(1) how learners approach learning, both in and out of classrooms, and (2) the kinds of strategies and cognitive processing they use in second language acquisition

1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
I.1. Statement of the problem and rationale for the study
Along with the appearance of the Cognitive view of learning, which regards
language learning as a dynamic, creative process and the learners as active strategy
users and knowledge constructors, many researchers have shifted their focus of
attention from teaching methods to learners (Chamot, A.U. & O’Malley, J. M.,
1994).
Quite a large amount of research literature have paid attention to (1) how learners
approach learning, both in and out of classrooms, and (2) the kinds of strategies
and cognitive processing they use in second language acquisition (O’Malley, J. M.
& Chamot, A.U., 1995).
The first studies on “good language learner” were initiated by Rubin (1975) and
Stern (1975). Research results suggested that the “good language learner” might be
doing something special that we could all learn from. From these very first
initiatives, more and more researchers have come to recognize the significance of
special learner techniques or strategies in second language acquisition. Bialystock
(1978: 71) states in his study that learning strategies are “optimal means for
exploiting available information to improve competence in a second language”.
Therefore, language learning strategies are beneficial for those who hope to
improve his language skills in a better way. Oxford (1989) considers learning
strategies as one of the “most important variables influencing performance in a
second language” (p.238). His research findings also recommend that “better
strategies improve language performance.” (Oxford, 1989: 238)

2
In recent years, the study of learning strategies has seen an “explosion of activity”
(Skehan, 1991: 285 cited in Ellis, 1999:529). In discussing the nature and
significance of learning strategies, researchers have affirmed that “research
findings on learner strategies can be used as a basis for planning more effective

instructional practice” (O’Malley& Chamot, 1995:viii). Lessard-Clouston (1997:3)
also agreed that language learning strategies “contribute to the development of the
communicative competence of the students”. They are tools for active, self- directed
involvement needed for developing L2 communicative ability.
So far, the role of learning strategies and the effects of learner’s choice of learning
strategies on learning outcomes have been confirmed. Several studies have also
attempted to find out the relationship between language learning strategy choice and
other factors like age, gender, motivation, language learning experiences, etc.
Of the many individual learner differences (belief, affective states, learner factors,
learning experience) and situational and social factors (target language, setting,
task performed, gender) that determine learners’ choice of learning strategies,
gender has been recognized as “a profound” choice on strategy choice (Oxford &
Nyiko, 1989: 545). Swann (1992) also asserted that “gender differences may have
implications for Second language learning, teaching and assessment” (cited in Ah
Shehadah, 1999: 256).
However, the body of research on the relationship between gender differences and
language learning strategies is still quite limited. Studies that are applicable to
Vietnamese situation are even harder to find. This research was, therefore, carried
out with the hope of providing an insight into the relationship. However, due to the
limited time and scope of the study, the researcher only chose to work with a small
sample of 72 English learners. Through the process of carrying out the research
study, we hope to find the answers to the following questions:

3


 Research questions:
 What are the EFL learning strategies employed by the students?
 Is there a significant difference in the frequency of EFL learning strategy
used by the male and female students?

Together with answering these two questions, the researcher hopes to find out some
implications for teachers in order to better support students of both genders in their
study.
I.2. Aims and objectives of the study
 To find out common strategies used by a group of –EFL learners in Hanoi,
Vietnam
 To determine if male and female students use similar language learning
strategies
 To find out how teachers can help both male and female students use their
learning strategies effectively
I.3. Scope of study
Concerning the types of strategies:
The intent of data collection is to obtain information on all types of strategies. The
researcher does not choose to focus on one specific category of strategy
(metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies, etc.) or on a specific strategy (self-
monitoring, etc.)

4
Concerning the focus on language skills
In fact, the focus of research on learning strategies might be on all four language
skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) or on one or more language
modalities (listening, speaking, reading, writing or some combination of these).
However, in this research, we chose to focus on all the four skills because many of
the language learning tasks and activities are crossed modalities. Respondents were
asked to describe their strategies in general in second language acquisition. Only
gender differences in language learning strategies were taken into consideration.
Target population
The research will be carried out on 72 second year students at a university in Hanoi.
Of these 72 students, there are 27 male students and 45 females. They are from 19
to 21 years of age. Most of them have studied English for at least five years (3 years

at upper- secondary school and 2 years at university). These students are confident,
dynamic, and lively. They have high motivation for their study.
I.4. Methods of study
Questionnaires
In this research, Oxford’s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)-
version 7.0 (Oxford, 1990) was chosen to investigate learners’ use of learning
strategies. This particular framework was adopted for its comprehensiveness and
high reliability (Oxford, 1996a). A questionnaire consisting of 50 statements was
designed based on Oxford’s framework to measure students’ level of English
learning strategy use. The items were grouped according to the six categories in
Oxford's (1990) strategy classification systems: (a) memory strategies, (b) cognitive

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strategies, (c) comprehension strategies, (d) metacognitive strategies, (e) affective
strategies, and (f) social strategies.
Students responded individually on a 1 to 5 scale. For each statement, they had to
decide whether the statement is (1)“Never true of me”; (2)“Usually not true of
me”, (3) “Somewhat true of me”, (4) “Usually true of me” or (5) “Always true of
me”.
The whole set of questionnaire was translated into Vietnamese, piloted and
carefully edited before being delivered to the students.
Informal Interviews
Researchers have suggested that students are “more motivated to response in an
interview because they are pleased to have someone take a personal interest in their
learning processes” (O’Malley & Chamot, 1995: 94). In this research, informal
interview was carried out after the questionnaires had been collected, data from
questionnaires had been processed and the researcher had got an overall picture of
the situation. The core purpose of the interview was to get more insights into the
issue, elaborate on students’ answers in the questionnaires and clarify some
prominent points.

I.5. Overview of the rest of the paper
The research study is divided into four main chapters. Chapter one: review the
literature concerning gender differences in language learning, language learning
strategies, as well as gender differences in language learning strategies and give
rationale for the study. Chapter two describes and justifies the research methods,
participants, as well as the methods of data collection and analysis. Chapter three is
devoted to analyzing and discussing the data collected. Finally, in the last chapter-

6
chapter four, some recommendations are offered concerning how knowledge of
language learning strategies in general and gender differences in language learning
in particular can facilitate teachers in helping students become better strategy users
and more independent learners.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
II.1. Overview about gender differences in language learning
II.1.1. Gender differences in L1 learning
In the field of language-learning research, the question of gender differences is the
one that has received relatively little attention. This is partly because it is taken as
an established fact that girls are superior to boys in language ability. The differences
are purported to stem from biological distinctions in the lateralization of function
between the hemispheres of the brain (McGlone, 1980).
This is supported by the study of neuroscientists from Georgetown University
Medical Center. As for them, boys and girls use different parts of their brains to
process some basic aspects of grammar. Their study suggests that girls mainly use a
system that is based around memorizing words and associations between them,
whereas boys rely primarily on a system that governs the rules of language
(Meville, 2006). This study also confirms that differences between males and
females may be an important factor in these cognitive processes.

Mccoby and Jacklin (1974) also conclude that by adolescence, girls are better in
both receptive and productive verbal tasks and in both higher-level tasks (verbal
analogies, comprehension of difficult material, creative writing) and lower-level
tasks (fluency measures, like producing as many words as possible ending in ion).
Moreover, socially speaking, it is supposed that teachers, who think girls are better
than boys in language, will spend more time on it with the girls, and the girls will
probably live up to the teachers’ expectations (Wang, 2006). However, this
position has occasionally been challenged.

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II.1.2. Gender difference in L2 learning
Several studies have discussed gender differences in L2 learning. First of all, a
number of studies based on self-report learning (Bacon, 1992; Ehrman & Oxford,
1989; Zoubir-Shaw & Oxford, 1995) have suggested that males and females
demonstrated different preference for knowing or guessing the meaning of words
in context. Zoubir-Shaw and Oxford (1995) found that males reported more often
than females that “not knowing the meaning of a word impeded their thinking
process or their progress” (cited in Wang, 2006: 10). Females, however, reported
using significantly more compensation strategies, such as guessing and learning
from context, than the males did.
Bacon’s (1992) study investigates the strategies that learners use when listening to
authentic L2 texts of two levels of difficulty. She found that, though all learners
reported made some reference to English translation while listening to both L2
texts, men reported doing so were of a larger number than women, especially with
the more difficult passage. The male participants’ self-reports of the strategies they
used included the following: “Basically, I tried to translate as much Spanish into
English as possible,” and “I have a dictionary in my head. When I hear a word, I
leaf through my head really fast to see if I can find out what it means in English”
(cited in Wang, 2006: 11). Women investigated, by contrast, used such top-down

strategies as inferring or guessing the meaning from context and bypassing English,
no matter how difficult they found the passage.
In general, whether the differences are biological or the product of socialization,
findings in L2 learning support the notion that there are differences in how males
and females learn a L2.

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II.2. Overview of language learning strategies
II.2.1. Definition of language learning strategies
Looking at how language learners learn the language, several attempts have been
made to define the concept of language learning strategies. However, this has never
been an easy task. Concerning the concept of learning strategies, it is still
controversial as to whether they are general approaches or specific actions and
techniques; whether they are behavioural or mental or both; whether they are
conscious and intentional or unconscious, etc.
One of the first ideas of learning strategies was offered by Tarone (1980b). He
distinguishes between production strategies, communication strategies and learning
strategies. Tarone (1980b) considers the first two of these “strategies of language
use”, and refers to learning strategies as "an attempt to develop linguistic and
sociolinguistic competence in the target language." (cited in Ellis, 1999: 530).
However, as Tarone himself can observe, these distinctions are not easily applied as
it is often hard to tell the learners’ intention for learning, whether they are driven by
the desire to learn or the desire to communicate. (Ellis, 1999)
Unlike Tarone, Stern (1983) makes the distinction between “strategies” and
“techniques”. He uses the term learning strategies to refer to “general tendencies or
overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learner”, leaving
techniques to describe “particular forms of observable learning behaviours” (cited
in Ellis, 1999: 531). This is rather confusing as what Stern (1983) refers to as
“techniques” is actually what other researchers normally refer to as “strategies”.
As for Chamot (1987), all techniques, approaches and actions can be included in the

concept of learning strategies: “learning strategies are techniques, approaches, or

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deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning, recall of
both linguistic and content area information.”
Concerning the behavioural or mental nature of learning strategies, Weinstein &
Mayer (1986) use the notion to refer to both “behaviours and thoughts that a
learner engages in during learning that re intended to influence the learner’s
encoding process.” (1986: 315), whereas for Oxford (1989), language learning
strategies are “behaviours or actions which learners use to make language learning
more successful, self- directed and enjoyable.” (Oxford, 1989 cited in Ellis, R.,
1999: 531)
Richards and Platt (1992) also agree to include both behaviours and thoughts in
the concept. However, they put further emphasis on the “intentional” nature of
such behaviours and thoughts. According to them, learning strategies are
"intentional behavior and thoughts used by learners during learning so as to better
help them understand, learn, or remember new information" (p.209). This seems to
be a continuance of Chamot’s idea of “deliberate actions”
Stern (1992) also focuses on learners’ conscious engagement in the learning process
by stating that "the concept of learning strategy is dependent on the assumption that
learners consciously engage in activities to achieve certain goals and learning
strategies can be regarded as broadly conceived intentional directions and
learning techniques" (p. 261)
In fact, it is hard to come up with the exact number of definitions of language
learning strategies offered by researchers. It is even more challenging to find one
which is helpful to all research purposes. In the hope of finding a solution to this
confusion, Ellis, R. (1999) offers a new approach to defining learning strategies. He
characterizes the main characteristics of learning strategies in the following list:

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1. Strategies refer to both general approaches and specific actions or
techniques used to learn an L2.
2. Strategies are problem oriented- the learner deploys a strategy to overcome
some particular learning problem.
3. Learners are generally aware of the strategies they use and can identify what
they consist of if they are asked to pay attention to what they are doing/
thinking.
4. Strategies involve linguistic behaviour (such as requesting the name of an
object) and non- linguistic (such as pointing at an object so as to be told its
name).
5. Linguistic strategies can be performed in the L1 and in the L2.
6. Some strategies are behavioural while others are mental. Thus some
strategies are directly observable, while others are not.
7. Some strategies contribute indirectly to learning by providing learners with
data about the L2 which they can then process, while others may contribute
directly (for example, memorization strategies directed at specific lexical
items or grammatical rules)
8. Strategy use varies considerably as a result of both the kind of task the
learner is engaged in and individual learner preferences.
(Ellis, 1999: 532-533)
This list offered by Ellis, R. can be considered “one of the best approaches to
defining learning strategies” up to now (Ellis, 1999: 532). Moreover, these

12
characteristics of learning strategies also lend themselves well in the context of our
study. Therefore, through out this study; the term “learning strategies” or “language
learning strategies” will be used with reference to the characteristics mentioned
above.
II.2.2. Classification of learning strategies
Rubin’s (1975) and Rubin’s (1981) classification

In making lists of strategies and other features presumed to be essential for all
"good language learners", Rubin (1975) suggests that: good language learners are
willing and accurate guessers; have a strong drive to communicate; are often
uninhibited; are willing to make mistakes; focus on form by looking for patterns
and analyzing; take advantage of all practice opportunities; monitor their speech as
well as that of others; and pay attention to meaning. However, these characteristics
are rather desultory. Little effort was made to classify the strategies into more
general categories.
Rubin’s (1981) first comprehensive category classifies learning strategies into two
primary groups: strategies that directly affect learning (Cognitive Learning
Strategies) and strategies that contribute indirectly to learning (Metacognitive
Learning Strategies). These two primary categories are further subsumed into sub-
groups as follows:





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Table 1. Classifications of learning strategies in second language acquisition
Primary
strategy
classification
Representative
secondary
strategies
Representative examples
Strategies that
directly affect
learning

Clarification/
verification
• Asks for an example of how to use a
word or expression, repeats words to confirm
understanding.
Monitoring
• Correct errors in own/ other’s
pronunciation, vocabulary, spelling, grammar,
style.
Memorization
• Takes notes of new items, pronounces
out loud, finds a mnemonic, writes items
repeatedly
Guessing/ inductive
inferencing
• Guesses meaning from key words,
structures, pictures, context, etc.
Deductive
reasoning
• Compares native/ other language to
target language
• Groups words
• Looks for rules of co- occurrence
Practice
• Experiments with new sounds
• Repeats sentences until pronounced
easily
Processes that
contribute
indirectly to

learning
Creates
opportunities for
practice
• Creates situation with native speaker
• Initiates conversation with fellow
students
• Spends time in language lab, listening to
TV, etc.

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Production tricks

• Uses circumlocutions, synonyms or
cognates
• Uses formulaic interaction
• Contextualizes to clarify meaning
Communication strategies and Social strategies are also mentioned in his later
classification (Rubin, 1987). However, he considers learning strategies,
communication strategies and social strategies three different types of strategies
used by learners that contribute directly or indirectly to language learning. Rubin’s
(1987) reason for excluding communication strategies and social strategies from
learning strategies is that:
Communication Strategies: “are less directly related to language learning
since their focus is on the process of participating in a conversation and
getting meaning across or clarifying what the speaker intended.
Communication strategies are used by speakers when faced with some
difficulty due to the fact that their communication ends outrun their
communication means or when confronted with misunderstanding by a co-
speaker.”

Social strategies: “are those activities learners engage in which afford them
opportunities to be exposed to and practise their knowledge. Although these
strategies provide exposure to the target language, they contribute indirectly
to learning since they do not lead directly to the obtaining, storing, retrieving,
and using of language.” (Rubin & Wenden, 1987:23-27).



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O’Malley and Chamot’s (1990) taxonomy
Basing on cognitive theory and their own research with second language learning
strategies, O’Malley & Chamot (1990) built up The Cognitive Academic Language
Learning Approach (CALLA) to develop the academic language skills of limited
English proficient (LEP) students. According to them, learning strategies can be
classified into three types (Chamot & O’Malley, 1987; O’Malley et al., 1985b;
O’Malley & Chamot, 1990)
Metacognitive strategies, which involve executive processes in planning for
learning, monitoring one’s comprehension and production, and evaluating how
well one has achieved a learning objective;
Cognitive strategies, in which the learner interacts with the material to be learned
by manipulating it mentally (as in making mental images, or elaborating on
previously acquired concepts or skills) or physically (as in grouping items to be
learned in meaningful categories, or taking notes on important information to be
remembered)
Social affective strategies, in which the learner either interact with another person
in order to assist learning, as in cooperation or asking questions for clarification,
or uses some kind of affective control to assist a learning task.
More specific description of the CALLA is presented in the table that follows:

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Table 2: Learning strategies taught in the cognitive academic language learning
approach (CALLA)
Metacognitive strategies
Advance organization Previewing the main ideas and concepts of the material
to be learned, often by skimming the text for the
organizing principles
Advance preparation Rehearsing the language needed for an oral or written
task
Organizational planning Planning the parts, sequence, and main ideas to be
expressed orally or in writing
Selective attention Attending to or scanning key words, phrases, linguistic
markers, sentences, or types of information.
Self- monitoring Checking one’s comprehension during listening or
reading, or checking one’ oral or written production
while it is taking place.
Self- evaluation Judging how well one has accomplished a learning
task.
Self- management Seeking or arranging the conditions that help one learn,
such as finding opportunities for additional language or
content input and practice

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Cognitive strategies
Resourcing Using reference materials such as dictionaries,
encyclopedias, or textbooks.
Grouping Classifying words, terminology, numbers, or concepts
according to their attributes.

Note- taking Writing down key words and concepts in abbreviated
verbal, graphic, or numerical form.
Summarizing Making a mental or written summary of information
gained through listening or reading.
Deduction Applying rules to understand or produce language or
solve problems.
Imagery Using visual images (either mental or actual) to
understand and remember new information or to make
a mental representation of a problem.
Auditory representation Playing in back of one’s mind the sound of a word,
phrase, or fact in order to assist comprehension and
recall.
Elaboration Relating new information to prior knowledge, relating
different parts of new information to each other, or

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making meaningful personal associations with the new
information.
Transfer Using what is already known about the language to
assist comprehension or production.
Inferencing Using the information in the text to guess meanings of
new items, predict outcomes, or complete missing
parts.
Social and affective strategies
Questioning for
clarification
Eliciting from a teacher or peer additional explanation,
rephrasing, examples, or verification.
Cooperation Working together with peers to solve a problem, pool
information, check a learning task, or get feedback on

oral or written performance.
Self- talk Reducing anxiety by using mental techniques that make
one feel competent to do the learning task.
This work of O’Malley and Chamot (1990) has made an important contribution to
our knowledge of learning strategies. It has once again helped to confirm that much
of the recent work in this area has been underpinned by a broad concept of language
learning strategies that goes beyond cognitive processes to include social and
affective strategies.

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Stern's (1992) Classification of Language Learning Strategies
According to Stern (1992:262-266), there are five main language learning
strategies. These are as follows:
• Management and Planning Strategies
• Cognitive Strategies
• Communicative - Experiential Strategies
• Interpersonal Strategies
• Affective Strategies
a. Management and Planning Strategies
These strategies are related with the learner's intention to direct his own learning. A
learner can take charge of the development of his own programme when he is
helped by a teacher whose role is that of an adviser and resource person. That is to
say that the learner must:
• decide what commitment to make to language learning
• set himself reasonable goals
• decide on an appropriate methodology, select appropriate resources,
and monitor progress,
• evaluate his achievement in the light of previously determined goals
and expectations ( Stern 1992:263).

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b. Cognitive Strategies
They are steps or operations used in learning or problem solving that require direct
analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials. In the following, some
of the cognitive strategies are exhibited:
• Clarification / Verification
• Guessing / Inductive Inferencing
• Deductive Reasoning
• Practice
• Memorization
• Monitoring
c. Communicative - Experiential Strategies
Communication strategies, such as circumlocution, gesturing, paraphrase, or asking
for repetition and explanation are techniques used by learners so as to keep a
conversation going. The purpose of using these techniques is to avoid interrupting
the flow of communication (Stern 1992:265).
d. Interpersonal Strategies
They should monitor their own development and evaluate their own performance.
Learners should contact with native speakers and cooperate with them. Learners
must become acquainted with the target culture (Stern 1992: 265-266).
e. Affective Strategies
It is evident that good language learners employ distinct affective strategies.
Language learning can be frustrating in some cases. In some cases, the feeling of

21
strangeness can be evoked by the foreign language. In some other cases, L2 learners
may have negative feelings about native speakers of L2. Good language learners are
more or less conscious of these emotional problems. Good language learners try to
create associations of positive affect towards the foreign language and its speakers
as well as towards the learning activities involved. Learning training can help

students to face up to the emotional difficulties and to overcome them by drawing
attention to the potential frustrations or pointing them out as they arise (Stern
1992:266).
Oxford's (1990) Classification of Language Learning Strategies
Oxford (1990) built on earlier classifications with the hope of including virtually
every strategy previously mentioned in the literature in her taxonomy. She sees the
aim of language learning strategies as being oriented towards the development of
communicative competence. She divides language learning strategies into two main
classes, direct and indirect, which are further subdivided into 6 groups. The
strategies are organized into a hierarchical diagram as follows:





Figure 1: Diagram of a strategy system: Overview (from Oxford, 1990: 16)
Direct
strategies

Indirect
strategies

Learning
Strategies

I. Memory strategies

II. Cognitive strategies

III. Compensation

I. Metacognitive strategies

II. Affective strategies

III. Social strategies


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In Oxford's system, cognitive strategies are the mental strategies learners use to
make sense of their learning, memory strategies are those used for storage of
information, and compensation strategies help learners to overcome knowledge
gaps to continue the communication. Metacognitive strategies help learners to
regulate their learning. Affective strategies are concerned with the learner's
emotional requirements such as confidence, while social strategies lead to
increased interaction with the target language.
Oxford's taxonomy of language learning strategies is shown more specifically in the
following table
Table 3: Oxford’s Language Learning Strategy System (Oxford, 1990: 17)
Type Primary strategies Secondary strategies
DIRECT
STRATEGIES

I. Memory

A. Creating mental linkages
B. Applying images and sounds
C. Reviewing well
D. Employing action
II. Cognitive

A. Practising
B. Receiving and sending messages
strategies
C. Analysing and reasoning
D. Creating structure for input and
output
III. Compensation
strategies

A. Guessing intelligently
B. Overcoming limitations in
speaking and writing
INDIRECT
STRATEGIES


I. Metacognitive
Strategies

A. Centering your learning
B. Arranging and planning your
learning

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C. Evaluating your learning

II. Affective
Strategies

A. Lowering your anxiety

B. Encouraging yourself
C. Taking your emotional
temperature

III. Social
Strategies


A. Asking questions
B. Cooperating with others
C. Emphathising with others

Table 4: Comparing Oxford’s (1990), Chamot & O’Malley’s (1990) taxonomy
and Stern’s (1992) taxonomy
Oxford (1990) Chamot & O’Malley (1990) Stern (1992)
Metacognitive strategies Metacognitive strategies Management and planning
strategies
Affective strategies Affective strategies
Social strategies
Social- affective strategies
Interpersonal strategies
Cognitive strategies
Memory strategies
Compensation strategies
Cognitive strategies Cognitive strategies
It is observable that the three taxonomies proposed bear some basic similarities. The
difference between Oxford’s (1990) taxonomy and the other ones lies in that she
classified her heterogeneous strategies into more specific categories (Ehrman et al.,
2003). In comparing Oxford’s (1990) and other taxonomies, Ellis (1999) also

24
considered it “the most comprehensive classification of learning strategies to date”
(p. 539); and as Ellis stated: “the organization of specific strategies into a hierarchy
of levels and the breadth of the taxonomy (Oxford’s taxonomy) is impressive”
(Ellis, 1999: 539). It might have been for these reasons that Oxford’s (1999)
taxonomy was considered superior than others and has been used widely by other
researchers.
For its comprehensiveness and convenience in the data analysis process, this
taxonomy of Oxford (1990) has been chosen to be the basis of our research study.
This taxonomy and the questionnaires based on it will serve as a source of data
collection for the research study.
II.2.3. Role of learning strategies in language learning
Looking at the relationship between learning strategies and learning outcomes,
Ellis (1999) confirmed that the “mediating role” of learning strategies is somewhat
inevitable. The choice of learning strategies would influence learners’ rate of
acquisition and the ultimate level of achievement. Learners’ success and their level
of L2 proficiency would, in turn, have effect on learners’ choice of learning
strategies.



Figure 2: The relationship between learning strategies and learning outcomes
(Ellis, 1999: 530)
Learner’s choice of
learning strategies:
- Quantity
- Type
Learning outcomes:
- rate
- level of

achievement

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Other research studies have also helped to support Ellis’s confirmation.
As for Oxford (1990:1), language learning strategies " are especially important
for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed movement,
which is essential for developing communicative competence."
Both O’Malley & Chamot (1990) and Lessard-Clouston (1997) also agree with
Oxford (1990) on the point that language learning strategies contribute to the
development of the communicative competence of the students. They are tools
for active, self- directed involvement needed for developing L2 communicative
ability.
Bialystock (1978: 71) states in his model that learning strategies are “optimal means
for exploiting available information to improve competence in a second
language”. Therefore, the language learner capable of using a wide variety of
language learning strategies appropriately can improve his language skills in a
better way. Metacognitive strategies improve organization of learning time, self-
monitoring, and self-evaluation. Cognitive strategies include using previous
knowledge to help solve new problems. Social/ affective strategies include asking
native speakers to correct their pronunciation, or asking a classmate to work
together on a particular language problem. Developing skills in these areas can help
the language learner build up learner independence and autonomy whereby he
can take control of his own learning.
In addition to improving learners’ language competence, communicative
competence and learners’ autonomy, appropriate use of language learning strategies
is also reported to “result in … greater self- confidence in many instances” (Oxford,
R.L.& Scarcella, R.C., 1992:63).