1 Wireless Instrument Communication ..........................................33
1.5.2 Modulation and Coding of Instrument Signals.........................35
1.5.3 Example of Wireless Communication Systems..........................37
1.5.4 Examples of Wireless Sensors and Instruments ........................38
1.6 Industrial Instrumentation Systems .........................................................38
1.6.1 Industrial Communication Networks..........................................40
1.6.2 Basic Elements of Industrial Sensor Networking......................41
1.6.3 Industrial Network Protocols........................................................42
1.6.4 The Ethernet and Fieldbuses.........................................................43
1.6.5 Implementation of Fieldbuses.......................................................44
1.6.6 Design and Application Examples of Fieldbuses ......................46
1.6.7 Telemetry and SCADA Systems ...................................................48
1.7 Noise and Distortion...................................................................................51
1.7.1 Internal Noise in Electronic Systems ...........................................51
1.7.2 Interference.......................................................................................54
1.7.3 Noise and Distortion in Communication Systems....................55
1.7.4 Noise in Digital Systems................................................................56
1.8 Conclusion ....................................................................................................57

2

Wireless Communication ............................................................. 59

2.1 Wireless Communication Principles.........................................................60

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2.1.1 The Decibel.......................................................................................60
2.2 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation..........................................................61
2.2.1 Power Aspects of Free-Space Propagating and Link
Analysis.............................................................................................63
2.2.2 Antenna Characteristics .................................................................64
2.2.3 Near Field, Far Field, and Fading ................................................64
2.2.4 Electrical Field Vector Addition....................................................65
2.2.5 Free Space Path Loss ......................................................................66
2.2.6 Excess Path Loss and Atmospheric Attenuation .......................66
2.2.7 Reflection of Electromagnetic Waves...........................................66
2.2.8 Atmospheric Refraction .................................................................67
2.2.9 Diffraction of Electromagnetic Waves .........................................67
2.2.10 Indoor Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves.......................... 68
2.2.11 Frequency Allocation......................................................................68
2.3 RF Components............................................................................................69
2.3.1 Amplifiers.........................................................................................72
2.3.2 Attenuators.......................................................................................74
2.3.3 Filters.................................................................................................74
2.3.4 Oscillators .........................................................................................75
2.3.5 Frequency Multipliers ....................................................................75
2.3.6 Mixers................................................................................................76

2.3.7 Modulators and Detectors .............................................................77
2.3.8 Demodulators ..................................................................................80
2.3.9 Multiplexers .....................................................................................82
2.3.10 Antennas...........................................................................................84
2.3.11 Phase Detectors and Phase Shifters .............................................85
2.3.12 Power Dividers and Power Combiners.......................................86
2.3.13 RF Transformers ..............................................................................86
2.3.14 EMI and RFI Filters.........................................................................87
2.3.15 Other Components..........................................................................88
2.3.16 RF Transceivers................................................................................88
2.3.17 Wireless Modems ............................................................................89
2.4 Analog Modulation and Multiplexing.....................................................90
2.4.1 Amplitude Modulation ..................................................................91
2.4.2 Frequency Modulation ...................................................................93
2.4.3 Phase Modulation ...........................................................................95
2.4.4 Frequency and Time Division Multiplexing...............................95
2.5 Digital Modulation and Multiplexing......................................................96
2.5.1 Amplitude Shift Keying.................................................................97
2.5.2 Frequency Shift Keying..................................................................97
2.5.3 Phase Shift Modulation..................................................................98
2.5.4 Binary Phase Shift Keying .............................................................98
2.5.5 Differential Phase Shift Keying.....................................................99
2.5.6 Quaternary Phase Shift Keying ..................................................100
2.5.7 Offset QPSK ...................................................................................102
2.5.8 Differential QPSK..........................................................................103

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2.5.9 Octonary Phase Shift Keying ......................................................104

2.5.10 Digital Multiplexing .....................................................................104
2.6 Frequency Spreading and Multiple Access Techniques......................104
2.6.1 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum .............................................106
2.6.2 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum........................................ 110
2.6.3 Multiple Access Techniques ........................................................ 112
2.6.4 Frequency Division Multiple Access ......................................... 114
2.6.5 Time Division Multiple Access ................................................... 114
2.6.6 Spread Spectrum Multiple Access.............................................. 117
2.6.7 Code Division Multiple Access................................................... 117
2.6.8 Frequency Hopped Multiple Access.......................................... 118
2.6.9 Hybrid Spread Spectrum Techniques ........................................ 119
2.6.10 Space Division Multiple Access..................................................120
2.6.11 Carrier Sense Multiple Access ....................................................121
2.6.12 Packet Radio...................................................................................122
2.7 Conclusion ..................................................................................................123

3

Data Transfer, Networks, Protocols, and Standards ............... 125

3.1 Data Transfer ..............................................................................................126
3.1.1 Serial and Parallel Data Transmission.......................................127
3.1.2 Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission .......................127
3.1.3 Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full-Duplex Data
Transmission ..................................................................................130
3.1.4 Wireless Data Transmission.........................................................131
3.1.5 Radio Frequency Data Transmission .........................................131
3.1.6 Infrared Data Transmission .........................................................132
3.1.7 Microwave Data Transmission....................................................133
3.2 Security in Data Flow ...............................................................................133

3.2.1 Channel Coding.............................................................................134
3.2.2 Encryption ......................................................................................136
3.3 Network Essentials and Topologies .......................................................138
3.3.1 Network Software .........................................................................139
3.3.2 Network Topologies......................................................................140
3.3.3 Internetworking.............................................................................143
3.3.4 Internet and Intranet.....................................................................145
3.4 Protocols......................................................................................................146
3.4.1 The OSI model...............................................................................147
3.4.2 Structure of the OSI Model .........................................................148
3.4.3 IEEE 802 Network Model ............................................................152
3.5 Standards.....................................................................................................153
3.5.1 IEEE 802 Standards.......................................................................155
3.5.2 Wireless Ethernet Concepts.........................................................156
3.5.3 IEEE 802.16 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks................157
3.5.4 Code Division Multiple Access-Based Standards....................158
3.5.5 Time Division Multiple Access-Based Standards ....................158

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3.5.6 GSM and GPRS Standards ..........................................................159
3.5.7 Other Wireless Network Standards ...........................................160
3.5.8 IEEE 1451 Standards for Smart Sensor Interface.....................160
3.6 Wireless Networks, PANs, LANs, and WLANs...................................163
3.6.1 Recent Developments in Frequency Allocation.......................165
3.6.2 Types of Wireless Networks........................................................166
3.6.3 Wireless Network Topologies......................................................167
3.6.4 Wireless Extended LAN Technologies.......................................167
3.6.5 IEEE 802.11 WLAN Standards....................................................167

3.6.6 The HiperLAN Standard .............................................................169
3.6.7 Bluetooth.........................................................................................170
3.6.8 Industrial Sensor Buses and Networks .....................................172
3.7 Network, Data, and Information Management....................................176
3.7.1 Network Management .................................................................176
3.8 Conclusion ..................................................................................................177

4

Wireless Instrument and Sensor Networks ............................. 179

4.1 Wireless Sensor Architecture and Network Design.............................180
4.1.1 Wireless Sensors and Transducers..............................................181
4.1.2 Architecture of Wireless Sensor Networks ...............................188
4.1.3 Effect of IEEE 1451 Standards on Sensor Networks ...............190
4.2 Wireless Instrument Architecture and Network Design.....................191
4.2.1 Essential Components of Wireless Instruments.......................194
4.2.2 Wireless Bridges, Routers, Gateways, and Repeaters.............196
4.2.3 Wireless Data Loggers..................................................................198
4.2.4 Power Considerations of Wireless Instruments.......................199
4.2.5 Other Wireless Instrument Issues............................................... 202
4.3 Wireless Sensor and Instrument Network Design...............................206
4.3.1 Mobile Wireless Instrument and Sensor Networks................. 208
4.3.2 Energy Issues in Wireless Sensor Networks............................. 211
4.3.3 Bluetooth Sensor Networks.........................................................212
4.3.4 Applications of Bluetooth Networks .........................................215
4.3.5 IEEE 802 Sensor and Instrument Networks .............................217
4.4 Wireless Integrated Network Sensors....................................................219
4.4.1 Power Requirements in WINS....................................................222
4.4.2 Application of WINS ....................................................................224

4.5 Plug-and-Play Sensors and Networks ...................................................225
4.5.1 Bluetooth and Plug-and-Play Sensor Networks ......................227
4.6 Industrial Wireless Networks and Automation ...................................228
4.6.1 Wireless Fieldbuses.......................................................................229
4.6.2 Wireless Industrial Mesh Networks...........................................230
4.7 Conclusion ..................................................................................................233

5

Wireless Sensor and Instrument Applications........................ 235

5.1 Application-Specific Wireless Sensors and Instruments .....................235

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5.1.1 Application-Specific Wireless Sensors and Networks ............237
5.1.2 Application-Specific Embedded Wireless Instruments and
Networks ........................................................................................238
5.1.3 Application-Specific Modular and Add-On Wireless
Instruments and Networks..........................................................241
5.2 Commercial Wireless Sensors and Instruments ...................................245
5.3 Wireless Instruments and Sensor Networks in Research and
Development ..............................................................................................248
5.3.1 Hardware and Software Issues at the Operational and
Physical Level ................................................................................248
5.3.2 Efficiency at the Physical and Network Level .........................251
5.3.3 Issues on Communication Protocols and Network
Management...................................................................................253
5.4 Industrial Wireless Sensor and Instrument Networks ........................255

5.4.1 Integration of Wireless Systems to Fieldbuses.........................258
5.4.2 Wireless Built-in Tests and Condition–Based Maintenance...264
5.5 Wireless Human Health Monitoring and Environmental
Applications................................................................................................266
5.5.1 Wireless Human Health Systems ...............................................267
5.5.2 Wireless Environmental and Habitat Monitoring Systems....270
5.5.3 Environmental Observation and Forecasting Systems ...........272
5.6 Radio Frequency Identification ...............................................................274
5.7 Consumer Products and Other Applications........................................278
5.7.1 Wireless Consumer Products ......................................................278
5.7.2 Other Wireless Applications........................................................280
5.8 Conclusion ..................................................................................................283

Bibliography

........................................................................................ 285


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