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Field: Methodology
Code: 60 14 10
Course: K13
M.A. Minor Thesis
Supervisor:
Bùi c Thc, M.A.
First and foremost, I would like to express my great thanks and deep gratitude to my
teacher, my supervisor, Bui Duc Thuoc for his enthusiastic direction, comments, and
adjustment.
I would like to express my sincere thanks to Dr. Le Hung Tien, Dean of the Post-graduate
Department for his instructions, his encouragement and his sympathy for us and his staffs
for their assistance especially during our stay in Hanoi.
My special thanks are for our beloved lecturers of Post Graduate Department, Foreign
Language College of Vietnam National University, Hanoi for their interesting and useful
lessons and also for their kindness.
I am grateful to my wife and children whose support and encouragements have made a
great contribution to the achievement of my study.
And my thanks also go to my colleagues, my classmates, friends and students without
whose help and data I couldn't have been able to finish my study.
Haiphong, October 2007
Pham The Tu
This study was carried out with an attempt to investigate how the Marine engine
students are interested in reading, discover what problems they have in reading and suggest
techniques to help them improve their reading skill.
The study started with the nature of reading, classification of reading and effective
reading comprehension. With an investigation into teaching ESP and learning reading ESP
at the Engine Department at Vietnam Maritime University, the study gives an overview on
the University and the Department, exposes the reasons why the Marine engine department
students need to develop their reading skill and how they are taught to read ESP, finds out
what they are interested in when learning reading and so on.
Finally, the study suggests some techniques to help improve reading skill to the
students of the Marine engine Department at such as techniques for creating
motivation and interest, techniques for training students to read efficiently and techniques
for developing ESP reading materials.
/
1. Rationale 1
2. Aims of the Study 2
3. Methods of the Study 2
4. Scope of the Study 2
5. Design of the Study 3
0
Chapter one: Literature Review
4
1.1. The Nature of Reading 4
1.1.1. Reading 4
1.1.1.1. Definitions of reading 4
1.1.1.2. Reading processes 5
1.1.2. Reading comprehension 7
1.1.2.1. Definitions 7
1.1.2.2. Strategies for reading 8
1.1.2.3. Strategic Reading 10
1.1.2.4. Reading Comprehension Models 10
1.2. Classification of Reading. 12
1.2.1. According to Purpose 12
1.2.2. According to Manner 12
1.3. Effective Reading Comprehension 13
1.3.1. What is Effective Reading Comprehension? 13
1.3.2. Effective reading strategies. 14
1.3.3. Effective reader 16
1.3.4. Obstacles to effective reading comprehension 18
1.3.5. Effective Teaching Reading Comprehension Strategies 18
1.3.6. Improving Comprehension. 19
1.3.7. Techniques for Reading Comprehension 20
Chapter two: An Investigation into Teaching ESP and Learning Reading
ESP at the Engine Department at Vietnam Maritime University.
22
2.1. An overview on Vietnam Maritime University, the Engine Department and
the engine room personnel.
22
2.2. Marine engine department students and ESP Learning Requirements 23
2.3. Teachers and Methods of teaching reading ESP to marine engine students 24
2.4. Textbooks and Assessments 25
2.5. Linguistic features from findings, from materials provided typically different
from other English language materials:
28
2.5.1. in terminology (lexicology) 28
2.5.2. in grammar 28
2.5.3. in stylistics 29
2.5.4. in syntax: 29
2.6. Data Collection, Findings and Discussion 29
2.6.1. Data collection 29
2.6.2. Findings and discussion 31
Chapter three: Techniques Suggested for Improving Reading Skill to The
students of The Marine Engine Department at Vimaru.
39
3.1. Techniques for Creating Motivation and interest. 39
3.1.1. Using visual aids in teaching reading. 39
3.1.2. Combining teaching reading with teaching other skills 40
3.1.3. Diversifying reading exercises. 41
3.1.4. Making ESP Reading simple and easy 41
3.1.5. Making ESP Reading helpful 41
3.2. Techniques for Training Students to read efficiently 42
3.2.1. Students should be aware of their reading purposes. 42
3.2.2. Students should be aware of the nature of reading process 43
3.2.3. Students should be aware of effective statergies. 43
3.2.4. Students should make a habit of reading. 44
3.3.
Techniques for improving Teachers’ Activities in Reading Lesson
44
3.3.1. Regulate Teaching Time and Efforts 44
3.3.2. Help the Students with Three stages of a Reading Lesson 45
3.4. Techniques for the Development of ESP Reading Materials 46
3.4.1. Make Full Use of the Reading Texts 46
3.4.2 Design Reading Text- Based Activities 46
3.4.3. Choose proper ESP reading materials 46
01
1. Summary 48
2. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Study 48
References
Appendix
2345
Vietnam Maritime University
678
Engine Department
69:
English for specific purposes
STCW Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers
ARPA Automatic Radar Plotting Aids
GMDSS Global Maritime Distress and Safety System
GPS Global Position Satellite System
1. Rationale
It goes without saying that English is by far the most popular language of all. Since
Vietnam began its open-door policy, the English teaching and learning movement has
strongly developed. More and more people learn English in order to have a better work
oppotunity. Therefore, more and more foreign language centers have been set up to meet
the increasing needs from English language learners. People learn English with different
purposes. Some want to become interpreters, some want to become teachers of English in
order to earn a living, some want to read English documents, or instruction books We can
see a fact that whatever jobs people do, they hope they can learn to use English effectively.
In Maritime field, English has been considered 'the language of the sea'. This means
English is the only language used by seafarers of all nationalities at sea and this shows how
important English is for seafarers. After graduating from VIMARU, the students of
Navigation Department and students of Engine Department work not only on Vietnamese
ships but also on foreign ships sailing around the world. More and more Vietnamese
seafarers work on foreign ships mainly for Asian shipping fleets. Vietnam is now a
member of ;, Vietnamese seafarers will have golden opportunities to work on
European ships for higher payment if their English is good enough. Because of this, the
VIMARU leaders always consider English to be a very important subject and encourage
the students to study English well.
It is natural that learners of English want to master all the four skills and so do the
VIMARU students. A ship crew is divided into two departments: Deck department and
engine department. Deck crews use more spoken English than engine crews because they
communicate with other ships, agents, pilots, coastguards, port authorities, … Their
English plays an extremely important role in safe and economical navigation of the ship.
Engine crews do not communicate as much as deck crews because they work in the engine
room but they need a good English to understand construction books so that they can
operate all machinery on board well, this also helps navigate safely and economically. It is
necessary to teach the students of the Engine Department to master the reading skill.
However, most of them say they find it difficult and boring to focus on reading, and
especially to acquire effective reading.
From this fact, the teachers of English at VIMARU must do something new to promote
reading skill especially among the students of the Engine Department. It is time we gave
them more chances and more encouragements to read.
Due to the above-mentioned reasons, the researcher wishes to make a small contribution
to promoting reading skills among the engine department students, and as a result, the
thesis has been titled as:
2. Aims of the Study
This study is aimed at:
Investigating how the E.D students are interested in reading.
Discovering what problems the E.D students have in reading.
Making some suggestions for ESP teachers at VIMARU with the hope of helping
them improve their reading teaching.
Suggesting techniques to help the E.D students improve their reading skill.
3. Methods of the Study
To achieve the aims mentioned above, it is advisable to use quantitative method. The data
collected for the study came from two sources: E.D students of the second and third year and
the teachers who have been teaching ESP to the students of the Marine Engine Department.
Survey questionnaires are used to collect information and evidence for the study.
All comments, remarks, recommendations, assumption and conclusion provided in the
study based on the data analysis.
4. Scope of the Study
To improve reading skill for the E.D students at VIMARU, the teacher can make use of
various techniques and a number of things will be done. However, the researcher just
intends to overview a brief of the current situation of teaching and learning reading at ESP
classes at VIMARU and to find out their reading problems, then suggest some techniques
to help them enhance their reading skill.
5. Design of the Study
This minor thesis is composed of three parts:
Part one, introduction, presents the rationale, the aims, the scope, the methods and the
design of the study.
Part two, Development, consists of the following chapters:
Chapter one, “literature review” presents such various linguistic concepts most
relevant to the study as the nature of reading, classification or reading, effective reading
comprehension.
Chapter two, “An Investigation into Teaching ESP and Learning Reading ESP at
The Engine department at Vietnam Maritime University” provides an analysis on the
current situation of teaching and learning reading ESP at Vietnam Maritime University -
learning requirements, teachers and their teaching methods, materials as well as material
assessment, this chapter also deals with data collections, findings and discussion.
Chapter three, “Techniques Suggested for Improving Reading Skill to The students
of The Marine Engine Department at Vietnam Maritime University” focuses on the
suggestion of the study in which there are certain techniques for improving reading skills
to the students of the Marine engine Department.
Part three, Conclusion, gives a summary of what have been mentioned in the study, the
limitations of the study is also pointed out in this part. More importantly, some suggestions
for further study are provided.
Chapter one: Theoretical background
1.1. The Nature of Reading
1.1.1. Reading
1.1.1.1. Definitions of reading
Reading is an important process and may be defined in different ways. Here is how some
leading authorities have defined the complex process of reading.
“Reading is a tool, and its definition is influenced by the reader’s purpose and the
demands of the situation. Trying to define reading in terms of one single function is like
trying to define a hammer merely as something used for striking nails. Hammers also used
to pry out nails, to shape metal, to force things that don’t quite fit, and even crack nuts.
Imagination and situation work to define the function of a tool. Simply put: reading is
comprehending, interpreting, and applying textual material. This definition implies that
reading involves more than, and extends further than, the printed page. The reader brings a
great deal of information and experience to the page and extends comprehension beyond
the information and perspective presented on the page”. (Manzo and Manzo)
“Reading is a problem-solving process. As readers, we try to discover what the
author means while, at the same time, we build meaning for ourselves. We use our own
language, our own thoughts, our own view of the world to interpret what the author has
written. These interpretations are limited by what we know. When authors create, they
project their language, their thoughts, and their meanings into producing text. Their
creations are limited by what they know. Because of the obvious differences between the
language, thoughts, and meanings of an author, and those of the reader, reading can never
be an exact process. Because the reader’s own language and thought becomes involved
through the interaction with the language and thought of the author, readers can never be
certain that they have discovered the meaning the author intended. However, since readers
are compelled to understand what they are reading, they interpret actively while reading in
order to gain meaning, which is their ultimate goal. The reader is as active in searching for
meaning as is the writer in creating written language.” (Gooodman and Burke)
“Reading is a psycholinguistic process by which the reader, a language users, reconstructs,
as best as he can, a message which has been encoded by a writer as a graphic display”, and
the act of reconstruction is viewed as “a cyclical process of sampling, predicting, testing
and confirming.” (Goodman, 1971:135)
“Written texts, then, often contain more than we need to understand them. The efficient reader
makes use of this to take what he needs, and no more, to obtain meaning.” William (1986:3)
1.1.1.2. Reading processes
Reading can be summarized by explaining a number of processes: Perceptual processing,
Syntactic processing, Semantic processing and Mentalinguistic processing.
Perceptual processes
These include the ability to transform sound and light waves and sound waves into
meaningful chunks of information. These abilities will be affected by the development of
the visual and auditory systems. Being unable to see or hear will drastically affect the
development of reading skills as any shortage in either of these areas will respectively
reduce their development.
Perceptual processing begins at the rods and cones situated in the fovea of the eye. This is
where light is transformed into electrical signals that can be processed by the brain. It is
situated in the center of the retina. Immediately surrounding the fovea is the parafovea and
beyond that is the periphery. Both fovea and parafovea are crucial to reading with the
parafovea picking up surface information such as letter shape, word shape, and
spacing/word length, while the fovea is where the words are identified through their letters.
The parafovea primes the brain with surface information just before the meaning is
processed. Often parafoveal information is enough to recognize a word. When the context
suggests that a certain word will follow and the parafovea has identified a word that is the
same length and shape as the word predicted, the eyes will likely skip over the word, or
words, and fixate on another word two or three to the right.
Syntactic processing
Syntactic processing involves the ability to identify clauses, noun phrases (NP), verb
phrases (VP), prepositional phrases, adjective (Adj), articles (Art), nouns (N), and verbs
(V), and assemble them in syntactically acceptable sentences (S).
Syntactic development is measured by the mean length of utterance (MLU), which is based
on the average length of a child's sentences scored on transcripts of spontaneous speech.
Each unit of meaning is recorded which include root words such as "want" and inflections
such as "ed" (with the exception of compound words which are classified as one
morpheme). Sometimes during the second year after a child has about 50 words in his/her
vocabulary multiple word utterances begin to appear. These utterances are telegraphic,
usually without articles, prepositions, inflection, or any other grammatical modifications.
Children also begin to distinguish between actors, objects, and verbs at this time. The
MLU is closely related to both cognitive and social development, depending on working
memory capacity which increases during childhood, and the language used by those
around them. Adults, and particularly mothers, tend to talk to the child's level of ability,
also speaking in short telegraphic phrase to younger children and increasing the length of
their utterances as a child becomes more able to process larger chunks of information,
more complex sentence and meaning structure.
By the time children are ready to read they are quite adapt to syntactic rules in spoken
language and seem to have learned them without effort. They can easily string together
words into a grammatically correct sentence.
Semantic processing
Semantic processing develops even before an infant begins to use words. Words initially
begin with a single meaning then become richer as the child is exposed to a wide range of
words and experiences, some of which may be the same but used in different contexts, and
some that are related to each other. Meaning is assembled in semantic networks in which
words are inserted in classes. A dog, for example, may first represent a class of animals
with four legs; a child may initially refer to a cat as "dog". Later these animals will be
distinguished from each other and two classes will be formed.
These semantic networks, or schemata as some have called them, include more than just
linguistic information, they also include images, personal experience, and declarative
knowledge (e.g. knowing that a dog has a keen sense of smell because of being told so).
They may also contain tactual and kinesthetic information, cognitive processing strategies,
and metacognitive strategies. These make up skills, or networks of procedural knowledge.
Semantic networks form relatively late as compared to the other aspects of language and
continue to develop throughout life as new things are learned. The development of these
networks can be identified through word association tasks, as associated words tend to
differ with age.
Meanings within a semantic network are activated by each other, referred to by some as,
"spreading activation". Spreading activation occurs when a particular word is encountered
that is related to another. For example, when the word "fall" is encountered, semantically
related words such as slip, trip, and autumn are activated to a certain extent, perhaps not to
the extent that it enters working memory, but to the extent that if a child was asked "What
can you do on an ice rink?", they may say "slip" before the more common response
"skate". Similarly, if a child, or adult for that matter, is told to say the first word that comes
to mind when they hear the word "doctor", the most closely related word in their semantic
network of meanings will be activated rather than some obscurely related or unrelated
term. These words may differ depending on the age of the child and thus demonstrate the
extent of the child's knowledge of the word; a young child might say "sucker", while an
older child or adult might say "nurse", or perhaps "hospital".
Spreading activation helps readers predict the words that will follow based on what has already
been read. As described in the section on word recognition within the parafovea, if the
predicted word based on spreading activation of a semantic network matches that of the word
shape and length information coming in from the parafovea, the word is often skipped over.
Mentalinguistic-processing
Metalinguistic awareness makes it possible for children to think about language, understand
what words are, and define them, or knowing of language as an object. It begins to develop
gradually at a young age, through the middle school years, and continues to develop well
into adulthood. It involves the ability to use humour, metaphor, and irony, for example. It
also makes possible the use of story grammars, genre, audience, and styles, as reflected in an
individual's writing, to help with comprehension while reading. These are skills, procedures,
and strategies at a thinker's disposal. The ability to choose those that are appropriate, based
on a given situation, is called mentacognition. The effective use of skills, procedures, and
strategies associated with language involves mentalinguistic processing.
1.1.2. Reading comprehension
1.1.2.1 Definitions
Reading comprehension - techniques for improving students' success in extracting
useful knowledge from a text (Mayer : 34).
Reading comprehension plays a very important role in teaching and learning
reading a foreign language. It can be seen as the ability to obtain the information as
required in the reading lessons as efficiently as possible. Thus, three elements - reading
text, background knowledge of the reader, and the contextual aspects relevant for the
interpretation of the text - are involved in the reading process.
“A student is good at comprehension we mean that he can read accurately and
efficiently so as to get the maximum information of a text with the minimum of
understanding.” (Swam, 1975:1)
“Reading comprehension or understanding a written text means extracting the
required information from it as effectively as possible.” (Grellet, 1981:3)
“Reading comprehension is best described as an understanding between the author and
the reader.” (Richard and Thomas, 1987:9)
1.1.2.2 Strategies for reading
First, a teacher must realize that there is a difference between strategies, skills, and
activities. For instance, a skill is something you can do; A strategy is something that helps
you do that skill. Also, an activity is an action of the strategy/idea where someone uses
physical/mental materials to act out the strategy.
There are several strategies for teaching comprehension. Here, three strategies are
focused upon:
(1) Making Connections
Readers make connections between books they read to their own lives. Children
can make these connections with what they read to their lives. Teachers can help their
students connect on a larger scale. They can connect things from books to real world
happenings. By doing this, it enhances the students' understanding.
Teachers can develop their instruction around certain components that help readers
find the connections and help them comprehend. The genre can range from fiction,
nonfiction, poetry, etc. When the reader experiences these and become more familiar with
each type of genre, they learn the special characteristics and conventions of the genre. The
reader also can learn about how authors write about certain themes, topics, or issues.
Readers can usually find a topic they can enjoy from an author. In addition, the style the
author writes in can influence an appreciation from the reader.
At first, making connections can be difficult. The student learns from modeling by
the teacher and peers. The student learns that making connections helps with
understanding. They learn that prior knowledge helps them make the important
connections.
(2) Questioning
Questions are the key to understanding. They take us into understanding. Students
need to feel that their questions are important. Teachers need to model by asking and
answering questions. When students ask questions they have a desire to learn for
understanding. This leads to comprehension.
There are several different ways a teacher can use questioning in their lessons. One
is the teacher can share their own questions they may have when they are reading. By
doing this, it shows that students have questions about what they read. Another strategy
that may work for questioning is the use of a book of questions. When the students are
reading and they have a question about something, the students can make a list of
questions. When the class is discussing the reading, the class can help answer the students'
questions. Teachers seem to focus on questions that quiz the students to see what they
know about a topic. Teachers are starting to focus on a different type of question. This
question is the question that they may not know the answer to. This question may require
research by the teacher and the class. Another question is one that they wonder about.
These are the types of questions that are likely to bring about understanding and meaning
for the students.
(3) Visualizing and Inferring
Visualizing is creating pictures in our minds. When students visualize, they create
their 'own movie' in their minds. Teachers can use picture books that do not have words to
help the students make their mental movies.
When we read we create an image in our mind. We create an amalgam - the
conclusion we draw, the interpretation we create (Keene : 126). We read and create this
image with what we know or have experienced. Things come alive when we use sensory
images. Teachers can help give these images through lessons that evoke the thought
processes.
Inferring is being able to read body languages and expressions while reading the text. To
help the students find inferences in picture books is to focus on the illustrations. The
pictures give clues to help gain meaning.
Inferring is the process of taking that which is stated in text and extrapolating it to
one's life to create a wholly original interpretation that, in turn, becomes part of one's
beliefs or knowledge (Keene : 153). It is also using one's imagination or the use of
prediction. Teachers need to have their students try to make conclusions about the reading
and make reasonable predictions.
1.1.2.3. Strategic Reading
The term strategic reading refers to thinking about reading in ways that enhance
learning and understanding (Harvey : 16). Students do no only need to understand a
strategy, they need to know when, how, and why to use them as well. In order to do this
the reader needs to use metacognitive knowledge. Teachers need to teach several different
strategies to help students use and apply them. Perkins and Swartz (Perkins, 1992) have
defined four levels of metacognitive knowledge that are helpful for gaining understanding.
These levels show the progress of the reader's thinking.
Tacit readers - readers who lack awareness of how they think when they read
Aware readers - readers who realize when meaning has broken down or confusion
has set in but who may not have sufficient strategies for fixing the problem
Strategic learners - readers who use the thinking and comprehension strategies to
enhance understanding and acquire knowledge
Reflective readers - readers who are strategic about their thinking and are able to
apply strategies flexibly depending on their goals or purposes for reading (Harvey : 17)
Teachers need to monitor the students' progress in reading. When they do this, the students
should succeed with the proper guidance from the teacher.
1.1.2.4. Reading Comprehension Models
Bottom-up Models
In Bottom-up models, the reader begins with the written text, and constructs
meaning from letters, words, phrases, and sentences found and then processes the text in a
linear way. In the process of meaning interpretation, the language is translated from one
form of symbolic representation to another (Nunan, 1991). Without a doubt, these are text-
driven models so the reader plays a relatively passive role as s/he builds comprehension by
moving eyes from letters to letters, words to words, phrases to phrases, and sentences to
sentences to identify their exact meaning in which the shortcomings of these models are
stated. Samuels and Kamil (188:301) say “the lack of feedback makes it difficult to
account for sentence-context effects and the role of prior knowledge of text topic as
facilitating variables in word recognition and comprehension.”
Top-down models
In Top-down models, the reading process moves from the top, the higher level
mental stages down to the text itself. This approach emphasizes the reconstruction of
meaning rather than the decoding of form, the interaction between the reader and the text
rather than the graphic forms of the printed pages. The readers proves his active role in the
reading process by bringing to the interaction his/her available knowledge of the subject,
and expectations about how language works, motivation, interest and attitudes towards the
content of the text.
Apparently, the strong points of top-down models outnumber those of the bottom-
up as the reader – the central of the reading process as we personally assume – proves his
active role. However, to some researchers, these models still reveal certain shortcomings
because it sometimes fails to distinguish adequately between beginning readers and fluent
readers. Moreover, a purely top-down concept of the reading process makes little sense for
a reader who can be stymied by a text containing a large amount of unfamiliar vocabulary.
What is more, in top-down models, the generation of hypotheses would actually be more
time-consuming than decoding (Stanovich, 1980).
Interactive models
The third type – interactive models of the reading process – is proposed in the
thought of the perceived deficiencies of both bottom-up and top-down models. Interactive
theorists appreciate the role of prior knowledge and prediction, and at the same time
emphasize the importance of rapid and accurate processing of the actual words of the text.
Hayes (1991:7) proposes that “in interactive models, different processes are thought to be
responsible for providing information that is shared with other processes. The information
obtained from each type of processing is combined to determine the most appropriate
interpretation of the printed pages.”
1.2. Classification of Reading.
1.2.1. According to Purpose
According to purpose, reading is categorized into four types: skimming, scanning,
extensive reading, and intensive reading.
Skim-read and scan-read are necessary reading techniques for general sense or the gist of a
reading text.
Nuttal (1982:36) says “by skimming, we mean glancing rapidly through the text to
determine whether a research paper is relevant to our own work or in order to keep
ourselves superficially informed about matters that are not of great importance to us.”
“when skimming, we go through the reading material quickly in order to get its main
points or the intention of the writer, but not to find the answer to specific questions. …
When scanning, we only try to locate specific information and often we do not even follow
the linearity of the passage to do so.” (Grellet -1981:19)
Though these two reading techniques are important for quick and efficient reading, they should
not be selected separately because a text can be best tackled by a combination of strategies. So
after skimming and scanning, students need to have the products of critical reading, which
would be “chewed and digested” as stated in Francis Bacon (1992:386) that “some books are
to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.”
Unlike skim-read and scan-read which to some extent still have something in
common, extensive and intensive reading are viewed differently. While extensive reading
is associated with reading outside the classroom and fluency and pleasure in reading are
expected as reading fruits while intensive reading, also called study reading, involves the
close guidance of the teacher and require great attention to the text. Students need to
“arrive at a profound and detailed understanding of the text not only of what it means but
also of how the meaning is produced” (Nuttal, 1989:23)
1.2.2. According to Manner
Reading , according to manner, is divided into reading aloud and silent reading in
which “reading aloud involves looking at the text, understanding it and also saying it.” (Doff,
1988:70). Although reading aloud is considered a way to convey necessary information to
the others, it is an unpopular activity outside classroom.
In fact, reading aloud proves itself to be advantageous for the learners because it
helps them make the connection between sounds and spelling of letters and words, and
assists the teachers to check learner’s pronunciation. However, there are contradictory
opinions about it. While Nuttal (1996) says reading aloud is an aid for beginners to
improve their pronunciation, Greenwood (1985) criticizes the overemphasis of the purpose
of “teaching pronunciation” through reading aloud.
Unlike reading aloud, silent reading is more often used in both real life and
classroom, and “it is the method we normally use with our native language, and on the
whole the quickest and most efficient” (Lewis, 1985:110). Because reading is a very
personal skill so silent reading is a more effective skill for reading comprehension because
firstly learners do not need to read all the words in the text, secondly they can read at their
own speed and if they do not understand the sentence, they can go back, thirdly students
can not only attain the main ideas in a short time but also understand its details thoroughly
to answer the questions, and finally the teacher can check his/her learners’ understanding
easily and add reading materials and exercises suitable to their ability.
1.3. Effective Reading Comprehension
1.3.1. What is Effective Reading Comprehension?
According to Ur (1996:148): Effective reading comprehension is a process with the
following elements:
- A clear purpose.
- An enhanced motivation.
- Appropriate reading comprehension strategies based on the purposes and
motivation.
- Good prediction.
- Sufficient background vocabulary and information.
- Close attention to the significant bits.
- Rather high speed.
Cook (1989:14), however, suggests effective reading comprehension would be best
viewed from the cognitive behaviors of good versus poor readers in different reading
stages: Before-reading, While-reading and After-reading.
1.3.2. Effective reading strategies.
Good reading strategies help you to read in a very efficient way. Using them, you aim to
get the maximum benefit from your reading with the minimum effort. These 6 different
strategies will help to read effectively.
Strategy 1: Knowing what you want to know.
The first thing to ask yourself is: Why you are reading the text? Are you reading with a
purpose or just for pleasure? What do you want to know after reading it?
Once you know this, you can examine the text to see whether it is going to move you
towards this goal. An easy way of doing this is to look at the introduction and the chapter
headings. The introduction should let you know whom the book is targeted at, and what it
seeks to achieve. Chapter headings will give you an overall view of the structure of the
subject. Ask yourself whether the book meets your needs. Ask yourself if it assumes too
much or too little knowledge. If the book isn't ideal, would it be better to find a better one?
Strategy 2: Knowing how deeply to study the material
Where you only need the shallowest knowledge of the subject, you can skim material. Here
you read only chapter headings, introductions and summaries. If you need a moderate level
of information on a subject, then you can scan the text. Here you read the chapter
introductions and summaries in detail. You may then speed read the contents of the chapters,
picking out and understanding key words and concepts. At this level of looking at the
document it is worth paying attention to diagrams and graphs. Only when you need detailed
knowledge of a subject is it worth studying the text. Here it is best to skim the material first
to get an overview of the subject. This gives you an understanding of its structure, into which
you can fit the detail gained from a full, receptive reading of the material.
Strategy 3: Active Reading
When you are reading a document in detail, it often helps if you highlight,
underline and annotate it as you go on. This emphasizes information in your mind, and
helps you to review important points later. Doing this also helps to keep your mind focused
on the material and stops it wandering.
This is obviously only something to do if you own the document! If you own the
book and find that active reading helps, then it may be worth photocopying information in
more expensive texts. You can then read and mark the photocopies.
If you are worried about destroying the material, ask yourself how much your investment
of time is worth. If the benefit you get by active reading reasonably exceeds the value of
the book, then the book is disposable.
Strategy 4: How to study different sorts of material
Different sorts of documents hold information in different places and in different
ways. They have different depths and breadths of coverage. By understanding the layout of
the material you are reading, you can extract useful information much more efficiently.
Reading Magazines and Newspapers
These tend to give a very fragmented coverage of an area. They will typically only
concentrate on the most interesting and glamorous parts of a topic - this helps them to sell
copies! They will often ignore less interesting information that may be essential to a full
understanding of a subject. Typically areas of useful information are padded out with large
amounts of irrelevant waffle or with advertising.
The most effective way of getting information from magazines is to scan the
contents tables or indexes and turn directly to interesting articles. If you find an article
useful, then cut it out and file it in a folder specifically covering that sort of information. In
this way you will build up sets of related articles that may begin to explain the subject.
Newspapers tend to be arranged in sections. If you read a paper often, you can learn
quickly which sections are useful and which ones you can skip altogether.
Reading Individual Articles:
Articles within newspapers and magazines tend to be in three main types:
News Articles: The most important information is presented first, with information
being less and less useful as the article progresses. News articles are designed to explain
the key points first, and then flesh them out with detail.
Opinion Articles: Opinion articles present a point of view. Here the most important
information is contained in the introduction and the summary, with the middle of the
article containing supporting arguments.
Feature Articles: These are written to provide entertainment or background on a
subject. Typically, the most important information is in the body of the text. If you know
what you want from an article, and recognize its type, you can extract information from it
quickly and efficiently
Strategy 5: Reading 'whole subject' documents
When you are reading an important document, it is easy to accept the writer's structure of
thought. This can mean that you may not notice that important information has been
omitted or that irrelevant detail has been included. A good way of recognizing this is to
compile your own table of contents before you open the document. You can then use this
table of contents to read the document in the order that you want. You will be able to spot
omissions quickly.
Strategy 6: Using glossaries with technical documents
If you are reading large amounts of difficult technical material, it may be useful to photocopy
or compile a glossary. Keep this beside you as you read. It will probably also be useful to
note down the key concepts in your own words, and refer to them when necessary.
1.3.3. Effective reader
Effective readers choose to read a wide variety of materials — biographies,
novels for enjoyment, novels to challenge and inspire us, directions to find out
how to put something together, or newspapers and magazines to find out about
current affairs or investments. Today's workplace demands many different kinds
of literacy. Effective readers do not simply "practice" reading; they have a range
of purposes and objectives.
Effective readers learn from their reading, and, as they do so, learn more
about reading. Think about reading a new author, for example, or reading about an
unfamiliar topic. as you read, you gradually learn more about how to read that
piece of writing. You become accustomed to the author’s style and catch subtle
meanings. Or, you bring more general and specific knowledge to your reading of
the topic so that you can understand the text. As an adult, you have a system for
reading that constantly expands and improves; in fact, we call this system a self-
extending system, one that enables you keep learning.
To sum up, an effective reader must have the following characteristics:
• Concentrates on reading and is involved with the author's logic, word usage and ideas.
• Reads with goals in mind.
• Visualizes what is being read.
• Associates new ideas with old ones through comprehension and retention.
• Knows most of the vocabulary.
• Can guess many word meanings from the sentences around the unfamiliar words.
• Uses a dictionary to determine meanings of key and for technical words.
• Uses critical, logical reasoning to assess and apply new ideas.
• Summarizes new knowledge in own words.
• Uses review methods with texts.
• Integrates new ideas, facts and theories into knowledge already acquired about the
subject.
• Reads in phrases and thought units, not word-by-word.
• Always previews material before reading.
• Reads often for pleasure and to satisfy own curiosity, not just to complete course
assignments.
• Learns and can apply main ideas and find details as they relate to main ideas.
• Makes use of both inductive and deductive reasoning.
• Locates thesis statements, topic sentences, and generalizations.
And an effective reader can:
• Call up relevant background knowledge
• Predict what will be learned and what will happen
• Make mental pictures or “see it in their minds”
• Self-monitor or self correct
• Use fix-up strategies such as rereading, creating pictures in the mind, and asking
for help when sense can’t be made out of what is read
• Determine the most important ideas and events and see how they are related
• Draw conclusions and inferences based on what has been read
• Decide “What do I think—” Did I like it?; Did I agree?; Was if funny?; Could it
really happen?
• Compare and contrast what is read to what has already been known
• Figure out unknown words
• Summarize what has been read
1.3.4. Obstacles to effective reading comprehension
Content
• Unfamiliarity with the discipline
• Cultural differences
Language
• Unfamiliar vocabulary and uses of vocabulary
• Grammatical complexity
• Density and abstraction
Characteristics of the reader
• Vocabulary level
• Previous literacy training (e.g. in reading techniques)
1.3.5. Effective Teaching Reading Comprehension Strategies
Reading comprehension offers a tool at judging the level of passage or text
understanding while reading. Effective teaching strategies offer various modules to
enhance this skill combining vocabulary, fluency, phonics and interpretation skills.
Reading comprehension is defined as the level of understanding of a passage or
text. Reading at the rate of 200 to 220 words per minute is considered as a normal speed of
reading. For normal reading rates 75% is an acceptable level of comprehension.
Various methods are used to improve Reading comprehension that include Training the
ability to self assess comprehension, actively test comprehension using a set of questions,
and by improving metacognition. Theoretical Teaching (teaching conceptual) and a better
knowledge of language can also prove of immense health. Practice plays more pivotal part
in development and honing the skills of reading comprehension. Self assessment with help
of elaborative interrogation and summarizing helps.
Effective reading comprehension is the culmination of mastering vocabulary, phonics,
fluency, and reading comprehension skills. Person having good comprehension skills is
considered as active reader, with an ability to interact with the words by understanding its
complete meaning and the concept behind it. Thus skill of reading comprehension
