nghiên cứu giao văn hóa việt mỹ về hành vi phi ngôn từ của giáo viên dạy tiếng anh khi tương tác với sinh viên việt nam

Part I - INTRODUCTION
I. Rationale
Since 1986, when the open - door policy and doi moi began to be applied in
Vietnam, the country and its people have witnessed significant changes in many aspects of
life. People from other countries have started to come in with investments. The presence of
multinationals in Vietnam, in particular, has created an appetite for learning English and
communicating in the language. In the light of globalization, language and communication
cannot be separated from our daily lives (Marley, 2001).
It is omnipresent that, in communication, we express our emotions and attitudes more
nonverbally than verbally. One study in Anglophone countries showed that in the
communication of attitude, 93 percent of the message was transmitted by the tone of the
voice and by facial expressions, whereas only seven percent of the speaker’s attitude was
transmitted by words. Birdwhistell (1997), who deserves most credit for awakening interest
in serious nonverbal studies, has also estimated that at most only about 30 percent of what is
communicated in a conversation is verbal. People observe us to see HOW we are saying
things and what we are DOING, more than they actually LISTEN to the WORDS used. If we
smile, they relax and smile; if we scowl at them, they tense up and become defensive.
Likewise, if we stand rigidly behind, tether ourselves to the lectern and scarcely move, they
become rigid – physically and mentally.
Hence it is safe to assume that non - verbal behaviour is undeniably important in
communication, within a culture and across cultures.
Considering the facts given above, we can see that in English language
classrooms, teachers frequently conduct direct communication, which serves as a
fundamental skill not only in university teaching but in real life as well. Among the many
direct communication forms, making presentations, delivering speeches and explanations,
giving lectures, reports and briefings in class have become a compulsory part of teachers'
tasks. Nonverbal behaviour including gesture, posture, facial expression, gaze, and
distance is tightly weaved in all these skills. There are various chances or occasions when
Vietnamese learners of English are taught by native teachers, and Vietnamese teachers
attend or observe their classes. It is for this reason that both Vietnamese learners and
teachers of English should develop a thorough understanding of non – verbal behaviour

performed by native teachers of English. While a case may be made that they will grasp
the meaning and the use of native speakers’ nonverbal behaviour after extensive and
prolonged exposure to the target culture, perhaps through immersion in the host culture,
this is a luxury enjoyed by only a small minority of language learners and teachers. Most
Vietnamese foreign language learners and teachers may never have the chance to observe
and absorb the subtle nuances of non - verbal communication at first hand.
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Therefore, Vietnamese - Anglophone cross cultural studies of English language–
teachers nonverbal behaviour in interacting with their Vietnamese students appear vital’
and useful in this way.
Furthermore, the relationship between the Social Republic of Vietnam and the
United States has been enhanced with the expansion of mutual concern whereas failure in
communication due to culture shock, cultural conflicts, communication breakdown, etc.
has been reported in recent research works.
For those reasons stated, ‘a Vietnamese – American cross – cultural
study of English language teachers’ nonverbal behaviour in INTERACTING
WITH THEIR Vietnamese STUDENTS’ is deemed academically and practically worthwhile.
ii. Objectives of the study
The research is conducted with the objectives of
a. Investigating the frequency of nonverbal behaviour performance of American and
Vietnamese teachers of English and specific situations in which teachers use the
nonverbal cues in interacting with their Vietnamese students.
b. Comparing and contrasting nonverbal behaviour in the two cultures in order to
clarify the similarities and differences in the way Vietnamese and American
teachers of English perform nonverbal behaviour in interacting with their
Vietnamese students, setting forth a number of underlying cultural factors that rule
over these similarities and differences as well as the way they affect the English
language teaching process in Vietnam in the view of the thesis writer herself.
c. Contributing to raising cross – cultural awareness of Vietnamese students and
teachers of English of potential areas of culture shock and cross –cultural

communication breakdown in interacting with American teachers of English in
particular and American communicating partners as a whole.
iii. scope of the study
The study of the nonverbal behaviour of American and Vietnamese teachers of
English is merely confined to classroom interaction with Vietnamese students. American
teachers surveyed are those who have been teaching English in Vietnam for a certain
amount of time. Vietnamese teachers are all from Division I – English Department -
College of Foreign Languages – Vietnam National University. They are equivalently
teaching pre – intermediate leveled students.
The paper is intended to cover three factors of non – verbal behaviour namely eye
contact, posture and distance.
The situations to be discussed are the most common and typical ones in classroom
setting and they are generalized into the four following situations:
 You are lecturing on a topic or giving instructions
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 When organizing group - work or pair work for students, you are sitting down
with one group or one pair and joining the activity they are doing
 Students do not understand your points and raise questions
 Students are doing their presentations
iv. methodology
The major method to be employed is quantitative. Additionally, contrastive
analysis is used. All the considerations, comments and conclusions in the thesis are
therefore largely based on the following methods:
• Reference to relevant home and foreign publications in both primary and
secondary research,
• Survey questionnaires,
• Statistics, descriptions, and analysis of the collected and selected data,
• Personal observations and experience,
• Consultations with supervisor,
• Discussions with Vietnamese and foreign colleagues.

v. Design of the study
This study consists of three major parts.
Part I: I nt ro d uc tio n
I. Rationale
II. Aims of the study
III. Scope of the study
IV. Methodology
V. Design of the study
Part II: Dev elop ment
Chapter I: Theoretical Preliminaries
Chapter II: Nonverbal Behaviour in Focus
Chapter III: Research Design
Chapter IV: Data Analysis and Findings
Part III: CON CL USI ON
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I. Summary of main findings
II. Implications for the avoidance of culture shock and cross – cultural
communication breakdown
III. Suggestions for further research
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Part II - Development
CHAPTER 1 - THEORETICAL
PRELIMINARIES
1.1. Culture
1.1.1. What Culture?
In considering the term Culture, scholars and linguists have based their conclusions on
many different criteria and arrived at different definitions which can be classified into one
group or more.
To a language teacher and in this thesis also, theories and definitions of culture which
identify culture on grounds of establishing and emphasizing on one or more constituting

factors of culture itself are believed to be the fittest working definitions because they
illustrate the relationship among social members or social groups, their communication and
behaviour.
In the first place, UNESCO (1996:108) launches the formal definition focusing on the
character of culture as follows ‘Culture is a set of symbolic systems which regulate the
behaviour and enable the mutual communication of a plurality of people, establishing
them into particular and instinct community.’
Ferrando (1996:18) considers Culture according to the nature of human beings’
possession, perception and action: Culture is everything that one has, thinks, and does as a
member of a society.
Figure 1 - 1. Ferrando’s definition of culture
Levine and Adelman (1993:58), on the other hand, look at the visible and invisible
nature of constituting factors of culture. The definition they put forth may be the most
imaginative definition of all. In their view, as for an iceberg, we can hardly see most of
the influence of culture on an individual. The risen part of culture is not always which
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Realizatio
n

Perceptio
n
CULTURE
Possessio
n
that causes difficulties in cross culture; the hidden aspects of culture exert meaningful–
influences on one s behaviour and interaction with others. ’
Figure 1 - 2. Levine and Adelman’s definition of culture
As a matter of fact, various definitions of culture reflect different theoretical concepts of
what culture is. It is, however, necessary for the researcher to adopt one that best guide her
study. Therefore, the thesis author finds the definition offered by Sikkema and Niyekawa

(1987: 27) useful because of its influence on communication. Culture is defined as the sum
of total ways of living, including values, beliefs, esthetic standards, linguistic expressions,
patterns of thinking, behaviour norm and style of communication which a group of people
has developed to assure its survival in a particular physical and human environment.
A number of researchers, for example, Robinson (1985: 9) and Samovar, Porter and
Stefani (1997: 36) also share their view when they hold that culture is a concept referring
to ways of acting, believing, valuing and thinking which are shared by members of a
community (social group) and which are transmitted to the next generation. When people
of a community communicate with people of other cultures, their culture will shape the
communication.
It can be seen from the definition that culture is viewed as a process of transaction
rather than as a body of facts, which puts forth a convincing argument for introducing
culture into second, or foreign language learning. The writer is personally interested in this
definition as among different cultural descriptions, those factors clearly shown to affect
intercultural and cross - cultural communication are absolutely the main concerns of
classroom practices in second and foreign language.
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Language
Food
Appearance
Values
Beliefs
Attitudes Perceptions
Communication style
Taboos
Customs
Traditions
1.1.2. Characteristics of Culture
It is undoubted that there are various ways in identifying the characteristics of culture.
However, most researchers including Nguyen Quang (forthcoming: 19) generally agree on

the six - characteristics paradigm as follows.
 Culture is not innate, but a product of the process of acquisition
 Culture is able to be propagated widely
 Culture is dynamic
 Culture is optional
 Culture is a perfect whole with intertwined and related factors.
 Culture is ethnocentric
1.1.3. Place of Culture in English Language Teaching in Vietnam
As mentioned from the very beginning of the research, English has regained its
position of importance from Russian and French after suffering years of neglect. English
schools and centres have been mushrooming all over the country, especially in Ho Chi
Minh City and Hanoi, the two most populous cities in Vietnam.
In the light of globalisation, language and culture cannot be separated from our daily
lives (Marley, 1996:17). It is also undeniable that language plays an essential role in the
perpetuation of culture (Kramsch, 2000:52). Therefore, an overview of how cultural
factors affect the learning and teaching of English in Vietnam should undoubtedly be
included in this research. Towards this end, the influence of Confucianism and more
modern philosophies needs to be investigated to get a picture of the classroom culture in
which the target language is taught and learnt, as language needs to be understood within
the particular context in which it is used (Pennycook, 1997:35).
To elaborate on the current situation of learning and teaching English, the thesis author
will address two issues concerning the effects of Confucianism: the traditional method of
teaching and the implementation of communicative language teaching (CLT).
 The Vietnamese people have a long tradition of appreciation of educational
achievements. However, Tong (2000:46) points out that the remaining traditions do not
always represent the most beautiful aspects of the people but may contain elements to
hinder progress and create inappropriate attitudes toward improvement. One aspect of this
tradition is reflected in the hierarchy of both the society and education systems.
The highest institute of education is the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET),
which decides all the activities of the whole education system. School authorities, teachers

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and students have almost no power at all. Their success is usually assessed by the results of
exams and passing exams shows their mastery of knowledge. Respect paid to teachers is
another piece of evidence of how Confucianism has left its stamp on classroom culture.
Phuoc (1975, cited in Ellis, 1995:10) notes that ‘the Confucian model is teacher –
centered, closed, suspicious of creativity, and predicated on an unquestioning obedience
from the students.’ The compulsory book recitation in the old days accounts for the
popularity of the translation and grammar method in learning and teaching English today.
Ellis (1995:58) writes that teaching and learning styles are mainly decided by the
value orientations of a particular society. He believes that communicative activities,
unfamiliar to Vietnamese learners, may not be welcome. Other researchers, such as Le
(1999:69), report that Vietnam is where English is taught as a decontextualised subject.
These researchers point out that choral repetition is a common practice and learners avoid
interrupting, asking for clarification, or challenging each other.
 So far it seems that Vietnam is not a hospitable environment for the
communicative approach. Nevertheless, a closer look at the situation presents a different
view. While it is true that the grammar translation method is considered the basis for
English teaching and learning, C.L.T, since first implemented in the early of 1990s, has
gained certain favourable approval.
Although Jones (1995:102) observes that the culture of traditional Vietnamese
education insists on quiet and subservient students, in another article, he points out that
East Asian students are willing to take part in discussions within groups (Jones, 1995,
cited in Littlewood, 1999:55). Pair and group work creates enough confidence for even
weak students to join in following class discussion. This conforms with the concept of
individualism and collectivism in the findings of Hofstede (1991:24). Working in groups to
achieve their goal gives Vietnamese learners a supportive relationship while striving for the
target language competence.
The shift toward a new way of learning with more opportunity to use the target
language, not only in the classroom but also in reality has brought a livelier atmosphere
to learning and teaching English in Vietnam. More language centres inside big cities

now cater to more and more students living in the suburbs. One of the reasons these
students go such a long distance for their English studies is because they believe these
centres can provide them with more communicative courses (Le Tran Hong Phuc,
interview, 2001- an extract from the Internet).
The need to use English in actual communicative contexts is beginning to emerge
as learners realize that the traditional learning and teaching styles do not help them
communicate with foreigners, both native and nonnative speakers of English. ‘ The way
English was learned and taught at high school did not help me to speak and understand
English at work’ (Phuc, interview, 2001- an extract from the Internet).
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Development in the society brings forth the demand of using English in the work
place, especially in the field of computer and research sciences. Another factor that
urges learners to alter their traditional aversion to communicative learning is the annual
availability of scholarships. This altogether means the need for the application and
enhancement of C.L.T in English teaching and learning.
Generally speaking, due to the culture influenced by the Confucian ideology,
Vietnamese education still heavily centers around the traditional, grammar- translation
centred methods. Although there have signals of CLT approval, it is not adequate to
confirm that CLT is so far the most successful method in Vietnam. However, knowing that
there is still a long way to go, it is justifiable to take an optimistic view of learning and
teaching English in Vietnam.
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1.2. Communication
1.2.1. What Communication?
There have been a great number of studies by scholars and linguists on communication
who agree on one point that communication is an interactive or transactive process.
However, they hold different points of view so they give out various ways of classifying
and defining the term. Their definitions therefore have different emphases and factors.
The definition may focus on the meaning of the conveyed message. According to
Rudolph, F. Verderber (1989:4), ‘communication may be defined as the transactional

process of creating meaning. A transactional process is one in which those persons
communicating are mutually responsible for what occurs.’
In Saville – Troike’s words (1986:9), ‘communication is also considered the process
of sharing or exchanging information between people both verbally and non verbally.– ’ It
can easily be seen from this definition that the writers concentrate more on the information
sent rather than anything else.
Saundra Hybels and Richard L. Weaver H (1992:5) have a different identification of
communication, which says ‘Communication is any process in which people share
information, ideas, and feelings that involve not only the spoken and written words but
also body language, personal mannerisms and style, the surrounding and things that add
meaning to a message.’ This is perhaps the most comprehensive out of the three definitions
because it focuses altogether on the information, concept, attitude and emotion of the
message sent.
In terms of communication categories, Toth (1997: 6) argues that ‘communication can
take place in many different ways. Generally speaking, two categories of communication
can be defined. The first is verbal communication; that is communication using language
and speech to share or exchange information. The second is non verbal–
communication: that is communication without the use of language but depending rather
on other channels such as body language, eye contact, physical appearance, attitude
distance and physical contact.’
Sharing the same perspective, Nguyen Quang (2004: 292) stresses upon the
components of verbal communication and non – verbal communication. The following
diagram can be highly regarded as a scientific and generalised source of approach to
communication in its crucial interrelationship with language and culture (figure 1 - 3).
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Communication
Verbal communication Non-verbal communication
Intralanguage
Body language/ Kinesics
ExtralanguageParalanguage

Environmental languageObject language
Lexicon
Rules of grammar
Rules of phonetics
Rules of language use
and interaction skills
Vocal characteristics
+ Pitch
+ Volume
+ Rate
Types of vocal quality
Vocal interferences
Silence

Eye contact
Facial expressions
Gestures
Postures
Touch/ Haptics/
Tactile
Clothing
Jewellery
Accessories
Make-up
Artificial scents
Flowers
Gifts
Setting
Conversational
distances/ Proxemics

Time/ Chronemics
Lighting system
Colour
Heat

Figure 1 – 3: Nguyen Quang’s diagram of communication components (2004)
1.2.2. Elements of Communication
Many researchers like Rudolph F. Verderber (1989:5), Saundra Hybels and Richard
L. Weaver II (1992: 6) meet at one point that the communication process is made up of
various elements. These elements are known as senders and receivers, messages, channels,
feedback, setting and noise.
Sender - Receivers
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Senders form messages and attempt to communicate them to others through verbal and
non – verbal symbols. Receivers process the messages sent to them and react to them both
verbally and nonverbally.
Messages
A message is made up of the ideas and feelings that a sender – receiver wants to
share. Messages include the elements of meanings, symbols, encoding and decoding, and
form or organization.
Channels
The channel is both the route traveled by the message and the means of transportation.
In face – to – face communication, the primary channels are sound and sight: we listen
and look at each other.
Feedback
Feedback is the response of the receiver – senders to each other. Whether receivers
decode the meaning of messages properly or not, they are likely to give some kind of
verbal or nonverbal response to the messages; this feedback tells the person sending a
message whether that message has been heard, seen, or understood.
Setting

The setting is where the communication occurs. Settings, formal or informal, can be a
significant influence on communication.
Noise
Noise is interference that keeps a message from being understood or accurately
interpreted. Noise occurs between sender – receivers, and it comes in three forms:
external, internal, and semantic.
In a nutshell, all communication is made up of senders and receivers, messages,
channels, feedback, setting and noise. Every time people communicate, these elements are
somewhat different.
Figure 1 - 4 shows how all these elements work together. The amoeba – like shape of
the sender – receiver indicates how this person changes – depending on what he or she is
hearing or reacting to.
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Figure 1 ’ 4: Hybels and Weaver II’s diagram of communication elements
1.3. Cross - cultural communication
1.3.1. What Cross – cultural Communication?
Cross – cultural communication has drawn attention of linguistic researchers. This
notion is normally interpreted as the exchange of ideas, information, messages, etc. among
people from different communities and cultural backgrounds. In fact, it is clarified by
Levine and Adelman (1993: XVII) as ‘ communication verbal or nonverbal between
people from different cultures; communication that is influenced by cultural values,
attitudes, and behaviour; the influence of culture on people s reactions and responses to’
each other.’
1.3.2. Cross – cultural value dimensions
Culture is community specific and has its own sets of values that help distinguish one
community from another. This modulates the effects of intercultural communicative
competence. Hofstede (1997: 5) refers to four dimensions of cultures: individualism/
collectivism, and masculinity/ femininity. These dimensions reflect the pattern of thinking,
feeling and acting which greatly influence the ways people prefer to communicate. People
normally know how to behave properly within their own culture and community but when

they move to another, this social etiquette changes. It is realised that there are often more
problems in cross – cultural communication than in communication between people of the
same cultural background. Each participant may interpret the other’s speech or behaviour
according to his or her own cultural conventions and expectations. Thus if the cultural
conventions of the participants are widely different, misinterpretations and
misunderstandings can easily arise, even result in a total communication breakdown.
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1.4. Non - verbal communication
1.4.1. What Non – verbal Communication ?
When most people think about communication, they think of speaking with words;
when they think about speech class, they envision students trying to improve their verbal
abilities. Although the verbal message continues to be the focus of courses in speech
communication, we must recognize that we are constantly sending and receiving many
messages that are not expressed in words. These messages are nonverbal. They prompt us
to develop significant meanings and responses for our perception of the behaviour of the
environment around us.
Words interact with nonverbal messages so intricately that we really cannot understand
the communication process without also knowing one of the crucial components of that
process – the message that is truly ‘beyond words’.
In Lustig’s words (1996: 187), nonverbal communication is a multichanneled‘
process that is usually performed simultaneously; it typically involves a subtle set of
nonlinguistic behaviours that are often enacted subconsciously. Nonverbal behaviour can
become part of the communication process when someone intentionally tries to convey a
message or when someone attributes meaning to the nonverbal behaviour of another,
whether or not the person intend to communicate a particular meaning. ’ Levine and
Adelman (1993: 100) also share the view when stating that ‘nonverbal communication is
silent language, including the use of gestures, facial expressions, eye contact and
conversational distances’. By giving these definitions, the three researchers have focused
on the characteristics of nonverbal communication, its multi - channeled process and its
both subconscious and intentional occurrences. However, they see it as an umbrella term

covering merely nonlinguistic behaviours, which is insufficient to depict a comprehensive
picture of nonverbal communication. This is precisely because contemporary researchers
on this field have insisted on the existence of linguistic aspects of nonverbal
communication namely paralanguage.
Robert N. Bostrom (1988: 160) has a more general view with higher consciousness of
the presence of paralanguage: ‘direct, face to face communication has a large– –
channel capacity you can send more than you can with a written message. This–
additional message capacity stems from the things that people do while they are speaking:
adopt various positions, take different actions, make different movements, and produce
subtle variations with their voices.’ Robert, nevertheless, only points out the existence of
paralanguage and body language factors not object language and environmental language
which has been proved theoretically and practically to be indispensable in nonverbal
communication.
Most comprehensive of all may be the idea of Rudolph, F. Verderber (1989: 82) stating
that ‘Nonverbal communication may cover any aspect of communication that is not purely
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verbal. More precisely, nonverbal communication can be viewed from two different
perspectives. From one perspective, nonverbal communication refers to people s actions or’
attributes other than words From another perspective, however, nonverbal communication
also refers to elements that neither come from nor are part of people but that communicate
through people s use of them. Thus, such artifacts as clothes and such environmental factors’
as furniture, lighting, temperature, and colour also fall within the realm of nonverbal
communication.’ With the same viewpoint, Nguyen Quang (forthcoming: 44) has also
given his own opinion which seems to cover most important dimensions of nonverbal
communication. According to him, it refers to ‘all the components of the message that
when taken together constitute the communication which is not verbally coded but both
vocally and nonvocally channeled. Nonverbal communication is composed of
paralinguistic factors (nonverbal vocal channel), such as rate, volume, etc. and
extralinguistic factors (nonverbal non vocal channel), such as body language (gestures,–
postures, facial expressions ), object language (including clothing, jewellery ), and

environmental language (proxemics, setting ).’
Nguyen Quang (forthcoming: 45) also gives the following diagram locating verbal and
nonverbal communications with reference to codes and channels:
CODES
CHANNELS
VERBAL COMMUNICATION NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
VOCAL
Intralanguage (Spoken) Paralanguage
NONVOCAL
Intralanguage (Written) Extralanguage
Table 1 ’ 1. Nguyen Quang’s nonverbal communication locating diagram
1.4.2. Importance of Non – verbal Communication
It can not be denied that nonverbal communication is of great importance in general
communication. However, though researches on verbal communication have been carried
out for thousands of years, nonverbal communication has just been systematically studied
from late 50’s of the twentieth century. Up to now, there have been numerous quantitative
research works completed on communication as a whole and nonverbal communication in
particular to assert that ‘nonverbal communication, the information we communicate
without using words, is extremely important in human interactions’ (Hybels & Weaver II,
1992: 104).
Hall claims that 60 percent of all communication is nonverbal (cited in Nguyen
Quang, forthcoming: 45) and Albert Mehrabian (Hybels & Weaver II, 1992: 104) has
determined from his research that as much as 93 percent of communication is nonverbal.
Thus the way a person uses voice, body movement (for example, eye contact, facial
expression, gesture, and posture), clothing, body appearance, space, touch, and time is an
essential part of every message that he or she needs.
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Goleman (1995: 37) believes that 90 percent of people’s emotion is expressed by
means of nonverbal cues.
Birdwhistell estimates that the average American speaks for only ten to eleven minutes

a day, and that more than 65 percent of the social meaning of a typical two – person
exchange is carried by nonverbal cues (Valdes, 1992: 65).
These all persuasive evidences have clearly shown the undeniably important role of
nonverbal communication. A number of researchers put forth three reasons for this. First,
people remember what they see more easily than what they hear. Second, nonverbal
communication accounts for more time than verbal communication in communication.
Besides, people can easily cheat others by verbal communication but not nonverbal
communication.
1.4.3. Functions and Principles of Non – verbal Communication
Functions of Nonverbal Communication
According to Nguyen Quang (forthcoming: 49) and Rudolph F. Verderber (1989:
85), nonverbal communication has four functions as follows.
 Nonverbal cues may complement a verbal message when they add to its meaning.
When you meet someone for the first time you might say “I am really glad to meet
you. I’ve heard a lot about you.” If you say this with a warm smile and shake his or
her hand, your nonverbal behaviour complements your verbal message.
 Nonverbal cues may regulate verbal communication. If you are talking to your boss
or one of your teachers, how does she tell you that it is time for the conversation to
end? She might get up out of her chair, or she might look pointedly at the clock on
the wall – two ways to indicate that the conversation is over.
 Nonverbal messages may also substitute for verbal messages. The secretary waves
you into the boss’s office without telling you to go in. We raise a hand in greeting
instead of saying hello, or we give someone a hug – a wordless way of saying we
like that person.
 Nonverbal behaviour may contradict your words. For instance, when you slam the
door behind you but say you don’t care, when you perspire profusely but claim
you are not nervous, when you shout and say you are not angry, your verbal and
nonverbal messages are contradictory. Which is to be believed? In these
circumstances, the nonverbal messages are likely to override the verbal meaning.
Observers are more inclined to believe what is expressed nonverbally because it is

less subject to conscious control. Hybels and Weaver II (1992: 107) give another
function nonverbal communication rather than this one, which is altogether
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reasonable and persuasive. They believe that often nonverbal messages accent
what we are saying. The politician pounds the lectern to make sure everyone
realizes that his or her message is important. A mother tells a child he is a bad boy
and shakes a finger at him to emphasize the point. Whenever people are
communicating something they consider important, they are likely to accent it
with a nonverbal message.
Principles of Non – verbal Communication
There are four fundamental principles underlying the workings of nonverbal
communication (Hybels & Weaver II, 1992: 108).
 Nonverbal Communication is culturally determined.
 Nonverbal Messages may conflict with verbal messages.
 Nonverbal Messages are largely unconscious.
 Nonverbal Communication shows our feelings and attitudes.
1.4.4. Differences between Verbal Communication and Non – verbal
Communication
Verbal communication starts when utterances are made by means of organized sounds,
and it ends when those sounds come to a stop. As for nonverbal communication, it occurs
right at the point two communicating partners appear (Nguyen Quang, forthcoming: 55).
Rudolph F. Verderber (1989: 83), Saundra Hybels and Richard L. Weaver II (1992: 105)
and many other researchers share the same view that verbal and nonverbal communication
differ in seven important ways namely environment, feedback, continuity, channel, control,
structure, and acquisition.
Environment
In nonverbal communication, unlike much of verbal communication, there are times
when you do not have to be around at all for people to get an impression of you. For
example, when someone enters your room without your presence, she can learn quite a bit
about your music taste through the tapes or CDs you have, the kind of person you are

through your closet, etc.
Feedback
When reacting nonverbally to others, we do not use words or sounds, but so much by
our facial expressions and the positioning of our bodies. For example, we show our interest
17
with our smile or nodded head whereas a lack of interest is expressed by fidgeting or
sneaking a look at the watch.
Continuity
Verbal communication begins and ends with words, whereas nonverbal
communication is continuous. Imagine you are at a train station. Although some people
might occasionally talk to each other, they are all engaged in continuous nonverbal
communication. Several are looking at magazines, and occasionally at their watches.
Others sit for a few minutes, then get out of their chairs and pace a few steps before they sit
again. All these people, then, are continuously sending out nonverbal messages about how
they are feeling in the situation.
Channel
Verbal communication requires a single channel that is words whereas nonverbal
communication uses several channels. This means nonverbal communication is
multichanneled (Verderber, 1989: 84). For example, we watch an interviewee waiting
outside the interview room for her turn. She is communicating her state of mind through
several channels: her posture is tense, her facial expression is worried, she may also hold
hands together. She is at the same time communicating information to us. Her clothing tells
us something about her socioeconomic status, her hairdo might indicate that she has
recently been to a hairdresser, and if she speaks, one might get an impression of how
educated she is.
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Control
Verbal communication is undoubtedly under our control because we can choose our
own words, but nonverbal communication is controlled part of the time. We have control
when we can choose the clothes to wear, the hairstyle to make, or decide whether we

should smile meeting someone. However, many of our nonverbal signals are spontaneous
when we give emotional responses like anger, surprise or happiness.
Structure
Verbal communication is structured and follows formal rules of grammar. As for
nonverbal communication, so much of which occurs unconsciously, there is no planned
sequence. If you are sitting and talking to someone, you do not plan in advance whether
you will cross your arms, your legs, or frown your eyebrows, etc. These nonverbal actions
occur in response to what is happening during the conversation. The only rules that govern
nonverbal communication are those related to politeness. They determine whether the
behaviour is appropriate or permissible, for example staring at people or pointing at them is
considered rude.
Acquisition
Many of the formal rules for verbal communication such as grammar are taught in a
structured formal environment, such as a school. We also learn what style is appropriate to
particular situations – that formal English is required for essays, while informal English is
more suitable for speech. In contrast, much of nonverbal communication is not formally
taught; we pick it up through imitating others. Young children commonly imitate the
nonverbal communication of their parents, siblings or peers.
1.4.5. Types of Non – verbal Communication
Researchers have different classifications of nonverbal communication, which mainly
rest on different specifications of paralanguage and extralanguage.
Nonverbal communication, in the view of Hybels and Weaver II (1992: 111), is
divided into eight categories namely paralanguage, body movement, body type,
attractiveness, clothing, space and distance, touch, and time. Each class consists of some
sub – classes. To begin with, paralanguage comprises of rate, pitch, volume, vocal fillers,
and quality. Body movement includes emblems, illustrators, regulators, displays of feelings
and adaptors. Clothing covers uniforms, occupational dress, leisure clothing, and costumes.
Space and distance encompass intimate distance, personal distance, social distance and
public distance.
In Rudolph F. Verderber’s words (1989: 86), Nonverbal Communication comprises

four categories which are body motions (eye contact, facial expression, gesture),
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paralanguage (pitch, volume, rate, quality), self – presentation (clothing, touch,
chronemics) and environment language (space, temperature, lighting, and color).
Beisler et al. (1997:59) believes that nonverbal communication covers the following
areas:
 Body language
 Physical characteristics and form
 Paralanguage
 Space (conversational distance)
 Environment
 Time
They also state that silence can be classified as one type of nonverbal communication.
Ekman and Fiesen (1967:44) pay more attention to object language in extralanguage
area. Their classification is expressed as follows.
 Paralanguage
 Body motions (facial expressions, movements, gestures, postures)
 Object language (clothes and jewelleries)
 Touch (handshake, rub one s head )’
 Space (conversational distance)
 Time
 Silence
However, if we take into account the whole communicating situation with the central
communicating channel is the intralanguage, and the communicating boundary is all
situational factors indirectly involved in the process of communication, we can look at the
thorough and reasonable classification by Nguyen Quang (forthcoming: 66) as illustrated
in the diagram given below.
20
Figure 1 ’ 5 : Nguyen Quang’s diagram of nonverbal classification
21

Nonverbal communication
Paralanguage Extralanguage
Body
language/Kinesics
Object
language/Artifacts
Environmental
language
- Vocal
characteristics:
+ Pitch
+ Volume
+ Rate
+ Vocal quality
- Types of vocal
flow
- Vocal
interferences
- Silence
-…
- Eye contact
- Facial
expressions
- Physical
characteristics
- Gestures
- Postures
- Body
movements
- Touch/Haptics/

Tactile
-…
-Clothing
- Jewellery
- Accessories
- Make-up
- Artificial
scents
- Gift
- Flowers
-…
- Setting
- Conversation
distance/Proxemics
- Time/
Chronemics
- Lighting system
- Colours
- Heat
CHA PTE R 2
NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR IN FOCUS
As discussed in the previous chapter, there are different types and subtypes of
nonverbal communication. However, in this thesis, the writer merely wishes to get an
insight into those factors which, in her belief, first and foremost influence the interaction
process between English language teachers and their students. She is therefore going to
present here a literature review of three factors namely eye contact, posture and distance.
2.1. Eye contact
2.1.1. Nature and importance of Eye Contact
When people look directly at each other’s eyes while talking, eye contact occurs
(Rudolph F. Verderber, 1989: 86).

As with eyebrow movement, eye contact or gaze plays an important role in enabling
conversation management, providing vital feedback when engaged in face to face floor
holding, turn taking and yielding, and in closing sequences. Paralleling to this function is
the importance of eye contact and gaze in affection displays (jealousy, nervousness, fear);
in establishing status (dominance or deference); intimacy and so on. These are likely to
vary considerably across cultures, and learning appropriateness of duration, timing and
direction is no easy matter.
In Verderber’s point of view, the amount of eye contact used differs from person to
person, from situation to situation. Studies show that people are likely to look at each other
50 to 60 percent of the time as they talk. For the talker the average amount of eye contact is
about 40 percent; for the listener the average is nearer 70 percent.
Eye contact is no doubt important because insufficient or excessive eye contact may
create communication barriers. It is important in relationships because it serves to show
intimacy, attention and influence. There are no specific rules governing eye behaviour
except that it is, in many cultures, considered rude to stare, especially at strangers.
After your voice, your eyes may be your most powerful tool for communicating. Your
eyes either bind you to, or separate you from, your audience. Every listener wants to feel
you are talking to him or her. Eye contact accomplishes this. In most cultures, direct eye
contact signals sincerity; lack of eye contact signals insincerity, disinterest, or lack of
confidence all message killers. Robert N. Bostrom (1988: 162) believes that breaking or
avoiding eye contact is almost a sure signal of a relationship that lacks intimacy and
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intensity. Your eye contact directly influences the attentiveness and concentration of the
audience. If you do not look at them, they probably will not look at you or listen to you.
Therefore, eye contact helps regulate the flow of the presentation. It signals interest in
others and increases the speaker's credibility. Speakers who make eye contact open the flow
of communication and convey interest, concern, warmth, and credibility.
2.1.2. Classification of Eye Contact
There are different ways to classify eye contact. The thesis author would like to discuss
here two main classification modes set forth by Nguyen Quang in his forthcoming book on

Nonverbal communication across cultures.
Mode 1
Eye contact is divided into two types namely direct eye contact and indirect eye
contact.
Direct eye contact includes three categories as follows
 Soft, warm eye ’ contact: this type of
eye contact elicits trust, truthfulness,
sincerity, interest, passion, etc.
 Staring: this type of eye contact conveys
coldness, anger, conceit, etc.
 Wide eyes: this type of eye contact often
shows uncertainty, surprise, fear, etc.
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Indirect eye contact consists of three categories as follows
 Looking upward: this type of eye contact
shows conceit, couldn’t – care – less
attitude, uncertainty, etc.
 Looking downward: this type of eye contact
shows embarrassment, lack of confidence,
shame, lie, untruthfulness, etc.
 Looking sideway: this type of eye contact
elicits insincerity, in - coordination, couldn’t -
– give – a – damn attitude, indifference,
etc.
This mode can be diagrammatized in the following chart:
Figure 2 ’ 1. Nguyen Quang’s classification of eye contact ’ mode 1
Mode 2

Eye contact is divided into four types as follows.
Type 1- Intimate gaze
The eye contact covers a large area of the
communicating partner’s body. The speaker’s
eyes move from the communicating partner’s
eyes down to lower part of his or her body.
Type 2 ’ Business gaze
24
Eye contact
Direct eye contact Indirect eye contact
Soft,
warm
Staring Wide
eyes
Upward Downward Sideway

oo
oo
Nguyen Quang (forthcoming:: 113)
When performing this type of eye contact,
the speaker directs his or her eyes to the centre
of the communicating partner’s forehead and
eyes.
Type 3 ’ Social gaze
The speaker focuses on the area of the
communicating partner’s eyes and mouth.
Type 4 ’ Public gaze
The speaker does not concentrate on any
part but the whole body of the communicating
partner. This type is also called infinite gaze.

2.1.3. Eye Contact in focus
In this thesis, the writer would like to explore the ways English language teachers
maintain their eye contact from the first perspective. She is going to ask the respondents to
take into account whether they maintain any types of direct (soft, warm eye contact,
staring, wide eyes) or indirect (upward, downward, sideway) eye contact in classroom
situations, and how often they perform these gazes in their interaction with students.
2.2. Posture
2.2.1. Nature and importance of Posture
Postures refer to the body positions and stances, which are the ways we sit or stand, the
way we arrange into different kinds as relaxed, formal, defensive, aggressive stance, etc.
The way we stand indicates clearly what we think of the audience, the subject, and perhaps
most importantly, ourselves. A physical slouch can also be a mental slouch in the minds of
many audiences. Good posture is extremely important if we wish to take control of the
situation (Bostrom, 1989: 164).
When we talk about gesture, we think of the movements of body parts, especially the
hands; when it comes to posture, much attention is paid to the state and position of body
parts, especially the legs and the hands. Hayes (1960:92) has discovered around 1, 000
different postures accompanied by relevant gestures.
In terms of the importance of posture in communication, Beisler et al. (1995: 195)
states that ‘You can perform consciously one posture or another, but normally it happens
naturally. Just as for most cultural behaviours, disconformity with unwritten rules will
tangle everything and can be considered a bad habit. Some other writers assert that if
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Nguyen Quang (forthcoming: 113)
Nguyen Quang (forthcoming: 113)
Nguyen Quang (forthcoming: 113)