Motivation and outcome of nondegree executive education for mid level managers a case study in vietnam

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY

NGUYEN MINH PHUONG

MOTIVATION AND OUTCOME OF NONDEGREE EXECUTIVE EDUCATION FOR
MID-LEVEL MANAGERS: A CASE STUDY IN
VIETNAM

MASTER'S THESIS


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY

NGUYEN MINH PHUONG

MOTIVATION AND OUTCOME OF NONDEGREE EXECUTIVE EDUCATION FOR
MID-LEVEL MANAGERS: A CASE STUDY IN
VIETNAM
MAJOR: GLOBAL LEADERSHIP
CODE: 8310210.01QTD

RESEARCH SUPERVISORS:
Prof. Dr. KAZUO KURODA
Prof. Dr. PHAM QUANG MINH

Hanoi, 2021


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study could not have been accomplished without the cooperation and assistance
of numerous people. I would like to take this opportunity to show my gratitude to those
who helped me in many ways throughout the course of my studies.
First and foremost, I appreciate my research supervisors, Prof. Dr. Pham Quang
Minh and Prof. Dr. Kuroda Kazuo, for their input and active participation at every stage of
my research. I would like to thank you for your guidance, understanding, and inspiration in
assisting me in overcoming the obstacles. I am eternally grateful to Dr. Ryu Jung Hyun and
Assoc Prof. Dr. Nguyen Tuan Anh for their unwavering patience, insightful comments, and
inspiration.
I would like to dedicate my research to the MGL board of directors, as well as MGL
academics, particularly Prof. Pham Hong Tung and Prof. Katsuma Yasushi, for providing
me with incredibly helpful feedback throughout my time at VJU. I am grateful to Ms.
Nguyen Thi Thu Trang, our MGL program Assistant, for her continuous support and high
responsibility for helping me complete my dissertation. Thanks to all my classmates who
inspire and remind me to take care of myself on a daily basis. I cannot express my gratitude
enough to JICA and VJU administration for assisting and graciously supporting us in
gaining a competitive and professional academic environment and help.
I'm also grateful to Mr. Sukegawa Koichi, my respectful leader at DT Development
Vietnam LLC, for pushing and facilitating me to join VJU; Mr. Negishi Yasuhiko and coworkers for being patient with me during my hectic schedule of working and studying at
the same time.
Above all, none of my efforts would have been possible without my beloved family's
and friends’ support, empathy during my busiest two-year-time. They are the most
significant accelerators for my fulfillment.


ABSTRACT
The interconnected and globalized globe has accelerated a fast-paced, demanding
society in which business leaders must retain their competitive edge and avoid being left
behind in a dynamic economy. Market pressure and competition push many businesses to
develop their future leaders, as well as people to study and strive for greater success in their

careers. In Vietnamese corporations, the emphasis is on Mid-level manager to create future
leaders rather than continuing to grow current executives. The number of professionals who
want to continue working while taking Executive Education (EE) and Non-degree
Executive Education (NDEE) courses has soared, and it has become a trend in Vietnam
since 2000s. As a result, the goal of this study is to look at the development of NDEE and
assess it through perception of Vietnamese mid-level managers, focusing on their learning
motivation and outcomes. It also seeks to offer a unique socioeconomic background for
Vietnam that differs from that of other nations' previously examined studies. Furthermore,
it analyzes whether participants’ expectations are met in the NDEE. Finally, it will establish
a conceptual framework for evaluating NDEE for mid-level managers in Vietnam. Based
on these findings, the study provides suggestions for NDEE policies and practices in
Vietnam.
This paper will engage with mix method by conducting a survey and interviews. An
online survey questionnaire was used to collect samples for a quantitative study.
Participants in this study included Vietnamese mid-level managers who are currently
involved in Non-degree Executive Education. The results of quantitative and qualitative
analysis in this study revealed that NDEE helps to enhance knowledge and intensive skills
for qualified mid-level managers, hence contributing to productive employment, decent
work and sustainable economic growth in Vietnam. Social and cultural motivations have a
significant influence on mid-level managers' decision to enroll in NDEE courses, whereas
economic factors influence the decision to pursue further learning pursuits.
Key words: Executive Education, Non-degree Executive Education, Sustainable
Development Goals (SDG8, SDG4), Mid-level managers.


TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................................i
LIST OF FIGURES ..............................................................................................................ii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................ iii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ............................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Research motivation ............................................................................................... 3
1.2.1 Practical necessity ..................................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Theoretical necessity ................................................................................ 4
1.3 Operationalization .................................................................................................. 5
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................................. 7
2.1 The development of EE in the world ..................................................................... 7
2.2 The development of EE in Asia since the 2000s .................................................... 9
2.3 Vietnam context and the development of EE and NDEE in the 2000s ................ 10
2.4 The advantages and disadvantages of EE and NDEE .......................................... 15
2.5 The mid-level managers and NDEE..................................................................... 17
2.6 Motivations and outcome of EE for mid-level managers .................................... 20
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN ................................................................................ 22
3.1 Conceptual framework ......................................................................................... 22
3.2 Research questions ............................................................................................... 22
3.3 Research objectives .............................................................................................. 23
3.4 Significance .......................................................................................................... 23
3.5 Expected outcome of the research ........................................................................ 24
3.6 Analytical framework ........................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................... 27
CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................ 30
5.1 Data presentation .................................................................................................. 30
5.1.1 Data overview ......................................................................................... 30
5.1.2 Demographic data................................................................................... 34
5.2 Descriptive Analysis............................................................................................. 37
5.2.1 Motivation .............................................................................................. 37
5.2.2 Expected and actual outcome ................................................................. 38
5.3 Interview interpretation ........................................................................................ 41
5.3.1 Motivation .............................................................................................. 41
5.3.2 Outcome ................................................................................................. 45

CHAPTER 6: IMPLICATION ........................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION ........................................................................................... 50
CHAPTER 8: LIMITATIONS ........................................................................................... 51


REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 52
Appendix 1. Questionnaire in English ....................................................................... 55
Appendix 2. Questionnaire in Vietnamese ................................................................. 61
Appendix 3. Interview guide in English..................................................................... 67
Appendix 4. Interview guide in Vietnamese .............................................................. 69


LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1. Authors’ illustration, adapted from UN Sustainable Development Goals, Part of
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development ................................................................. 25
Table 3.2. Analytical framework created by the author for evaluation of outcomes ........ 25
Table 5.1. Compare the effect of Cultural/Social Motivation and Economic Motivation 38

i


LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1. Employment by Sector in ASEAN, 2000-2015 .............................................. 11
Figure 2.2. Mid-level managers’ involvement in organizational strategy, implementation
and outcome of process ...................................................................................................... 19
Figure 2.3. Mid-level manager and their motivation for continuing learning ................... 19
Figure 3.1. Conceptual framework created by the author ................................................. 22
Figure 5.1. NDEE programs that participants attended ..................................................... 30
Figure 5.2. Main NDEE providers ..................................................................................... 31
Figure 5.3. Objective factors impact the decision to attend NDEE programs .................. 31

Figure 5.4. Subjective factors that impact the decision to attend NDEE programs .......... 32
Figure 5.5. Level of importance of these NDEE towards participants .............................. 32
Figure 5.6. Level of agreement on the statement .............................................................. 33
Figure 5.7. Willing for recommendation ........................................................................... 33
Figure 5.8. Respondents' gender ........................................................................................ 34
Figure 5.9. Respondents' current residential location ........................................................ 34
Figure 5.10. Respondents' marital status ........................................................................... 35
Figure 5.11. Participants' company business segment....................................................... 35
Figure 5.12. Participants' age ............................................................................................. 36
Figure 5.13. Participants' education and qualifications ..................................................... 36
Figure 5.14. Participants’ current monthly income ........................................................... 37
Figure 5.15. Social/cultural motivation before joining NDEE .......................................... 37
Figure 5.16. Economic motivation before joining NDEE ................................................. 38
Figure 5.17. Achievement from NDEE ............................................................................. 39
Figure 5.18. Satisfaction level of the actual outcome in comparison with expected outcome
............................................................................................................................................ 39
Figure 5.19. Improvements after NDEE participation ...................................................... 40

ii


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ASEAN - Association of Southeast Asian Nations
CAGR – Compound Annual Growth Rate
EE – Executive Education
ESD – Education for Sustainable Development
GATS - General Agreement on Trade in Services
HE – Higher Education
MBA - Master of Business Administration
MM - Mid-level Manager

MOET - Ministry of Education and Training
MOLISA - Ministry of Labor, Invalids, and Social Affairs
NDEE - Non degree Executive Education
ROI - Return on investment
SDG - Sustainable Development Goals
TVET - Technical and Vocational Education and Training
UN - United Nations
UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNICON – Consortium for University-based Executive Education
VUCA - Volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity
WTO - World Trade Organization

iii


CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives an overview of the subject to be explored in this thesis including
background, research motivation, operationalization and significance.
1.1 Background
Lifelong learning and high-quality education have had a great influence on not only
personal and professional growth, but also on society's overall quality of life and long-term
development. Thus, lifelong learning has evolved from a competitive advantage to a
business necessity. Because the composition of the workforce is changing, an aging society
requires the creation of new forms of education and management orientation for managers.
To achieve modernization, industrialization, and long-term growth, the government must
reform its labor market by implementing programs for lifelong learning and universal
access to TVET and tertiary education, as well as ensuring that labor market institutions
are prepared to respond to changing labor market conditions (Ilo, 2012). EE programs are
defined as customized, open, and optional enrollment programs for management and
business executives that lead to certifications or degrees (Leventoff, 2018). EE courses are

offered in a variety of global, regional, and mid-sized universities and business schools
throughout the world.
The first criticism of NDEE is that private education providers' liberal activities
make their EE programs less recognized; the second is state universities' inability to deliver
effective and practical information; and the third is the illegality of free market providers
who provide NDEE without legitimacy and state recognition. Furthermore, there has been
criticism of EE in the past when colleges launched EE early in history but it lacked practical
and real-world application, generally due to a mismatch between businesses' talent
management demands and university lecture halls (Lloyd & Newkirk, 2011). Therefore,
the accountability for EE and NDEE education quality in Vietnam still has been tested. This
study will undertake more research from MOLISA's institution and policy in order to offer
a more comprehensive picture of Vietnam's condition.
How EE and NDEE link to SD8 and SDG4.
1


Quality education is an essential element of the UN's SDG agenda 2030, according
to UN (2015) SDG4, which encourages lifelong learning. It increases their employment,
social mobility, and capability by facilitating personal growth. Access to lifelong learning
programs can be easily achieved with the aid of EE and NDEE. It also assures
comprehensive and fair quality education for all, even those who do not qualify for degree
programs, and promotes lifelong learning opportunities for all. It can streamline and
enhance the quality of this tertiary education process and boost human potentiality by
assuring the quality of EE and NDEE programs.
SDG 8 encourages long-term, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, as well
as full and productive employment and decent work for everyone. Increase the number of
adolescents and adults with appropriate skills, including technical and vocational abilities,
for employment, good jobs, and entrepreneurship by a significant amount (UN, 2017).
Enhance knowledge and intensive skills, resulting in greater experience for the student and
a lower barrier to achieving higher professional goals. Those who do not have a college

diploma but have acquired non-degree qualifications report higher earnings and satisfaction
with their educational pathways than those who do not have credentials (Strada Education
Network and Lumina Foundation, 2019). Non-degree credentials have a lot of value and
are well positioned to help people advance in their careers. Therefore, EE and NDEE can
help people reach those sustainable goals by offering insights and useful knowledge that
allows them to conduct things differently. Furthermore, it aids in the attainment of better
levels of economic productivity through diversification, technical advancement, and
innovation in the educational process, as well as an emphasis on high-value-added
industries (UN, 2021).
Vietnam has made significant progress toward the Sustainable Development Goals
in conjunction with its economic growth (SDGs). For the majority of indicators, the country
ranks in the top quarter of emerging market economies' SDG performance. The Vietnamese
government has shown a strong commitment to achieving the SDGs through its 2030
Agenda, and the SDGs are prominently featured in the majority of Vietnam's development
and economic programs. Vietnam has chosen to focus on a number of the SDGs: social
2


concerns, such as poverty, health improvement, and gender equality; economic growth, as
well as mitigation and adaptation to climate change. Since Doi Moi 1986, education has
been a national focus (Baum, 2020). Because Vietnam has complete integration potential
into global and regional educational and economic systems, as well as its significant need
for skilled managers and higher education, notably EE and NDEE. However, there are
inefficiencies between participants and higher learning institutions in Vietnam's skills
development system. Some programs, alumni, and businesses may provide talents that are
not entirely fitted with market’s requirement (World Bank, 2012). Each of industries need
substantial training due to the rapidly changing business realities as a result of the current
crisis. It is self-evident that executive education programs, among other important
stakeholders, must be market-driven and capable of satisfying program participants'
requirements and expectations (Farris, Haskins, & Yemen, 2003). As a result, a more

thorough and worldwide literature study is required to pinpoint the particular challenge of
non-degree executive education in developing nations.
1.2 Research motivation
1.2.1 Practical necessity
With the influx of globalization and technological innovation, as well as the need
for speed in product creation, innovation, service delivery, and organizational change
required adaptation with the speed and flexibility from modern education programs (Barrett
& Beeson, 2002). The majority of Vietnamese companies see EE and NDEE as a critical
instrument for creating future managers by increasing decision-making skills, knowledge
transmission, and performance. As a result, there was a pressing need to close the skills gap
in the labour force. Executive Education was no longer about developing individual talent,
but rather about bringing value to the company as a whole (Conger & Xin, 2000). EE and
NDEE are designed to meet the demands of companies and employees who are trying to
find a balance between work and education. It offers educational academic ideas in reallife situations and receive quick feedback on their new skills, which encourages individuals
to continue studying. Mid-level managers appear to be particularly sensitive to economic
downturns, since many mid-level managers' promotions may be cancelled during a
3


recession, such as the 2008 global financial crisis and the COVID 19 pandemic. The
number of business closures and layoffs has increased dramatically. Hence, it's critical to
provide managers with the knowledge and skills they will need to deal with the effects of a
crisis by improving skills and staying up with the trends in order not to be eliminated. Hence,
it is necessary to evaluate this phenomenon and draw attention from relevant stakeholders
who benefited from this education form.
1.2.2 Theoretical necessity
NDEE is still undervalued in the Vietnamese educational system because people
prioritize higher education and degrees, and vocational education has recently been
transferred from the Ministry of Education and Training to the Ministry of Labor, Invalids,
and Social Affairs owing to structural changes. In Vietnam, there is no research basis for

the NDEE. This issue is still overlooked in the educational system since individuals
prioritize higher education and degrees, and vocational education has recently been
transferred from the Ministry of Education and Training to the Ministry of Labor, Invalids,
and Social Affairs owing to structural changes. NDEE is thought to be expensive and
difficult to implement on a broad scale. Whether or if this is the cause for its improved
learning and validity has not been thoroughly investigated. To identify the specific
challenge of non-degree executive education in developing nations, a more complete and
worldwide literature study is required. Although EE has been a prominent trend in this
middle-income nation since the early 2000s, there has been a lack of literature evaluation
among EE academics in Vietnam. Despite the fact that a variety of studies have focus
largely on degree-granting program and its performance, leaving non-degree programs out,
particularly for mid-level managers in Vietnam. In the meantime, there is inconsistent data
presented on whether or not degree-holders outperform compared with those who pursue
certificates (Takase et al, 2014).

4


1.3 Operationalization
Executive Education and Non-degree Executive Education
EE has been described as the management education received by everyone who is
in or aspires to be in an executive position (Ballou, Boyatzis, & Kolb, 1999). Non-degree
management development, in compared to MBA programs, is shorter in duration and
nurtures future executives' reflective skill within the framework of corporate organizations
(Burgoyne & Reynolds, 1997). EE and NDEE assess the fundamental competences that
employees will need to succeed in the future, and then build and provide education solutions
to assist them in developing those capacities as a combination of skills and knowledge
(Brophy, 2005).
Sustainable Development Goals
The United Nations adopted the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015 as

a global call to action to eradicate poverty, conserve the environment, and ensure that by
2030, everyone enjoys peace and prosperity. Progress must balance social, economic, and
environmental sustainability (UNDP, 2018).
Education for Sustainable Development
Good quality education is an essential tool for achieving a more sustainable world
(Lloyd & Newkirk, 2011). Education for sustainable development promotes the acquisition
of knowledge, skills, values, and behavior required to create a sustainable world while also
being committed to sustainable economic growth (UNESCO, 2020).
Motivation
Motivation is what energizes, directs, and sustains behaviour (Porter et al., 2003)
and it is an individual's confidence that they can perform the activity required to create the
desired outcome (Bandura, 1997). Motivation has always been important in socioeconomic analysis, even if it is usually implicit. Managerial motivation is critical in a
certain economic system that includes the business organization and should be undergone
with thorough examination.
5


Expected Outcome
Person’s estimation that a certain behavior will produce a resulting outcome
(Bandura, 1997) - A belief about the consequences of a behaviour (Hackett & Betz, 1981).
Mid-level managers
MMs are classified as persons in the middle of the corporate hierarchy who are
accountable for a certain business unit (Uyterhoeven, 1989) and as the position between
top management and the operating center in the organization hierarchy (Mintzberg 1978).

6


CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
The research title contains several keywords, such as: Executive Education, Nondegree Executive Education, Sustainable Development Goals (SDG8, SDG4), Mid-level

managers. This section would look at the relevant theories regarding those concepts, as well
as pointing out the existing research gaps that are related to the research problems.
2.1 The development of EE in the world
With a history of over 100 years, originated from US, using principles of scientific
management, EE has focused on core competencies of managers and executives & strategic
considerations, initially for engineering graduates (Khurana, 2007). EE brings unique
educational experiment in the education history (Andrews, 1959). These early adopters and
their experiments are reshaping the future of executive education (Stopper, 1998).
Meanwhile, Non-degree EE (NDEE) is early pioneer including short courses at Harvard,
MIT, focusing on war production competencies during the second World War (Crotty &
Soule, 1997).
The EE program was acknowledged from the start as a one-of-a-kind educational
experiment in educational history (Crisp, Brown, & Hardcastle, 2012), and its popularity
expanded after the second World War. At the period, many major American business
schools, including Harvard Business School (HBS) (1945), Columbia Business School
(1951), and Northwestern's Kellogg School of Management (1951), began providing nondegree business education programs (Moldoveanu & Narayandas, 2018). During WWII,
HBS's EE provided a 15-week training to help senior managers transition from civilian to
military jobs. In the unusual circumstances during and after WWII, non-degree EE was
known as a common recruiting phenomenon inside a corporate hierarchy without grades,
examinations, rewards, or degrees after graduation (Amdam, 2016). From the 1950s
through the 1980s, several companies started EE programs to make functional, managerial,
and organizational changes; as a result, EE tailored programs were added to universitybased programs. It was stated unequivocally that this change was caused by a disconnect
between academic business courses and the capabilities that businesses demanded
7


(Moldoveanu & Narayandas, 2016). Many key players are at the top international rankings
of EE programs, such as MIT Sloan (1914), Harvard's five-week selections from its MBA
curriculum (1920s), Harvard's Advanced Management Program (AMP, 1945), Stanford
Graduate School of Business, Wharton School of Business, Kellogg School of Management,

Columbia Business School, and so on (Ken Research, 2018). Over the course of the 1980s
and 1990s, the globalization of business dynamics accelerated the global expansion of EE
and lifelong learning options.
The International University Consortium for Executive Education (UNICON) is a
global network of leading business institutions that provide high-quality post-graduate
executive education programs. The Consortium's mission is to assist its members in
advancing executive education through hosting conferences, offering networking
opportunities, and conducting benchmarking and research. As a result, UNICON has been
dubbed the "global federation of executive education groups," which acts as a global
resource for this type of professional development. A bachelor's degree isn't the only way
to get a decent job. Short-term certificates and industry-specific qualifications let people
get the work done faster, better, and for less money (Carnevale, 2019). With such
widespread acclaim, EE as a graduate program has become a global phenomenon in
continuing and business education, as well as a vital instrument for global organizations to
develop top leadership skills. Because there are no specific degree requirements, EE offers
institutions, corporations, and participants complete flexibility in terms of design and
approach. According to Dhoul (2021), EE is a part of the lifelong learning process. It refers
to business management courses aimed at assisting corporate leaders and managers in their
professional growth. Professional experts, CEOs, and leaders bring a different atmosphere
for the class to produce a level of debate that is quite different from that in a Master of
Business Administration (MBA) program. EE programs are tied to work and life experience
rather than prior academic achievement, and the professional experts, CEOs, and leaders
bring a different atmosphere for the class to produce a level of debate that is quite different
from that in a Master of Business Administration (MBA) program. EE courses require less
time and may lead to a certificate, but they are nearly usually non-degree programs. They
may concentrate on certain topics such as leadership development or strategic awareness,
8


for example. Popular courses are tailored and designed to fit specific needs by advanced

arrangements between a business and an EE provider. The increase of global complexity in
business and financial uncertainty is inextricably linked to the creation of new course
offerings. They tend to prioritize self-awareness, creativity, motivating and leading others,
and change responsiveness. Finally, courses are increasingly moving away from focusing
on a single function and toward multidisciplinary methods (Dhoul, 2021).
The training market in the United States is estimated to be worth $51 billion,
according to Training Magazine (2003). CEOs receive 14 percent of the budget, while
managers receive 23 percent, non-managers receive 27 percent, and non-exempt (hourly)
employees receive 37 percent. Executive education and training alone produced roughly
$662 million in open-enrollment program income in 2002–2003 (Merritt, 2003), while nondegree corporate education adds an average of $5 million to their earnings (AACSB, 2002).
Top-performing

organizations

constantly

show

leadership

training,

managerial

development, and the utilization of external management coaches and training programs
(Hewitt Associates, 2003). An average of $8,000 per employee in major organizations, and
$6,500 in smaller ones (Delahoussaye, 2001). The U.S. spent the most on training
expenditures per employee, according to ASTD data published in 2000. As a proportion of
payroll, European firms reported spending the highest in any other area. Asian-based firms
reported that they spend the least on training per employee, and spending the least on

training as a percentage of total annual payroll. In the future, there will be so many
opportunities for executive education and corporate training programs throughout Asia
(Winsor, Liu, Yu, & Huynh-Willis, 2013).
2.2 The development of EE in Asia since the 2000s
In order to provide a richer background about EE and NDEE, this study is expected
to review some case studies of ASEAN member countries: Singapore, Thailand and
Vietnam to identify the unique problem of NDEE in comparison with Vietnam.
According to Ken research, the Singapore executive education industry would be
worth more than SGD 250 million by 2023 (Gurugram, 2019). The Singapore Executive
Education Market is maturing, and business executives are likely to want more industry9


specific tailored courses. According to Business Insider’s press release (Gurugram, 2019),
the Singapore Executive Education market will grow as a consequence of rapid changes in
the educational system, a growth in the number of people working, an increase in the
number of specialized programs offered, and a noticeable salary increase following
completion of these courses. In terms of revenue, the market is expected to increase at a
positive CAGR of 1.1 percent between 2018 and 2023. MDPs, in particular, in the fields of
strategy and leadership, digital innovation, and cyber security.
Thailand, as a significant buyer of educational export initiatives, has taken
aggressive measures. Singapore and Malaysia, on the other hand, have not yet made any
GATS commitments in the field of education from the WTO; both countries advocate for
promoting negotiations and signing bilateral free trade agreements in order to actively
select prestigious foreign university investment while also protecting the development of
domestic and private universities. Furthermore, a number of Africa's low-income
governments have made firm promises to attract international investment in education. In
general, developing countries continue to take a wait-and-see approach. When Vietnam has
committed to liberalizing educational services trade. Two possibilities can be offered in
response: a "wait and see" scenario, similar to that of most developing nations, and a
"proactive" one, similar to that of China and Thailand. However, the situation described

above is unlikely to be replicated in Vietnam.
2.3 Vietnam context and the development of EE and NDEE in the 2000s
Vietnam was chosen as the case study due to its extensive integration possibilities
in global and regional educational and economic systems. Vietnam has developed from
being one of the world's poorest countries to a lower-middle-income country. Vietnam is
now one of East Asia's most active countries, attempting to develop a globally competitive
system despite a low per capita national income and a legacy of centralized planning from
the formerly agricultural economy (World Bank, 2017).

10


Figure 2.1. Employment by Sector in ASEAN, 2000-2015
Source: World Bank, World Development Indicator. June, 2017, p.15
With the economic shift, EE has come to Vietnam as a new action learning form of
education because of the rising demand for highly competent managers. Vietnam has joined
a variety of regional and international economic and trade organizations, most notably the
World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2007. This event has offered a lot of possibilities for
Vietnamese firms to grow their markets and learn from global business experiences to take
part in the economic integration process. The internationalization of education and crossborder education have been part of Vietnam's policy since joining WTO. Innovative
educational programs, teaching and learning approaches, research initiatives, and crosscultural collaboration are all part of these processes. WTO identifies education as one of 12
"tradeable services" that are being liberalized via dialogues and talks. In which, every
member country's education market is available to international education service providers
and compete in the international education market. Consequently, a balance of policy and
procedures is necessary to accomplish long-term development goals for Vietnam because
the opportunities come together with challenges in both trade and education. Additionally,
foreign investment also promotes education, improved learning environments, managerial
innovation and increased competitiveness. It will bring other problems including the
potentiality of reducing state-funded education, difficult situation of education quality
monitoring, and an increase in educational inequality.

11


Vietnam, according to Briesen (2020), is a Southeast Asian country that has seen
major political, social, and economic changes during the last three decades. To allow
genuine social and economic mobility throughout the globalization age, all significant
political, social, and economic advances require a paradigm shift in education. Vietnam's
HE has grown rapidly in terms of scope, quality, and efficiency, in accordance with the
country's rehabilitation effort during the last two decades. This advancement and
integration have aided in closing the Vietnam HE gaps in South East Asia. Vietnam has
taken significant steps toward educational integration, getting cross-border education via
both non-profit and for-profit channels. As a result of the educational reforms in 1993,
competition has arisen between state-owned and private-sector educational providers.
Companies were spending on employee development, hiring qualified candidates, and
retaining them. Viet Nam is seen as one of the countries with lowest labor productivity in
the region because of the transition from agriculture to industry and services over twenty
years (ILO, 2019). Despite the numerous advantages of being in the golden population
period in terms of human resources, Vietnam's present human resource position is still
restricted. According to a research conducted by the Thailand Development Research
Institute (TDRI), most of the soft skills of Vietnamese workers are at medium or low levels,
particularly collaboration and professional abilities. According to the Foreign Trade
University study team, high quality human resources and talented employees are still in
limited supply compared to the societal demands to grow Vietnam's main economic sectors,
particularly to engage in economic activities. According to the World Bank, Vietnam is
short of skilled employees and high-level technical personnel. Because Vietnamese
employees' foreign language proficiency is low, they encounter several challenges during
the integration process. One of the major elements impacting the economy's
competitiveness is the limits and weaknesses of human resources. According to research
conducted by the Institute of Science, Labor, and Social Affairs (2016), workers in

electronic and textile companies have a very low level of adaptability to technological
advances. FDI businesses in Vietnam are still experiencing difficulty hiring skilled
professionals. Vietnam ranks 87th out of 119 countries in terms of its capacity to recruit,
develop, and retain people, according to the 2018 Global Talent Competitiveness Index
12


(GTCI). Lack of technological infrastructure, Research and Development (R&D) funding,
and vocational and technical skills, on the other hand, are all important issues. The
government has made efforts to encourage vocational and technical training in order to
meet labor market demands. In March 2018, the government published Decree No.
49/2018/ND-CP, which controls vocational education accreditation for tourism, beauty
services,

information

technology,

construction,

fashion,

garment

and

textiles,

pharmaceuticals, precision mechanics, and hotel management. According to their studies,
a lack of good managers is a key constraint for private training institutions in Hanoi and Ho

Chi Minh City, as well as adjacent regions (CIEM and World Bank, 2013). Vietnam is a
country with significant regionalism in nearly every sector, owing to cultural and
socioeconomic contrasts between the North and South. The appreciation for education in
Vietnam has resulted in a high demand for university education (Mikelson & Nightingale,
2004). Most individuals prefer to study at university or graduate school for the prestige of
a degree, neglecting the need for human resources and vocational training, which has
resulted in the present teacher and worker deficit. Graduates with a university diploma have
great academic knowledge but limited practical competence and adaptability in a
competitive industrial setting. The ability to work in groups, professionalism, and the use
of foreign languages as communication and working tools for human resources all remain
limited. Vietnamese students are equally unprepared for the occupations that the market
requires, particularly those requiring technological knowledge. Most university graduates
typically lack the essential abilities to cope with the real-world working environment
created by fast industrial and technological advances (Dang, 1998, p. 157). According to
the ILO (2016), the most popular majors among Vietnamese students are business,
commerce, and finance. To some extent, this indicates that the Vietnamese labor market is
shifting toward supporting service industries, but it is still not in a strong position to deliver
fundamental added value to the economy. To some extent, this implies that the Vietnamese
labor market is changing in favor of supporting service industries, but it is still insufficient
to provide fundamental added value to the economy. According to Hofstede Insights,
Vietnam is classified as Feminine society due to middle score of masculinity that managers
strive for consensus, people value equality, solidarity and quality in their working lives. the
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society will be driven by a value system of competition, achievement and success that starts
in school and continues throughout organizational life.
Since the 2000s, NDEE has been a phenomenon in Vietnam, and it is now
recognized as an important corporate strategic priority for firms seeking to train future
managers and increase employee commitment. Managers who were unable to complete

degree-granting courses were attracted to this. According to Pham (2020) in Country
Report-Vietnam as An Ageing Society, 2020), Vietnam's "aging society" will soon come,
creating substantial challenges for national social policy. Many people do not want to be
left behind while society experiences significant change. In Vietnam, the majority of
organizations see EE as a vital tool for educating future managers by improving their
decision-making abilities, knowledge transmission, and performance. The quality of the
under-graduate courses in the schools remains inadequate, and no professionals with actual
working skills have been taught. With today's university and college training programs,
new graduates in Vietnam often lack experience, soft skills, and training that isn't directly
connected to job roles. There are a lot of EE education providers in Vietnam, who provide
numerous business training programs from universities, official organizations and private
company, for example: Fulbright University, Foreign Trade University, FPT School of
Business & Technology, University of Economics HCM, VJCC-Keieijuku, PACE
Institute-FranklinCovey, VCCI Academy, Dale Carnegie, PIT, TUV Rheinland, CEO
Group, IBM Institute, Zig Ziglar and many more. These providers have offers EE and
NDEE courses for thousands of managers per year in Vietnam. On average, public-sector
training courses are largely at the entry and intermediate levels, and these institutions offer
lower fees. Meanwhile, private training businesses create and deliver standard or
customized programs to fit the demands of their clients. The majority of private training is
provided by local franchisees of foreign corporations. Furthermore, private training
organizations are increasingly being preferred over governmental programs in Vietnamese
firm.
A higher-value-added sector, greater innovation, and a more trained labor force are
required to guarantee future economic development. As a result, businesses will demand
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more highly trained professionals, which will require improved TVET (technical and
vocational education and training) and higher-education institutions. Vietnam has initiated
a thorough reform of the tertiary education system, including measures toward increased

autonomy and responsibility of higher education institutions. The recently enacted Higher
Education Law establishes legal conditions for greater institutional autonomy for
universities and colleges in many important areas, including planning, opening and closing
units, new programs, financial management, and staffing, while newly established
university councils serve as a tool to improve accountability. Vocational education and
training institutes can pick up to 35% of their curriculum content locally and launch new
study programs on their own initiative, subject to permission by the (MOLISA). for the
sake of the country's economy and society, a well-educated population and labor force. The
improvement of one's abilities provides the possibility to achieve decent work. There are
several driving forces behind improvements in labor productivity, and several of them are
related to company size. In Viet Nam, the size of businesses is a barrier to productivity
growth. Productivity improvements are simpler to implement in large businesses with more
considerable financial resources. Employees' skills are also important, and small businesses
find it more difficult to engage in skill development than bigger corporations.
2.4 The advantages and disadvantages of EE and NDEE
EE could be called in another word as management education formerly for people
who are older than 35 and not enroll in degree-granting programs (Ballou, Boyatzis, & Kolb,
1999). Executive Education (EE) is an accredited but non-examined and non-degree
academic program and/or course offered in graduate-level management schools throughout
the world for executives, corporate leaders, and/or functional managers (Mc Nally, 2017).
It aims to provide business and industry professionals with the most up-to-date knowledge,
insights, and a solid foundation in the subject area in order to effect transformative change.
They are more adaptable than conventional academics and provide a fertile environment
for innovation (Ballou et al., 1999) that stems from managerial and executive challenges.
It fosters self-confidence, recognizes one's own potential, and provides means for realizing
it through nurturing and developing people' knowledge and talents. Furthermore, EE
contributes to the development of better leaders who have a global perspective, a sense of
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diversity, honesty, and social responsibility (Aalto University, 2019). EE programs
provides with knowledge, skills, perception and development of business leadership. While
pursuing these courses, professionals with diverse corporate experiences get to interact with
other. Their objectives are dealing with the economic, social, cultural, technological, and
political environments of business, as well as the ethical concerns of management (Podolny,
2009). The programs include in-house or outsourced educational provider, mainly convey
experiential and selective courses, for example Finance, Strategy and Organization,
Innovation and Entrepreneurship, Consulting, Analytics and Operations, Digital Business
and more. In the digital age and educational innovations, an irresistible trend in education
is created, so that degree program is no longer a monopoly. EE as business education can
be putted in liberal arts education context but not focus on scientific research (Baker &
Boumgarden, 2015) ensuring dynamics of business and diversity of participants. EE and
NDEE teach the know-hows and application, rather than to provide perspectives as research
science. As a result, there is a widening gap between what business academics teach and
what they research. There are courses including both academical knowledge and real-world
experience by providing business case study. EE and NDEE can transform leadership
competency into practice by unleashing potentiality, intelligence, leadership practice, social
dynamics leverage. Furthermore, it can improve decision-making agility, change-capability,
management of risk and instability, leadership preparation for the sustainability triathlon of
social, economic, and environmental dimensions.
Because of its advantages to individuals and organizations, EE has been proven to
be a viable instrument for aligning companies to strategic imperatives across a wide range
of application domains. EE experience was viewed as a reward and preparation for an
individual's advancement to higher ranks (Wolvin & Coakley, 2000). In the global
professional environment, EE learners have "education as a return" (Tomlinson, 2008) and
an important lever to assist strategic transitions (Conger et al, 2000). In short, the main
apparent goal of EE was to improve leadership, change management, and concentrate on
strategic concerns. Because organizational transformation necessitated the support and
attention of a company's senior management, the educational emphasis shifted from the
individual executive to top management as a working group, with the goal of bringing

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