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INTRODUCTION vii
ADVISORY BOARD ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xi
OBITUARIES xiii
TEXT 1
HOW TO USE THE INDEX 443
INDEX 445
CONTENTS
The study of biography has always held an impor-
tant, if not explicitly stated, place in school curricula.
The absence in schools of a class specifically devoted
to studying the lives of the giants of human history be-
lies the focus most courses have always had on people.
From ancient times to the present, the world has been
shaped by the decisions, philosophies, inventions, dis-
coveries, artistic creations, medical breakthroughs, and
written works of its myriad personalities. Librarians,
teachers, and students alike recognize that our lives are
immensely enriched when we learn about those indi-
viduals who have made their mark on the world we live
in today.

Encyclopedia of World Biography Supplement
, Vol-
ume 19, provides biographical information on 200 in-
dividuals not covered in the 17-volume second edition
of
Encyclopedia of World Biography (EWB)
and its sup-
plement, Volume 18. Like other volumes in the
EWB
series, this supplement represents a unique, compre-
hensive source for biographical information on those
people who, for their contributions to human culture
and society, have reputations that stand the test of time.
Each original article ends with a bibliographic section.
There is also an index to names and subjects, which cu-
mulates all persons appearing as main entries in the
EWB
second edition, the Volume 18 supplement, and
this supplement—nearly 7,400 people!
Articles
. Arranged alphabetically following the let-
ter-by-letter convention (spaces and hyphens have been
ignored), articles begin with the full name of the person
profiled in large, bold type. Next is a boldfaced, de-
scriptive paragraph that includes birth and death years
in parentheses and provides a capsule identification
and a statement of the person’s significance. The essay
that follows is approximately 2000 words in length and
offers a substantial treatment of the person’s life. Some
of the essays proceed chronologically while others con-

fine biographical data to a paragraph or two and move
on to a consideration and evaluation of the subject’s
work. Where very few biographical facts are known,
the article is necessarily devoted to an analysis of the
subject’s contribution.
Following the essay is a Further Reading section.
Bibliographic citations contain both books and period-
icals as well as Internet addresses for World Wide Web
pages, where current information can be found.
Portraits accompany many of the articles and pro-
vide either an authentic likeness, contemporaneous with
the subject, or a later representation of artistic merit. For
artists, occasionally self-portraits have been included.
Of the ancient figures, there are depictions from coins,
engravings, and sculptures; of the moderns, there are
many portrait photographs.
Index
. The
EWB Supplement
Index is a useful key
to the encyclopedia. Persons, places, battles, treaties,
institutions, buildings, inventions, books, works of art,
ideas, philosophies, styles, movements—all are indexed
for quick reference just as in a general encyclopedia.
The Index entry for a person includes a brief identifica-
tion with birth and death dates
and
is cumulative so
that any person for whom an article was written who
appears in volumes 1 through 18 (excluding the volume

17 index) as well as volume 19 can be located. The
subject terms within the Index, however, apply only to
volume 19. Every Index reference includes the title of
the article to which the reader is being directed as well
as the volume and page numbers.
Because
EWB Supplement
, Volume 19, is an ency-
clopedia of biography, its Index differs in important
ways from the indexes to other encyclopedias. Basi-
cally, this is an Index of people, and that fact has sev-
eral interesting consequences. First, the information to
which the Index refers the reader on a particular topic
is always about people associated with that topic. Thus
the entry ‘Quantum theory (physics)‘ lists articles on
INTRODUCTION
vii
people associated with quantum theory. Each article
may discuss a person’s contribution to quantum theory,
but no single article or group of articles is intended to
provide a comprehensive treatment of quantum theory
as such. Second, the Index is rich in classified entries.
All persons who are subjects of articles in the encyclo-
pedia, for example, are listed in one or more classifica-
tions in the index—abolitionists, astronomers, engi-
neers, philosophers, zoologists, etc.
The Index, together with the biographical articles,
make
EWB Supplement
an enduring and valuable

source for biographical information. As the world moves
forward and school course work changes to reflect ad-
vances in technology and further revelations about the
universe, the life stories of the people who have risen
above the ordinary and earned a place in the annals of
human history will continue to fascinate students of all
ages.
We Welcome Your Suggestions
. Mail your com-
ments and suggestions for enhancing and improving the
Encyclopedia of World Biography Supplement
to:
The Editors
Encyclopedia of World Biography Supplement
The Gale Group
27500 Drake Road
Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535
Phone: (800) 347-4253
viii
INTRODUCTION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY
ix
John B. Ruth
Library Director
Tivy High School Library
Kerrville, Texas
Judy Sima
Media Specialist
Chatterton Middle School
Warren, Michigan
James Jeffrey Tong

Manager, History and Travel Department
Detroit Public Library
Detroit, Michigan
Betty Waznis
Librarian
San Diego County Library
San Diego, California
ADVISORY BOARD
Photographs and illustrations appearing in the
Encyclo-
pedia of World Biography Supplement,
Volume 19,
have been used with the permission of the following
sources:
American Stock/Archive Photos: Jimmy Dorsey, Sugar
Ray Robinson, Lana Turner
AP/Wide World Photos: Eddie Bauer, L.L.Bean, John
Berryman, Paul Bowles, James Cain, Ernesto Cardenal,
Henri Cartier-Bresson, Joan Ganz Cooney, George
Cukor, Imogen Cunningham, James Dickey, J.P. Don-
leavy, Michael Eisner, Jose Feliciano, Bill Ford, Lou
Gerstner, Red Grange, Florence Griffith-Joyner, Jim Hen-
son, Tommy Hilfiger, Whitney Houston, Ron Howard,
Faisal Husseini, Mike Ilitch, Jackie Joyner-Kersee, Joseph
Kennedy, William Kennedy, Norman Lear, Viola Li-
uzzo, Malcolm Lowry, George Lucas, Lucky Luciano,
Shannon Lucid, Sean MacBride, Stanley Marcus, Wyn-
ton Marsalis, Marlee Matlin, Scott McNealy, James
Michener, Glenn Miller, Robert Mondavi, Chuichi
Nagumo, Patricia Neal, Paavo Nurmi, Gordon Parks,

T. Boone Pickens, Ferdinand Porsche, Jr., Hal Prince,
Richard Pryor, Ma Rainey, Pete Rozelle, Gerhard
Schroeder, Wallis Simpson, Thomas Sowell, Wallace
Stegner, George Steinbrenner, Casey Stengel, Helen
Stephens, Martha Stewart, David Trimble, Matt Urban,
Atal Behari Vajpayee, Jack Warner, Thomas John Wat-
son, Jr., Steve Wozniak, Chien-Shiung Wu, Darryl F.
Zanuck
APA/Archive Photos: Connie Mack
Archive Photos: Moshood Abiola, Harold Arlen, Max
Beerbohm, Richard Branson, Lenny Bruce, Lepke
Buchalter, Roy Campanella, Steve Case, Florence Chad-
wick, Chai Ling, Joan Crawford, E.L. Doctorow,
Gertrude Ederle, Eileen Ford, Lou Gehrig, George Gipp,
Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie, Ben Hogan, Grace Kelly,
Jack Kevorkian, Ernie Kovacs, Oscar Levant, William
Levitt, Louis B. Mayer, Michael Milken, Billy Mills, Stan
Musial, Richard Reynolds, Maurice Sendak, Nawaz
Sharif,Eunice Kennedy Shriver, W. Eugene Smith,
Preston Sturges, Arthur Tedder, Gloria Vanderbilt,
Vercingetorix, Gianni Versace, Helmut Werner, Helen
Wills,Aldolph Zukor
Archive Photos/Reuters: Helen Thomas, Alfred Eisen-
staedt
Jerry Baur: Ngaio Marsh, Walker Percy, Jean Rhys
Les Brown Enterprises, Inc.: Les Brown
Country Music Foundation, Inc.: Jimmie Rodgers
Steve Dipaola 1998/Nike, Inc.: Phil Knight
Fisk University Library: Elijah McCoy
General Electric: Jack Welch

The Granger Collection, New York: Jan Matzeliger
Henry Grossman: Isaac Stern
HarperCollins Publishers Inc.: Shel Silverstein
Hulton-Deutsch Collection/Corbis: Derek Jacobi, Paul
Poiret, Mary Quant
International Portrait Gallery: Richard Hughes
The Kobal Collection: Lon Chaney, Douglas Fairbanks,
Jean-Luc Godard, Mae West
Library of Congress: Clarence Birdseye, Herman Hol-
lerith, Belva Lockwood, Alice Paul, Mary Pickford
Hugh Lofting, Literary Estate of: Hugh Lofting
Macmillan Children’s Books Group: Marguerite Henry
Netscape Communications: Marc Andreessen
Penske Motorsports, Inc.: Roger Penske
Queens Library, Long Island Division: Lewis Latimer
Ken Settle: Stevie Wonder
Transcendental Graphics: Ted Williams
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
xi
UPI/Corbis-Bettmann: Robert Ballard, Rosa Bonheur,
Adolphus Busch, Maureen Connolly, Alice Evans, Al-
fred Fuller, Barron Hilton, Maggie Kuhn, Suzanne
Lenglen, Candy Lightner, Bill Pickett, Ethel Andrus, Vin-
cent Bendix, William Bernbach, Harold Courlander,
Charles Dow, H.J. Heinz, Konosuke Matsushita, Conde
Nast, Maurice Richard, Walter Short, Cornelia Otis Skin-
ner, Carl Spaatz, Ed Sullivan, Stella Walsh, Pat Weaver,
Edward Weston, Ryan White
USHMM Photo Archives: Albert Speer
Carl Van Vechten, the Estate of: Mahalia Jackson

xii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY
The following people, appearing in volumes 1-18 of the
Encyclopedia of World Biography,
have died since the
publication of the second edition and its volume 18
supplement. Each entry lists the volume where the full
biography can be found.
ABZUG, BELLA (born 1920), liberal lawyer and uncon-
ventional politician, who worked energetically for civil
and women’s rights and served three terms as a mem-
ber of the U.S. Congress, died of complications follow-
ing heart surgery at Columbia Presbyterian Medical Cen-
ter in New York, New York, March 31, 1998 (Vol. 1).
BLACKMUN, HARRY (born 1908), U.S. Supreme Court
justice who became a passionate defender of the right
to abortion, died of complications following hip re-
placement surgery in Arlington, Virginia, March 4, 1999
(Vol. 2).
BRADLEY, TOM (born 1917), first African American
mayor of Los Angeles, who won election five times and
served a record 20 years in office, died of a heart attack
at Kaiser Permanente West Los Angeles Medical Center
in Los Angeles, California, September 29, 1998 (Vol. 2).
CARMICHAEL, STOKELY (born 1941), American civil
rights activist who stood at the forefront of the Black
Power movement of the 1960s, died of cancer in
Conakry, Guinea, November 15, 1998 (Vol. 3).
DIMAGGIO, JOE (born 1914), American baseball star
whose 56-game hitting streak with the New York Yan-

kees in 1941 made him an indelible American folk
hero, died of lung cancer at his home in Hollywood,
Florida, March 8, 1999 (Vol. 5).
HUGHES, TED (born 1930), eminent British poet who
led a resurgence of English poetic innovation and was
named poet laureate in 1985, died of cancer at his
home in North Tawton, England, October 28, 1998
(Vol. 8).
HUSSEIN IBN TALAL (born 1935), third ruler of the
Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, was the longest-ruling
monarch of his time and one of the most skillful politi-
cians of the second half of the 20th century, died of
cancer in Amman, Jordan, February 7, 1999 (Vol 8).
KUBRICK, STANLEY (born 1928), American film direc-
tor who won acclaim for films he directed during the
1950s, but was best known for his later work including
Dr. Strangelove, 2001: A Space Odyssey,
and
A Clock-
work Orange,
died at his home in Hertfordshire, Eng-
land, March 7, 1999 (Vol 18).
KUROSAWA, AKIRA (born 1910), Japanese film direc-
tor who was noted for his visually arresting and intel-
lectually adventurous evocations of Japan’s mythic past
and agonized present, died of a stroke at his home in
Tokyo, Japan, September 5, 1998 (Vol. 9).
MARTIN, WILLIAM McCHESNEY, JR. (born 1906),
American business executive and federal government
official, directed major financial institutions and played

a prominent role in shaping national economic policy
in the 1950s and 1960s, died of respiratory failure at his
home in Washington, DC, July 27, 1998 (Vol. 10).
MURDOCH, IRIS (born 1919), British novelist and
philosopher, whose works portrayed characters with
warped and dreamlike perceptions of reality, died at a
nursing home in Oxford, England, February 8, 1999
(Vol. 11).
POWELL, LEWIS F., JR. (born 1907), U.S. Supreme
Court justice who led the moderate center faction dur-
OBITUARIES
xiii
ing his 15-year tenure, died of pneumonia at his home
in Richmond, Virginia, August 25, 1998 (Vol. 12).
ROBBINS, JEROME (born 1918), a major creative force
on both the Broadway and ballet stages, who extended
the possibilities of musical theater and brought a con-
temporary American perspective to classical dance,
died of a stroke at his home in New York, New York,
July 29, 1998 (Vol. 13).
SHEPARD, ALAN (born 1923), the first American in
space, whose historic 1961 flight was immortalized in
the book and movie,
The Right Stuff,
died of leuke-
mia at a hospital in Monterey, California, July 21, 1998
(Vol. 14).
WALLACE, GEORGE CORLEY (born 1919), governor of
Alabama and presidential candidate who built his po-
litical career on segregation, died of respiratory failure

and cardiac arrest at Jackson Hospital in Montgomery,
Alabama, September 13, 1998 (Vol. 16).
ZHIVKOV, TODOR (born 1911), the Communist ruler
of Bulgaria from 1954 until his ouster in 1989, died of
complications following a respiratory infection at a hos-
pital in Sofia, Bulgaria, August 5, 1998 (Vol. 16).
xiv OBITUARIES
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY
Moshood Abiola
The political turmoil endured by the citizens of Nige-
ria during the final decades of the twentieth century
was led by a varied group of individuals. One of the
most influential was Moshood Abiola (1937–1998),
a Nigerian businessman educated in Scotland. He
climbed to the top of several corporate ladders,
building a political and financial empire.
M
oshood Kashimawa Olawale Abiola was born
into a poor family in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Ni-
geria on August 24, 1937. Abiola received his
primary education at Baptist Boys’ High School and earned
a scholarship to attend the University of Glasgow, Scotland,
where he received a degree in economics. Abiola was
raised in the Yoruba Muslim faith; the southern part of
Nigeria where he was brought up is divided primarily be-
tween Christian and Muslim believers. Known for his out-
spoken political stances, Abiola lobbied the United States
and several European nations in 1992, demanding repara-
tions for their enslavement of African people and recom-
pense for the fortunes made in harvesting Africa’s raw

materials.
Muslim Marital Traditions
Following common tradition, Abiola took four wives;
Simibiat Atinuke Shoaga in 1960, Kudirat Olayinki
Adeyemi in 1973, Adebisi Olawunmi Oshin in 1974, and
Doyinsola (Doyin) Abiola Aboaba in 1981. He is said to
have fathered over 40 children from these four marriages.
Abiola’s second wife, Kudirat, was murdered in the capital
city of Lagos in 1996. There was speculation that her death
was caused by the military, but no proof was ever found. His
third wife, Doyin, ran a newspaper chain he owned until it
was closed by the government. In 1992, Abiola was ordered
to pay $20,000 a month in child support to a woman who
claimed to be his wife. His lawyers argued in a New Jersey
court that Abiola had only four wives; this woman was just
one of his 19 concubines.
A Businessman and Entrepreneur
Abiola was considered to be a genial businessman who
amassed a fortune through his association with various en-
terprises, including publishing, communications, and oil.
With his educational background in accounting, he easily
assumed the position of deputy chief accountant at Lagos
University Teaching Hospital from 1965 to 1967, and
comptroller of Pfizer Products, Ltd. between 1967 and
1969. In 1969, he became the comptroller of International
Telephone and Telegraph (ITT), Nigeria, Ltd., and rapidly
rose to become vice president for ITT’s Africa and Middle
East branch. He was also chairman and chief executive
officer of ITT Nigeria, Ltd. from 1972 through 1988. During
this period Abiola founded and sat as chairman of Concord

Press of Nigeria Ltd. and served as chief executive at Radio
Communications Nigeria. While employed with ITT, he
was frequently admonished by the general public due to the
dreadful condition of the Nigerian telephone system.
Abiola’s detractors claim he profited financially at the ex-
pense of the citizens by using inferior materials and keeping
extra profits for himself; charges he adamantly denied.
Much of Abiola’s fortune, which was estimated at close
to $2 billion, he freely distributed to others. He is said to
have sent over 2,500 students through the university system
as well as donating money to charities and championing
A
1
sporting events. His generosity earned Abiola the nickname
‘‘Father Christmas’’ among the citizens of Nigeria. In addi-
tion to his generosity, Abiola was considered an astute busi-
nessman. For over 20 years he carefully cultivated friends
throughout the country. He considered himself well liked by
the Nigerian military establishment, a miscalculation that
would cost him dearly.
Political Struggles
Nigeria, the most populous country on the African
continent, obtained its freedom from Britain in 1960. Dur-
ing the four decades that followed, it endured several major
political crises, including the collapse of civilian rule in the
1960s and the collapse of the civilian-headed ‘‘Second
Republic’’ in the 1980s. Both of these crises were acceler-
ated by civil violence in Yoruba, the southwestern district of
the country. Historically, north-south conflicts have pep-
pered Nigeria, as political power has been held by the

north, the headquarters for the country’s military. Abiola,
who hailed from the southern district of Yoruba, brought a
different perspective to the country’s political makeup. His
cultivation of people on both sides of the north-south divide
ultimately proved to be beneficial.
A Bid for Democracy
In 1993, the Nigerian government was undergoing
another in a series of attempts at stabilization. Major Gen-
eral Ibrahim Babangida, together with Nigerian political
leaders, inaugurated the Transitional Council and the Na-
tional Defense and Security Council (NDSC). These govern-
ing bodies were designed to exist until democratic elections
could be held to choose a president. On January 5, 1993,
the process of screening over 250 presidential candidates
was begun by the National Electoral Commission (NEC.)
The NEC banned previous candidates and parties from cam-
paigning, and so the long process began.
By the end of March, Abiola was chosen by the Social
Democratic Party (SDP) as their candidate. The National
Republican Convention (NRC) chose Bashir Othma Tofa
and the elections were scheduled for June 12, 1993. The
results clearly showed Abiola to be the winner. Babangida,
wishing to continue military rule, petitioned the High Court
to delay the elections, and on June 16 the announcement of
the results was postponed. In defiance of the court order, a
group called Campaign for Democracy released the elec-
tion results, declaring Abiola to be the winner, with 19 of 30
states supporting him. Less than a week later the NDSC
voided the election, supposedly to protect the legal system
and the judiciary from being ridiculed both nationally and

internationally. Both the U.S. and Great Britain reacted to
this violation of democratic principles by restricting aid to
Nigeria. Abiola, believing himself to have been given a
mandate from the voters, joined the Campaign for Democ-
racy in calling for voters to perform acts of civil disobedi-
ence in an attempt to force the election results to stand. In
response, Major Babangida used the authority he still re-
tained to ban both Abiola and Tofa from participating in any
new elections.
On July 6, 1993, Nigerian leaders demanded that both
parties agree to participate in an interim national govern-
ment. They reluctantly agreed and, on July 16, plans were
announced for a new election, but immediately abandoned.
On July 31, Babangida, president of the NDSC, announced
an interim government would take effect on August 27. He
stepped down on the day before the new government took
effect, handing power over to a preferred loyalist, Chief
Shonekan.
Nigerians supporting Abiola demanded that power be
turned over to him as the rightful winner of the original
election. That election was considered by many to have
been the cleanest in Nigeria’s history and was praised as a
concerted effort to overcome ethnic and religious divisions
throughout the country. A. O. Olukoshi, a professor at the
Nigerian Institute of International Affairs in Lagos, com-
mented on the election and the majority win by Abiola,
saying ‘‘Abiola allowed us to rise above ethnic and religious
differences . . . this was the first time a Yoruba has been able
to win votes both in the east and the north.’’ By this point,
Abiola had traveled to London where he denounced the

entire process. Throughout August 1993, Nigeria was para-
lyzed by strikes and unrest, and came almost to a standstill.
Abiola remained abroad for several months, finally return-
ing to Nigeria at the end of the year. In November 1993,
Chief Shoneken was overthrown by General Sani Abacha,
as the military once again seized power in Nigeria.
Continued Unrest
Resentment against the military grew during the first
part of 1994. During the constitutional conference of May
ABIOLA ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY
2
23, the Campaign for Democracy called for a boycott of
elections, demanding that the military return power to
Abiola, the presumed winner of the prior year elections. On
June 11, 1994, after declaring himself to be president before
a group of 3,000, Abiola went into hiding. He called for an
uprising to force the military to recognize the 1993 vote.
The military, conducting a nationwide hunt, arrested him on
June 23. The following day, 1,000 demonstrators marched
on Lagos to demand Abiola’s release. By July, a war of
attrition by Nobel Prize winner, Wole Soyinka, was
launched against the government. In response, the military
charged Abiola with treason. Soyinka, one of the driving
forces behind Abiola, was forced to flee the country after
being charged with treason.
The oil workers went on a ten-day strike, crippling the
nation’s leading industry and bringing the country to an
economic halt. Riots flared in Lagos and by the strike’s third
week, 20 people had been killed. By mid-August the strike
had brought unrest to the northern and eastern part of the

country as support for Abiola continued to increase. Abacha
responded by firing any high ranking military he thought
were not loyal, then fired the heads of the state companies
and their boards. Abacha eventually crushed the strike after
nine weeks. He arrested any pro-democracy leaders that
could be found.
Heart Attack or Poison?
Abiola remained under arrest for four years, and was
not allowed visits by either his family or personal physician.
He was denied proper medical care, even after being exam-
ined by state-authorized doctors. Abiola’s daughter,
Hofsad, said the family was allowed no contact during her
father’s four years in prison.
On July 7, 1998, only days before his scheduled release
from prison, Abiola collapsed during a visit with a U.S.
delegation and died in Abuja, Nigeria, of an alleged heart
attack. His long-time friend and supporter, Wole Soyinka,
expressed doubts that the death was the result of natural
causes. ‘‘I’m convinced that some kind of slow poison was
administered to Abiola,’’ he told an interviewer after learn-
ing of his friend’s death. Soyinka claimed that other Nige-
rian political prisoners had been injected with poison and
indicated that he had received a note prior to Abiola’s death
stating that his friend would be killed within the next few
days.
An autopsy found that Abiola’s heart was seriously
diseased and confirmed it as the cause of his death. The U.S.
delegation visiting Abiola at the time of his attack saw no
reason to presume foul play, indicating that the presiding
doctors felt that the symptoms were consistent with a heart

attack.
Abiola’s death shocked and saddened a country that
had come close to experiencing true democracy through
valid elections for the first time in its history. The Roman
Catholic Archbishop of Lagos, Anthony Okogie, com-
mented on Abiola’s passing by saying, ‘‘His death is the end
of a chapter.’’ Instead of celebrating his release and the
possible resurgence of democracy, Nigeria stepped back to
re-gather itself, and start the process again.
Further Reading
Atlanta Journal and Constitution,
July 16, 1998.
Newsday,
June 9, 1995.
Time,
August 9, 1993.
AP Online,
July 7, 1998.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online, (Febru-
ary 16, 1999). Ⅺ
Marc Andreessen
Marc Andreessen (born 1972) has been one of the
key players in making the Internet and World Wide
Web accessible to the masses, thanks to his develop-
ment of Netscape Navigator, a browser that inte-
grates text, graphics, and sound.
T
he astronomical growth of the World Wide Web
could not have occurred without a simple product
that helped users find their way through the vast, and

sometimes disorganized, material on the Web. The first
such product, called a browser, was invented by a team
including software developer and entrepreneur, Marc An-
dreessen. He developed the Mosaic program as a college
student. It later became the Netscape Navigator when he
co-founded his own company in 1994. This browser soft-
ware had a profound impact on society. According to some
estimates, Mosaic stimulated a 10,000 percent increase in
the number of Web users within two years from its debut,
and Netscape Navigator was even more popular.
Young Computer Whiz
Andreessen was born in Iowa in 1972. He lived in the
small town of New Lisbon, Wisconsin, with his parents,
Lowell and Patricia. Marc Andreessen’s father worked in the
agricultural field and his mother worked for Lands’ End, a
catalogue retailer. Andreessen was not a typical New Lisbon
boy. He spent his early years reading and learning about
computers. In sixth grade, he wrote his first computer pro-
gram—a virtual calculator for doing his math homework.
But the program was on the school’s PC, and when the
custodian turned off the building’s power, Andreessen’s
program was wiped out. The next year, his parents bought
him his first computer, a TRS-80 that cost only a few hun-
dred dollars. Marc taught himself BASIC programming from
library books in order to develop video games for the new
PC. Andreessen’s teachers and classmates from New Lisbon
remember him as a good student who excelled in comput-
ing, math, English, and history. Andreessen could even
challenge teachers, and was known to question the rele-
vance of their assignments. At the University of Illinois,

Andreessen planned to major in electrical engineering,
which he considered his most lucrative option, but then
changed to computer science.
Andreessen became interested in the Internet while
working at the University of Illinois National Center for
Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at Champaign-
Volume 19 ANDREESSEN
3
Urbana. At the NCSA, he worked with a programmer, Eric
Bina, to develop an interface that could navigate the World
Wide Web by integrating text, graphics, and sound. The
result was Mosaic, which the NCSA team completed in
1993 and posted for free over the Internet. Over two million
copies of the browser were downloaded the first year. Mo-
saic was responsible for a 10,000-fold increase in Web
users over a period of two years.
After graduating from the University of Illinois with a
bachelor of science degree in 1993, Andreessen took a job
with Enterprise Integration Technologies, a producer of In-
ternet security-enhancement products, in California. He
was contacted by Jim Clark, a former associate professor of
computer science at Stanford University. Clark had founded
Silicon Graphics Inc., a company which made computers
that specialized in graphics processing. He was interested in
starting a business with Andreessen. The two decided to
combine Andreessen’s technical knowledge with Clark’s
business expertise in order to launch their own company in
1994.
Founded Netscape
The company was originally named Mosaic Communi-

cations Corp. When the NCSA, which owned the copyright
to the Mosaic software, objected to the name, the partners
changed it to Netscape. Andreessen, as head of technology,
worked to make Mosaic faster and more interactive. He was
assisted by several team members from the original Mosaic
project at NCSA, whom he persuaded to join Netscape.
Soon, the company released their new browser, which the
development team wanted to call ‘‘Mozilla’’—short for Mo-
saic Killer. The marketing department, however, insisted on
Netscape Navigator.
The program was distributed free on the Internet, and
quickly became extremely popular. This established
Netscape as a ‘‘brand’’ name, and prompted computer users
to try other Netscape products. Soon, the company was
profitable. On August 9, 1995, Netscape first offered shares
in the company to the public. That day, shares were priced
at $28 and opened at an unprecedented $71 a share. In one
day, the 24-year-old Andreessen became worth more than
$50 million. To celebrate, he bought his first suit. By De-
cember of that year, Netscape’s stock reached an all-time
high. The value of Andreessen’s shares in the company
skyrocketed to $171 million.
Andreessen was known for putting in long hours at
Netscape, but his management style differed very much
from that of his main competitor, Microsoft. Andreessen
remained close to the programmers who worked for him,
and maintained a collegial, team-like atmosphere. He did
not insist that his employees work long hours—in fact, he
encouraged them to limit office hours to 50 per week. Char-
acteristic of this team-oriented approach was Andreessen’s

decision to offer Netscape’s browser code over the Internet
to anyone who wanted it. His reasoning was that the feed-
back he received from other software developers could lead
to new ideas for Netscape. In July 1997, Andreessen be-
came executive vice-president in charge of product devel-
opment at Netscape. With a staff of 1,000, Andreessen
hoped to stay ahead of the giant Microsoft. From the begin-
ning, Andreessen had used innovative strategies to get his
program out to the public. By allowing computer users to
download Mosaic and Netscape Navigator for free, he took
a chance. But the browsers became so popular that users
quickly developed confidence in the Netscape brand, and
purchased other Netscape goods and services.
Competition from Microsoft
Microsoft Corporation, which had been focused pri-
marily on its operating system and software for personal
computers (PCs) until late 1995, began to realize the value
of Internet browser software and announced that it intended
to work in that area. In August 1995, Microsoft released the
Internet Explorer 1.0 with its Windows 95 operating system.
Later versions of Internet Explorer were given away for free
and by December 1997, Netscape’s lead in the browser
market was down to 60%. In January 1998, Netscape de-
cided to give its browser away for free. Andreessen’s chal-
lenge was to get Netscape back to profitability. He no longer
wrote software programs himself, but as the head of product
development, envisioned new solutions for emerging tech-
nologies. With Netscape CEO Jim Barksdale, Andreessen
shifted the company’s focus away from the browser market
and toward innovations for intranets (corporate networks)

and electronic commerce. He also began developing
Netscape’s web site into an Internet gateway similar to that
of America Online.
By late 1998, Netscape’s share of the browser market
had dipped to a little more than 50 percent. The United
ANDREESSEN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY
4
State government, which had been investigating Microsoft’s
business practices since 1991, decided to prosecute
Microsoft for unfair business practices. A lengthy court case
ensued, in which the government proved that Microsoft
used its clout in the marketplace to try to drive Netscape out
of business. It did this, the government claimed, by tying its
Explorer browser with its Windows operating system, which
was installed on the vast majority of desktop computers. As
the case stretched out, Andreessen and others in the com-
puter industry were called to testify. Before the courts
reached their decision, the leading Internet service pro-
vider, America Online (AOL), announced in late 1998 that it
was acquiring Netscape. AOL then announced that An-
dreessen would be leaving Netscape in early 1999 to join
their firm as chief technology officer. ‘‘His role is considered
crucial to merging AOL’s consumer-oriented focus with
Netscape’s technical expertise,’’ wrote Jon Swartz in the
San
Francisco Chronicle.
Andreessen resides in Palo Alto, California, with his
fiance´, Elizabeth Horn, and their pet bulldogs. After his job
change, he began commuting between Netscape’s Moun-
tain View headquarters and America Online offices in

Dulles, Virginia. Andreessen enjoys a range of interests,
including science fiction, classical music, philosophy, and
business strategy. As might be appropriate for a computer
whiz, Andreessen claims to be a ‘‘Netizen’’ himself—he
gets all his news from the World Wide Web, buys his books
from the online site Amazon.com, and even uses the Inter-
net to check theater times.
Further Reading
Newsmakers
Gale Research, 1996.
Business Week,
April 13, 1998.
CS Alumni News,
Winter 1994.
Fortune,
December 9, 1996.
Los Angeles Times,
October 28, 1996.
Nation’s Business,
January 1996.
People Weekly,
September 11, 1995.
San Francisco Chronicle,
January 26, 1999.
Time,
February 19, 1996; December 7, 1998.
USA Today
October 23, 1998.
VeriSign, Digital ID Hall of Fame,
1997.

Washington Post,
March 25, 1997.
E-Media
August 14, 1995. Available from http://www.e-media
.com.
Hoover’s Online,
March 2, 1999. Available from http://www
.hoovers.com. Ⅺ
Ethel Andrus
The image of retirement as the end of a productive,
contributory life has been considerably altered by
the efforts of Ethel Andrus (1884–1967), founder of
the National Retired Teachers Association (NRTA)
and the American Association of Retired Persons
(AARP). Although Andrus was dedicated to the im-
provement of living conditions and to the education
of her students and their parents, her most signifi-
cant achievements occurred after her own retire-
ment from teaching.
E
thel Percy Andrus was born in San Francisco, Califor-
nia, on September 21, 1884. She was the younger of
two daughters of George Wallace Andrus and
Lucretia Frances Duke. The family moved to Chicago when
Andrus was a baby so that her father could finish his legal
education at the University of Chicago.
Served the Community
Andrus spent most of her youth in Chicago, graduating
from Austin High School. She taught English and German at
the Lewis Institute (later, the Illinois Institute of Technology)

while continuing her own education. She earned her B.S.
from the Lewis Institute in 1908. Andrus was active in the
community; she did volunteer work at Hull House and at
the Chicago Commons, both settlement houses. Her urge to
serve the community grew out of the example set by her
father. She believed that we must do some good for which
we receive no reward other than the satisfaction of knowing
that we have provided an important service.
In 1910, Andrus returned to California with her family.
She taught classes at Santa Paula High School for a year,
then taught at Manual Arts High School and Abraham Lin-
coln High School in Los Angeles. Among her pupils were
actors Robert Preston and Robert Young, and General James
Doolittle. She became principal of Lincoln High School in
Volume 19 ANDRUS
5
1917, the first woman in California history to hold such a
post.
During her 28-year tenure at Lincoln High School,
Andrus had many notable achievements. Her urban high
school faced problems of juvenile delinquency as well as
cultural, ethnic, and racial conflict. Andrus was determined
to improve the quality of life for her students, their parents,
and others in her community. She strove to instill in her
students a sense of pride in their own cultural heritage and
an appreciation of the cultural life and values in the United
States. By encouraging her students to conduct themselves
with self-respect, and by treating them with dignity, Andrus
helped to lower the rate of juvenile crime. Her desire to
achieve harmony in the neighborhood extended to the par-

ents of her students as well as to the community at large. She
established the Opportunity School for Adults, an evening
program designed to assist immigrant parents of her pupils.
The popularity of the program eventually led to its expan-
sion into a full-time evening education institution through
which people in the community could earn a high school
diploma.
The contributions made by Andrus led to a substantial
drop in juvenile crime and earned the school special cita-
tions from the juvenile court in East Los Angeles in 1940.
Lincoln High School was selected by the National Educa-
tion Association to be featured in its textbook
Learning
Ways of Democracy.
While working on behalf of her students and the com-
munity, Andrus continued her own education, earning her
M.A. in 1928 and her Ph.D. in 1930 from the University of
Southern California. Her doctoral dissertation promoted the
establishment of a high school curriculum for girls that
would be based on their nature and address their needs. She
spent her summers teaching courses at the University of
California at Los Angeles, the University of Southern Califor-
nia, and Stanford University.
Retirement Led to Second Career
Andrus retired from teaching in 1944. It was then that
her second career as an advocate for the retired and other
older Americans evolved. Although she had her own in-
come, the meagerness of her state pension, $60 per month,
aroused her interest in the quality of life enjoyed by her
fellow retired teachers. As welfare director of the southern

section of the California Retired Teachers Association,
Andrus began to examine pensions and other benefits pro-
vided to retired teachers across the country. Her research
led her to believe that a national organization was needed to
address the needs of her peers. She founded and became
president of the National Retired Teachers Association
(NRTA) in 1947.
AARP Founded
As president and founder of the NRTA, Andrus devoted
herself to improving the living conditions of her fellow re-
tired teachers by lobbying for benefits such as affordable
health insurance for persons over age 65, increased pen-
sions, and tax benefits. She won a major victory in 1956,
when she persuaded the Continental Casualty insurance
company to underwrite a program for NRTA members—the
first group health and accident insurance plan for retired
persons over the age of 65. The popularity of the insurance
coverage for retired teachers brought requests for Andrus to
help other retired people to receive comparable benefits. In
response, she established and became leader of the Ameri-
can Association of Retired Persons (AARP) in 1958.
Her continued concern for the costs of health care
faced by retired people resulted in the creation of a non-
profit mail-order drug buying service in 1959. The service
made it possible for members of AARP and NRTA to pur-
chase prescription medicines at prices at least 25 percent
below retail prices. Mail-order centers staffed by licensed
pharmacists were established in California and in Washing-
ton, D.C. Prescription drugs were delivered directly to the
doors of AARP and NRTA members. In announcing the

establishment of the program, Andrus explained that the
service was motivated by extensive research which re-
vealed that ‘‘Americans over 65 years of age spend approxi-
mately ten percent of their average annual income for drugs
and medications.
In July 1959, Andrus appeared before Congress to ex-
press her opposition to a health care bill based on an added
payroll tax, as proposed by Representative Aime J. Forand, a
Rhode Island Democrat. Instead, she proposed a nation-
wide system whereby the U.S. government would deduct
from social security benefits the cost of premiums for those
people who chose the plan. Administration of the plan
would be handled by a private board of trustees. Andrus
opposed the Forand bill because it denied freedom of
choice. She appeared before Congress again—in December
1959—to protest the actions of Parke, Davis & Company of
Detroit in cutting off sales to a distributor supplying discount
drugs to retired members of the AARP and the NRTA.
‘‘Creative Energy is Ageless’’
Andrus promoted the belief that retired people should
remain actively engaged in life. She was opposed to manda-
tory retirement laws and advised people considering retire-
ment to take up a second career. Andrus heeded her own
advice: her second career evolved when she became an
enthusiastic promoter of a wider range of opportunities for
older people. She worked for the right of retired teachers to
work as substitutes; encouraged older people to perform
services such as tutoring children, working with the hearing-
impaired, and becoming involved in church work and city
planning; and organized a travel program through the

AARP.
During a visit to New York in 1959, Andrus explained
that both the NRTA and the AARP are based on the belief
that ‘‘creative energy is ageless.’’ In an interview with
Time,
in 1954, she said, ‘‘As it is, when you leave a job, they often
just give you a gold watch and all you can do is look at it
and count the hours until you die. Yet think of all the grand
things we can do that youth can’t. Think of all the things we
already have done. Some day, the retired teachers in this
country will have the dignity they deserve.’’
Andrus deplored the lack of wider job opportunities for
older citizens. In 1963, she founded the Institute of Life Long
ANDRUS ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY
6
Learning to provide classes and seminars focused on the
needs and interests of retired people and other older Ameri-
cans. Additional branches of the Institute were established
in California and Florida. Her efforts received national rec-
ognition and she was asked to serve as a member of the
national advisory committee for the White House Confer-
ence on Aging in 1961. She also worked as executive
secretary for the American School for Girls in Damascus,
Syria; and as a member of the advisory board of the Ameri-
can Association of Homes for the Aged. Andrus edited four
Association journals, including
Modern Maturity
, the
monthly magazine of the AARP. She helped to establish
Grey Gables, a retirement home for teachers, in Ojai, Cali-

fornia, in 1954. She was named National Teacher of the
Year in 1954.
AARP Work Continued After Her Death
Andrus died in Ojai, California on July 13, 1967. She,
and her work, were not forgotten. In 1968, the AARP Andrus
Foundation was established. Its mission, as noted on the
Andrus Foundation website, was ‘‘to enhance the lives of
older adults through research on aging.’’ In addition, the
University of California, the AARP, and the NRTA estab-
lished the Ethel Percy Andrus Gerontology Center in 1973.
Another honor came 25 years later. In 1998, Andrus was
inducted into the National Women’s Hall of Fame.
Andrus’s belief in and commitment to promoting the
interests of older Americans continues through the work of
the AARP and the NRTA, both of which have become
powerful lobbying forces composed of more than 30 million
members. Whenever there is an opportunity to improve the
quality of life through education, employment, or advances
in healthcare coverage, the AARP and the NRTA are there to
continue her work. As noted on the AARP website ‘‘This
remarkable American leader served as a role model at a
time when women were not highly visible in public life.’’
She ‘‘exemplified her legacy of service to others.’’
Further Reading
Garraty, John A., and Mark C. Carnes,
Dictionary of American
Biography, Supplement Eight, 1966-1970,
American Council
of Learned Societies, 1988.
O’Neill, Lois Decker,

Women’s Book of World Records and
Achievements,
Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1979.
Sicherman, Barbara, Carol Hurd Green, Ilene Kantrov, and Har-
riette Walker,
Notable American Women—The Modern Pe-
riod: A Biographical Dictionary,
The Belknap Press of
Harvard University Press, 1980.
New York Times,
April 12, 1959; July 17, 1959; August 23, 1959;
November 5, 1959; December 12, 1959; July 15, 1967.
Time,
May 10, 1954, p. 79.
‘‘AARP Celebrates Women’s History Month,’’
AARP Webplace,
(April 13, 1999).
‘‘About the AARP Andrus Foundation,’’
AARP Andrus Founda-
tion Webplace,
(April 7, 1999).
‘‘What is AARP?’’
AARP Webplace,
(March
7, 1999). Ⅺ
Harold Arlen
From the time of his birth until he wrote the music to
his first popular hit, ‘‘Get Happy,’’ the growth of
Harold Arlen (1905–1986) from cantor’s son to jazz
pianist, composer, and arranger could not have been

better orchestrated if he wrote it himself.
B
orn in Buffalo, New York, on February 15, 1905,
Harold Arlen (originally named Hyman Arluck) re-
ceived his first introduction to music from his father,
a cantor. As a youngster of seven, Arlen sang in his father’s
choir. Two years later, he began demonstrating his musical
skill at the piano. He studied classical music and remained a
student of classical piano etudes until 1917, when the jazz
age introduced America to a new form of music. Arlen was
immediately intrigued with this new style and was soon
arranging songs and playing piano with his own group, the
Snappy Trio. He assumed the leadership role, by arranging
and performing numbers in a jazz format. He was also the
vocalist.
The trio experienced immediate success and redefined
themselves into a quintet, the Southbound Shufflers. The
Shufflers entertained around the United States and across
the border in Canada. Arlen’s blossoming musical career
quickly established him in the Buffalo music scene and, to
his parents’ dismay, he left school early to pursue a musical
career. He was quickly absorbed into a popular local group,
Volume 19 ARLEN
7
the Buffalodians, where his talents as pianist, vocalist, and
arranger continued to define his future. It was not long
before Arlen and his band were drawn to Broadway.
New York Beckons
In New York City, Arlen landed a singing role in
Vincent Yourman’s Broadway musical

Great Day.
When
Yourman discovered the young actor’s many talents, Arlen
was quickly moved to a role behind the scenes where he
played piano for the performers and arranged music for the
shows. His stage career ended, but his composing and ar-
ranging career flourished. It was during this time that Arlen
teamed up with Ted Koehler, a young lyricist, for what
would prove to be a long and successful relationship. Some-
times referred to as the ‘‘melody man,’’ Arlen penned tunes
to Koehler’s words. He churned out a successive string of
hits including ‘‘Get Happy,’’ ‘‘Between the Devil and the
Deep Blue Sea,’’ ‘‘I Love a Parade,’’ and ‘‘I’ve Got the
World on a String.’’ In 1931, Arlen took his talents to the
stage with his first Broadway show
You Said It.
The Cotton Club Revues
The first Koehler/Arlen collaboration,
Get Happy
, was
produced while working on Yourman’s musical
Great Day.
.
This tune was received with such enthusiasm by audiences
that the duo quickly found new opportunities. In 1930,
Arlen and Koehler joined Harlem’s renowned Cotton Club.
During the very productive years between 1930 and 1934
Koehler and Arlen produced many tunes for that club’s
revue that have become jazz and blues classics. One of the
most popular performers at the Cotton Club, Cab Calloway,

played and recorded such classics as ‘‘Trickeration,’’
‘‘Kickin’ the Gong Around,’’ ‘‘Without Rhythm,’’ and
‘‘Minnie the Moocher’s Wedding Day.’’ The durability of
these songs can be seen in the continued popularity of
Calloway’s recordings that are still sold today.
The years at the Cotton Club were among Arlen’s most
prolific. Noteworthy tunes emerging during this era in-
cluded ‘‘Ill Wind,’’ ‘‘Blues in the Night,’’ and the seductive
‘‘Stormy Weather.’’ ‘‘Stormy Weather’’ became a wildly
popular song and eventually a trademark of singer, Lena
Horne. It led the creative team to venture into movies,
where they experienced their first film success,
Let’s Fall in
Love.
This film classic cemented Arlen and Koehler’s repu-
tations on the West Coast, and the pair continued their
successful collaboration in Hollywood through many more
film classics.
Hollywood Success
While working in Hollywood, Arlen’s style caught the
attention of film producer, Arthur Freed. He signed Arlen to
collaborate with lyricist E. Y. Harburg on a fantasy film. Both
the movie—1939’s
The Wizard of Oz
(1939)—and the
musical score have remained popular for the greater part of
a century. The best-known song from the score was ‘‘Over
the Rainbow.’’ It earned an Academy Award for the duo and
became the hallmark song for the movie’s star, Judy Gar-
land. During his time in Hollywood, Arlen scored many

other movies including
Cabin in the Sky
(1943) and
A Star Is
Born
(1954).
The Hollywood of the 1930s and 1940s was ruled by a
small group of businessmen best known for creating the
‘‘star system.’’ They decided who would be a star, based in
large part on an individual’s ability to draw movie-goers to
the theatre. Composers did not fall into that category. While
Arlen remained in demand for the next two decades, be-
cause of the star system he remained behind the scenes and
enjoyed a quiet life as a composer of songs that others made
famous. However, his work was continuous and he main-
tained a good income during his years in Hollywood. A
quiet man who preferred time with his wife Anya, son Sam,
and the family dogs, he was content with his golf, tennis,
and swimming. Although not a household name, his prolific
songwriting was responsible for helping make others in
Hollywood famous.
Arlen’s productive career spanned the jazz age of the
1920s through Hollywood’s bountiful years of the 1930s
and 1940s. His talent for scoring both movies and Broad-
way musicals placed him among the finest composers and
arrangers of the time. His works on Broadway continued
even after his move to the West Coast. They include
Life
Begins at 8:40
(1934),

Hooray for What?
(1937),
Bloomer
Girl
(1944),
St. Louis Woman
(1946),
Saratoga
(1959), and
House of Flowers
(1954). During his long career, Arlen
teamed with other well-known lyricists such as Johnny Mer-
cer, writing such popular hits as ‘‘Ac-cent-tchu-ate the Posi-
tive,’’ ‘‘That Old Black Magic,’’ and ‘‘Blues in the Night.’’ In
1954, he wrote the music for the Broadway hit
House of
Flowers
with author Truman Capote and in that same year
he worked in Hollywood with Ira Gershwin on the film
The
Country Girl.
Arlen continued to work into the 1960s, although there
were few opportunities that enticed him. This was a time
when he produced lesser-known orchestral compositions
such as ‘‘Mood in Six Minutes,’’ ‘‘Hero Ballet,’’ and
‘‘Minuet,’’—each of which was scattered throughout vari-
ous films and shows, but did not achieve the acclaim of his
earlier compositions. Arlen enjoyed shedding his reputation
as a blues composer, and took advantage of this time to
further expand his talents.

High Praise from Peers
Arlen earned his place among such songwriting greats
as George Gershwin, Cole Porter, Richard Rodgers, Irving
Berlin, and Jerome Kern. Praise from such peers was high
indeed. Gershwin referred to him as ‘‘the most original of
composers.’’ Rodgers took this a step further, saying ‘‘I
caught on pretty soon to his unusual harmonic structure and
form’’ which was ‘‘his own and completely original.’’
Among Arlen’s favorite pieces was a little-known song titled
‘‘Last Night When We Were Young,’’ a favorite of perform-
ers like Frank Sinatra.
Although his career seems to have followed a direct
path from local popularity to Broadway to Hollywood,
Arlen did not become a household name. Even at the peak
of his career he chose to remain behind the scenes, satisfied
to compose and arrange music for others to perform. Arlen
ARLEN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY
8
left a portfolio of over 300 tunes, many of which are still
played every day throughout the world. After his death in
New York City on April 23, 1986, Irving Berlin summed up
the life of this brilliant composer at an ASCAP tribute, say-
ing: ‘‘He wasn’t as well known as some of us, but he was a
better songwriter than most of us and he will be missed by
all of us.’’ Arlen’s music remains fresh and continues to be
performed throughout the world.
Further Reading
Jablonski, Edward,
Rhythm, Rainbows, and Blues,
Northeastern

University Press, 1997.
Billboard,
April 27, 1996.
Time,
September 4, 1995.
Harold Arlen Biography, />mbr/harold
arlen/arlen /featured bio.html (February 23,
1999). Ⅺ
Volume 19 ARLEN
9
Robert Ballard
Robert D. Ballard (born 1942) has made some of the
most important underwater discoveries in the late
twentieth century in regards to science and explora-
tion. Not only did he help advance the concept of
plate tectonics and make important discoveries
about ocean life, he also managed to find some of the
most famous shipwrecks in history, including the
German battleship
Bismarck,
the
U.S.S. Yorktown
from World War II, and the luxury liner
Titanic.
T
hanks to advances in technology, including night-
vision cameras and fiber optics, scientists like Ballard
can help bring information about the ships back up
to the surface. ‘‘There’s more history preserved in the deep
sea than in all the museums of the world combined,’’

Ballard suggested to Paul Karon in the
Los Angeles Times.
Despite all of his accomplishments in geology, oceanogra-
phy, and archaeology, Ballard still gets most excited about
his capability to scout new territories. ‘‘I think of myself as
an explorer—that was always my career goal,’’ he told
Karon. ‘‘If I could go to Mars tomorrow, I’m gone.’’
Robert Duane Ballard was born June 30, 1942, in
Wichita, Kansas, to Chester Patrick (an aerospace execu-
tive) and Harriet Nell (May) Ballard. However, Ballard and
his three siblings were raised in southern California, where
he developed a passion for the sea. The fair-haired teenager
would spend much of his time at the beach near his home in
San Diego, becoming an avid swimmer, surfer, fisherman,
and scuba diver. Ballard’s father was a flight engineer at a
testing ground in the Mojave Desert, but was later
appointed the U.S. Navy’s representative to the famous
Scripps Institute of Oceanography. When he was still in
high school, Ballard wrote a letter to the Scripps Institute
that asked, ‘‘I love the ocean—what can I do?’’ he recalled
to Bayard Webster in the
New York Times.
Subsequently,
the school invited him to attend a summer program.
Ballard went on to earn a bachelor of science degree in
chemistry and geology in 1965 from the University of Cali-
fornia at Santa Barbara, but he never lost interest in the sea.
After graduating, he pursued post-graduate work at the Uni-
versity of Hawaii Institute of Geophysics in 1965-66, where
he made money as the keeper of two trained porpoises at

Sea Life Park. He went back to the University of Southern
California in 1966-67, and meanwhile, in 1965, he signed
up with the U.S. Army in its intelligence unit, where he
eventually became second lieutenant. In 1967, he joined
the U.S. Navy as a naval oceanographic liaison officer,
making lieutenant junior grade. For this stint, he was sent to
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, a private, not-for-
profit research organization on Cape Cod, Massachusetts.
After his naval assignment was completed, he decided to
stay on the East Coast and work at Woods Hole, continuing
his research in marine geology and ocean engineering.
Studied Plate Tectonics
Joining Woods Hole as a research associate in ocean
engineering in 1970, Ballard also pursued his doctorate
degree at the University of Rhode Island. He began studying
plate tectonics, which was a vanguard theory at the time,
and earned his Ph.D. in 1974 with a dissertation on the
subject. Plate tectonics suggests that the Earth’s land masses
are divided into sections, or plates, that move indepen-
dently of the planet’s mantle. This movement causes shifting
of the land, which results in earthquakes at the boundaries
B
10
(fault lines) and can also cause the shape of the land masses
to change over time. Also in 1974, Ballard was promoted to
assistant scientist in geology and geophysics at Woods
Hole. Meanwhile, he was becoming interested in the re-
search submarine
Alvin,
which was equipped with a remote

arm for retrieving samples from the floor of the ocean. He
was also intrigued by the idea of studying the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge, a portion of a global underseas mountain range
called the Mid-Ocean Ridge. When he suggested that the
three-person
Alvin
be sent down, other scientists doubted
the value of using a submarine for the project. ‘‘There were
quite a few people . . . who felt that submarines were expen-
sive toys that geologists played with, and that no real good
science would come out of them,’’ Ballard remarked to
James Lardner in the
Washington Post.
Nevertheless, by 1974, Ballard was named head of
Project FAMOUS (French-American Mid-Ocean Underseas
Study) and proved the naysayers wrong. The expedition
began in the summer of 1974 with a fleet of four ships and
three research submarines. During the project, Ballard de-
signed a survey sled called
Angus
that carried a camera and
could be controlled acoustically. It was sent down before
Alvin’
s dives in order to take pictures so that the scientists
could determine where they wanted to go. Ballard was on
board the
Alvin
during most of its 17 dives to the ocean floor
and thus was able to witness the rift formed at the juncture
of the plates that form the eastern and western sides of the

Atlantic seabed. In addition to the geological importance of
the mission, Ballard and his team came back with data that
could help predict earthquakes, and they also found beds of
natural resources such as petroleum and minerals.
In 1975 and 1976, Ballard and many of the Project
FAMOUS team went to the Cayman Trough, a depression in
the ocean floor just south of Cuba. They found that they had
correctly predicted recent volcanic activity under the sea
and picked up rock samples from the mantle of the Earth’s
crust. In 1976, Ballard was named an associate scientist at
Woods Hole, and would later be promoted to associate
scientist in ocean engineering in 1978 and senior scientist in
1983. In 1979, he embarked on what would yield one of his
most exciting discoveries. Off the coast of Ecuador on the
Galapagos Rift, where plates were moving more quickly
and strange variances in water temperature were recorded,
he discovered that hydrothermal vents were erupting from
cracks in the Earth’s crust and that marine life—crabs,
clams, and tube worms—could survive there by che-
mosynthesis. The journey and the underwater footage was
used in a 1980 National Geographic special called
Dive to
the Edge of Creation.
The amazing creatures and their means of survival led
biologists to hypothesize that life may have begun by this
chemical method, but in shallow water. On another trip
near Baja California, Ballard took along some biologists and
found even more proof. Tall geysers that he dubbed ‘‘black
smokers’’ were found to sustain surrounding marine life,
never before seen, that fed on the chemical-rich dark smoke

gushing out of the 10- to 20-foot spews that threatened to
melt the submarine’s port holes. Marine biologists, up to
that point, had assumed that no creature could survive so
deep in the sea, where sunlight never penetrates. Though he
is not a biologist and cannot authoritatively comment on
whether life may have started by chemical methods, Ballard
does believe that the smoky chimneys may be responsible
for much of the world’s mineral deposits.
Unmanned Sea Exploration
In the early 1980s, Ballard went to work on developing
technology for unmanned sea exploration. Sending teams of
scientists is expensive and often fruitless, so Ballard decided
that robotic means could lower costs and increase produc-
tivity for such projects. With funding from the U.S. Navy
and the National Science Foundation, Ballard formed the
Deep Submergence Laboratory at Woods Hole in 1981. He
thus designed the
Argo-Jason
system, an automated subma-
rine loaded with robotic equipment that could function as
the scientists’ eyes and ears underwater.
Argo,
about the
size of a car, has three video cameras that can see in almost
total darkness, and its smaller assistant,
Jason,
has a robotic
lens and arms and can be sent out to retrieve items from the
ocean. With it, Ballard told Webster in the
New York Times,

‘‘We hope to get even clearer pictures of the sea floor and
what goes on down there.’’
Discovered
Titanic
in the North Atlantic
Some of Ballard’s colleagues were dubious that his
system would allow for unmanned exploration, but he did
not waver. For its maiden run, Ballard sent
Argo-Jason
down
to search for the British luxury liner
Titanic,
which had hit
Volume 19 BALLARD
11
an iceberg and sunk during its maiden voyage on the night
of April 14-15, 1912, killing more than 1,500 of the 2,200
passengers. Ballard had long been intrigued by the legend-
ary ship and its story, and eventually convinced the U.S.
Navy to furnish a research ship,
Knorr,
and maps of the area
where the ship was thought to have gone down. He assem-
bled a group of French sonar researchers who set out for the
North Atlantic in the summer of 1985. In late August,
Ballard and his crew arrived on the
Knorr,
sending down the
cameras and waiting for a sign. ‘‘The bottom was just going
by and going by,’’ Ballard told Karon in the

Los Angeles
Times.
‘‘And it’s a boring bottom.’’
Less than a week later, on September 1, 1985, the
Argo
sent up an image of one of the
Titanic’
s boilers as Ballard
watched on a television monitor. He immediately knew it
was the right ship, because he had studied it in detail. ‘‘It
was a fluke,’’ Ballard noted in
U.S. News and World Report.
‘‘Any fishing boat could have done it.’’ In a week and one
day, the
Argo
videotape camera and the still camera on the
Angus
captured over 20,000 images of the shipwreck, in-
cluding the damaged area and hundreds of artifacts such as
bottles, china, a silver tray, and the barren lifeboat cranes.
Ballard was strongly moved by the scenes and opposed
anyone who wanted to profit from it, stating that instead, it
should be declared an international memorial. The next
summer, Ballard went down in the
Alvin
along with
Jason
Jr.,
a remote ‘‘eyeball’’ that went inside the ship, and saw
even more personal items, including a man’s shoe and a

porcelain doll’s head. In 1997, a blockbuster film would be
released based on the events of that tragic night, but fiction-
alized to provide an old-fashioned love story as well.
Ballard remarked in
Newsday,
‘‘The movie is excellent. It’s
a great Romeo and Juliet love story. I saw the ship I never
saw, in all of its beauty and elegance.’’
After this notable discovery, Ballard also found the Ger-
man battleship
Bismarck
in the Atlantic Ocean and in 1997
announced that he had found eight sailing ships, some dat-
ing back before the days of Jesus Christ, 2,500 feet below
the surface off the coast of Tunisia in the Mediterranean. By
then, Ballard was president of the Institute for Exploration
based out of Mystic, Connecticut, and a senior scientist
emeritus at Woods Hole. The finding of the Roman ships
was especially important because it established that under-
water archaeology could be performed in the deep seas of
up to 20,000 feet. Previously, archaeologists limited their
research to shipwrecks in coastal waters of less than 200 feet
because they thought ancient mariners did not venture into
deeper waters. In May 1998, Ballard made another major
discovery when he photographed the aircraft carrier
U.S.S.
Yorktown
, sunk in the Pacific Ocean by Japanese forces on
June 7, 1942, during World War II’s Battle of Midway. It was
located in almost 17,000 feet of water, one mile deeper than

the
Titanic,
about 1,200 miles northwest of Honolulu, Ha-
waii. The National Geographic Society helped sponsor the
work.
Ballard has raised eyebrows among some fellow scien-
tists due to what they consider his enthusiasm to seek pub-
licity. He has appeared in television programs, given
lectures, and written for
National Geographic Magazine,
in
addition to writing in professional journals. He also estab-
lished the Jason Foundation for Education and the Jason
Project, which aims to increase students’ interest in science.
Like cosmologist Carl Sagan and underwater explorer
Jacques Cousteau, Ballard has done much to bring science
into the homes of laypeople, an accomplishment that he
considers his public duty. ‘‘[Sagan and Cousteau] have
probably sometimes lost some of the regard of their fellow
scientists,’’ Ballard admitted to Webster in the
New York
Times.
‘‘But look at the good they’ve done by making sci-
ence exciting and making people aware of it! And don’t
forget that my science is paid for by some poor coal miner
whose taxes go to support me while I’m having fun, so I feel
it’s responsible to go to him and the public and tell them
what I’m doing.’’
In 1966, Ballard married Marjorie Constance Jacobsen,
a medical receptionist. They have two sons, Todd Alan and

Douglas Matthew, and live in Hatchville, Massachusetts.
Ballard has won a number of awards, including the Science
award from the Underwater Society of America in 1976 for
exploration and research conducted in the Cayman Trough;
the Compass Distinguished Achievement Award from the
Marine Technology Society in 1977 for leadership in the
area of deep submergence exploration; and the Newcomb
Cleveland Prize from the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science in 1981 for the best scientific paper in
a journal of science. He also received the Cutty Sark Science
Award from
Science Digest,
1982, for exploration con-
ducted in Mid-Ocean Ridge, including the discovery of
underwater hot springs and their unique animal communi-
ties. In 1985, he won a grant for $800,000 along with the
Secretary of the Navy Research Chair in Oceanography, and
in 1986, he was given the Washburn Award from the Boston
Museum of Science. He was awarded the prestigious Hub-
bard Medal from the National Geographic Society in 1996.
Ballard has written or cowritten 15 books and has published
numerous articles in journals and magazines, including
National Geographic.
Further Reading
Contemporary Authors,
volume 112, Gale Research, 1985.
Contemporary Heroes and Heroines,
Book II, Gale Research,
1985.
Atlanta Journal and Constitution,

May 20, 1998, p. A3; June 5,
1998, p. B4.
Dallas Morning News,
July 31, 1997, p. 1A.
Los Angeles Times,
January 6, 1997, p. D3.
Newsday,
February 5, 1998, p. A8.
New York Times,
December 28, 1982. p. C1; September 10,
1985, pp. A1, C3.
Star Tribune
(Minneapolis, MN), July 31, 1997, p. 1A.
U.S. News and World Report,
September 23, 1985, p. 9.
Washington Post,
August 31, 1982, p. B1.
‘‘Biography: Dr. Robert Ballard,’’ National Geographic web site,
(July 12, 1998). Ⅺ
BALLARD ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY
12
Eddie Bauer
Eddie Bauer (1899–1986) was the founder of the
retail stores and mail order company which bore his
name. An avid outdoors man, Bauer parlayed his
interests into a successful business based on quality
products and serving consumer satisfaction.
E
ddie Bauer was born on October 19, 1899, on Orcas
Island, located in Puget Sound off the coast of Wash-

ington state. His parents, Jacob and Mary Catherine
Bauer, were Russian-German immigrants who operated an
Italian plum farm. Eddie was the youngest child in the Bauer
family. Orcas Island was a sportsman’s paradise, with abun-
dant supplies of fish and wildlife. As a child, Bauer was
interested in the natural world that surrounded him. His
father encouraged these interests. Young Eddie wanted to
own his equipment for hunting and fishing. When he was
eight years old, he received his first hunting rifle, an 1890
Winchester .22 Special Caliber. To make money, Bauer
worked as a golf caddy and did odd jobs, beginning at the
age of ten.
Founded Sporting Goods Store
In 1913, Bauer’s parents separated. He and his mother
relocated to Seattle, where Bauer worked in a local sporting
goods store, Piper & Taft. He continued to pursue his hunt-
ing and fishing hobbies, and began playing tennis as well.
Bauer hoped to have his own store and spent two years
studying part time to achieve this goal. In 1920, he opened a
sporting goods store in Seattle, with a $500 loan that his
father co-signed. It was called Eddie Bauer’s Tennis Shop.
Bauer designed a special vice for stringing tennis rackets
that was quite popular among his customers, and soon
developed a reputation for his expert stringing. Eddie
Bauer’s Tennis Shop was only open during the tennis sea-
son. Bauer spent the rest of the year pursuing his own
sportsman activities.
Eventually, the shop changed its name to Eddie Bauer’s
Sports Shop, and sold equipment for all kinds of outdoor
activities, including golf. In 1922, Bauer attracted customers

by giving them an unconditional guarantee, unheard of in
that era. The creed for his business was, according the Eddie
Bauer website: ‘‘To give you such outstanding quality,
value, service and guarantee that we may be worthy of your
high esteem.’’ Customer satisfaction remained important to
him throughout his career.
Bauer married the former Christine ‘‘Stine’’ Heltborg
on February 21, 1929. Like her husband, the beauty shop
owner was enthusiastic about hunting, fishing, skiing, and
other outdoor activities. The couple had one son, Eddie
Christian Bauer.
When Bauer could not find a product he wanted to sell,
he designed, manufactured, and distributed it himself. One
of the early examples of this practice was fly-fishing ties,
which Bauer made by hand. In 1934, he took out a patent in
the United States and Canada on what was called the
‘‘Bauer shuttlecock.’’ This invention spread the game of
badminton all over North America.
Designed Insulated Jacket
Personal necessity led Bauer to design one of his best
known products, the first quilted goose-down insulated
jacket. He designed this jacket after contracting hypother-
mia while wearing wool in the rain on a winter fishing trip in
1936. Bauer remembered some of the light but warm goose
down-filled clothing his uncle from Russia had told him
about. That uncle served as a Cossack soldier in Manchuria
during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904. Anthony and
Diane Hallett quoted Bauer in the
Encyclopedia of Entrepre-
neurs:

‘‘I remember my dad saying that if it hadn’t been for
those down-lined coats the Cossacks wore, my uncle would
have froze to death.’’ Bauer patented his design, after mak-
ing jackets for his friends. The so-called ‘‘Skyliner jacket’’
became extremely popular with those who spent a signifi-
cant amount of time outdoors, especially sportsmen and
climbers. Soon, Bauer held 16 patented designs for quilted
apparel, including a sleeping bag. Bauer continued to de-
velop new and innovative products until his retirement.
Bauer’s product line expanded to include women’s
wear (of which his wife was in charge), sleeping bags, tents,
skis imported from Norway, hunting and fishing equipment,
and boots.
Supplied American Forces
During World War II, Bauer’s parkas, backpacks,
pants, and sleeping bags were standard issue for American
Volume 19 BAUER
13
troops. Bauer was able to solve several problems for the
military. There had been a sleeping bag shortage until Bauer
stepped in. He eventually sold the armed services over
100,000 sleeping bags. The U.S. Army commissioned Bauer
to make what came to be known as the B-9 flight parka.
After the war, veterans who had worn one of the
50,000 jackets in combat, wanted to buy more. They knew
exactly where to purchase these jackets because Bauer
insisted that his company’s label be included on all of his
products. With this customer base, Bauer began a highly
successful mail order business in 1945. His original mailing
list included 14,000 names of soldiers who had worn his

clothing, supplied by the American government.
Despite a thriving mail order business, Bauer’s retail
establishment was suffering, and the company almost went
bankrupt several times. Bauer, whose health was affected by
years of overwork and a serious back injury, was forced to
take on William Niemi as a partner. This local businessman
reorganized the store and soon improved the cash flow.
Niemi and a revitalized Bauer decided to focus most of their
efforts on mail order catalogs. By 1953, catalog sales totaled
$50,000. Three years later, the total was $500,000.
Bauer continued to supply his equipment for significant
events, including the American K-2 Himalayan Expedition
and several journeys through Antarctica. In 1963, James W.
Whittaker, the first American to climb Mount Everest, was
wearing an Eddie Bauer parka. His whole expedition used
and wore Bauer’s products.
Bauer and Niemi included their sons, Eddie C. Bauer
and William Niemi, Jr., as partners in 1960. The company
continued to prosper throughout the 1960s, based mostly
on mail order sales, though the original retail store remained
open. In 1968, Bauer retired and sold his share of the
business to the Niemi family for $1.5 million. That same
year, the second Eddie Bauer store was established, the first
of many retail stores that would open in the next three
decades. By 1971, the company had become part of Gen-
eral Mills. The Eddie Bauer Company continued to build
retail stores and expand its line of merchandise. By the time
of Bauer’s death, there were 39 retail stores and two million
mail order customers. Bauer died of a heart attack in Belle-
vue, Washington on April 18, 1986, two weeks after his wife

died of pancreatic cancer.
Name Lived After Death
Eddie Bauer’s name lived through the constant expan-
sion of retail stores, merchandise lines, and mail order busi-
ness. By 1988, there were 61 stores, all bearing Bauer’s
name. That year the company was bought by Spiegel from
General Mills for $260 million. Bauer’s name continued to
appear on products for the home, many kinds of clothing, as
well as specially designed automobiles and sports utility
vehicles. By 1999, there were 530 Eddie Bauer stores
throughout the world. The company continues to empha-
size Bauer’s 1922 customer satisfaction policy and uncon-
ditional guarantee.
Further Reading
Business Leader Profiles for Students.
edited by Sheila Dow,
Gale, 1999.
Contemporary Newsmakers
edited by Peter Gareffa, Gale, 1987.
Fucini, Joseph J. and Suzy.
Enterpreneurs: The Men and Women
Behind Famous Brand Names and How They Made It,
G.K.
Hall, 1985.
Hallett, Anthony and Diane.
Entrepreneur Magazine: Encyclope-
dia of Entrepreneurs,
John Wiley, 1997.
Journal of Commerce,
November 13, 1996.

New York Times,
April 26, 1986.
About Eddie Bauer,
/>frame
companyoverview.asp? (February 21,1999). Ⅺ
Leon Leonwood Bean
Think of the mail-order business and several promi-
nent names come to mind—Sears, Roebuck & Com-
pany, Montgomery Ward, and Spiegel’s, to name just
a few. But perhaps none has achieved the unique
quality, charm, and character of L.L. Bean, Inc. Re-
nowned for its dedication to customer service and
satisfaction, the highly successful company can be
said to truly to reflect the experience and ideals of its
founder, L.L. Bean (1872–1967).
L
eon Leonwood Bean was born on November 13,
1872 in the small town of Greenwood, Maine. He
was the son of Benjamin Warren Bean, a farmer and
horse trader, and Sarah Swett. His parents died within four
days of each other when Bean was 12 years old. He and his
five siblings were sent to live with relatives in South Paris,
Maine.
Demonstrated Entrepreneurial Skills
Bean’s first business transaction took place when he
was nine years old. Given the choice of attending the local
fair or selling steel traps to his father, Bean sold the traps and
earned his first income. He developed a love of the outdoors
when he was quite young, and earned money by engaging
in occupations geared to the outdoors. He worked on farms,

peddled soap, hunted, and trapped. At the age of 13, he
killed and sold his first deer. Bean paid his own way through
private school, but his formal schooling was limited. It in-
cluded a commercial course at Kent’s Hill Academy and a
semester at Hebron Academy.
Bean’s limited formal education apparently was com-
pensated for by the extensive experience he acquired
through participation in outdoor activities. As noted on the
L.L. Bean, Inc. website, Bean grew tired of having wet, sore
feet after hiking in the Maine woods, so he conceived of a
way to keep his feet warm and dry. He designed a light-
weight boot consisting of a rubber bottom and a leather top.
Bean took his idea to a cobbler, and the first ‘‘Maine Hunt-
ing Shoe’’ was manufactured in 1912.
BEAN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY
14