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INTERNATIONAL LAW
Sixth edition
Malcolm Shaw’s engaging and authoritative International Law has become
the definitive textbook for instructors and students alike, in this increas-
ingly popular field of academic study. The hallmark writing style provides
a stimulating account, motivating students to explore the subject more
fully, while maintaining detail and academic rigour. The analysis inte-
grated in the textbook challenges students to develop critical thinking
skills. The sixth edition is comprehensively updated throughout and is
carefully constructed to reflect current teaching trends and course cov-
erage. The International Court of Justice is now examined in a separate
dedicated chapter and there is a new chapter on international criminal
law. The detailed references and reliable, consistent commentary which
distinguished previous editions remain, making this essential reading for
all students of international law whether they be at undergraduate level,
postgraduate level or professional lawyers.
malcolm n. shaw, qc is the Sir Robert Jennings Professor of Inter-
national Law at the University of Leicester. One of the world’s leading
international lawyers, he has been awarded the decoration of ‘Officier de
l’Ordre de la Valeur’ by the Republic of Cameroon. He is a member of the
Advisory Council of the British Institute ofInternational and Comparative
Law and a founding member of the Curatorium, Xiamen Academy of In-
ternational Law. He is also a practising barrister at Essex Court Chambers.

INTERNATIONAL LAW
Sixth edition
MALCOLM N. SHAW QC
Sir Robert Jennings Professor of International Law
University of Leicester

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
First published in print format
ISBN-13 978-0-521-89929-1
ISBN-13 978-0-521-72814-0
ISBN-13 978-0-511-45559-9
© M. N. Shaw 2008
2008
Information on this title: www.cambrid
g
e.or
g
/9780521899291
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the
provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part
may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
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For my wife Judith

CONTENTS
Preface page xxi
Table of cases xxiii
Table of treaties and selected other international
instruments lxxxi
List of abbreviations clxii
1 The nature and development of international law 1
Law and politics in the world community 2
Theroleofforce 4
The international system 5
The function of politics 11
Historical development 13
Early origins 14
The Middle Ages and the Renaissance 19
The founders of modern international law 22
Positivism and naturalism 24
The nineteenth century 27
The twentieth century 30
Communist approaches to international law 31
The Third World 38
2 International law today 43
The expanding legal scope of international concern 43
Modern theories and interpretations 49
Positive Law and Natural Law 49
New approaches 54

The fragmentation of international law? 65
Conclusion 67
3 Sources 69
Custom 72
vii
viii contents
Introduction 72
The material fact 76
What is state practice? 81
Opinio juris 84
Protest, acquiescence and change in customary law 89
Regional and local custom 92
Treaties 93
General principles of law 98
Equity and international law 105
Judicial decisions 109
Writers 112
Other possible sources of international law 113
The International Law Commission 119
Other bodies 121
Unilateral acts 121
Hierarchy of sources and jus cogens 123
4 International law and municipal law 129
The theories 131
The role of municipal rules in international law 133
International law before municipal courts 138
TheUnitedKingdom 139
Customary international law 141
Treaties 148
The United States 157

Other countries 166
Justiciability, act of state and related doctrines 179
Executive certificates 192
5 The subjects of international law 195
Legal personality – introduction 195
States 197
Creation of statehood 197
Self-determination and the criteria of statehood 205
Recognition 207
Extinction of statehood 208
The fundamental rights of states 211
Independence 211
Equality 214
Peaceful co-existence 215
Protectorates and protected states 216
Federal states 217
Sui generis territorial entities 224
contents ix
Mandated and trust territories 224
Germany 1945 227
Condominium 228
International administration of territories 230
Taiwan 234
The ‘Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus’ (TRNC) 235
The Saharan Arab Democratic Republic 236
Various secessionist claimants 237
Associations of states 238
Conclusions 242
Special cases 243
TheSovereignOrderofMalta 243

TheHolySeeandtheVaticanCity 243
Insurgents and belligerents 245
National liberation movements (NLMs) 245
International public companies 248
Transnational corporations 249
The right of all peoples to self-determination 251
The establishment of the legal right 251
The definition of self-determination 256
Individuals 257
International organisations 259
The acquisition, nature and consequences of legal personality – some
conclusions 260
6 The international protection of human rights 265
The nature of human rights 265
Ideological approaches to human rights in international law 268
The development of international human rights law 270
Some basic principles 272
Domestic jurisdiction 272
The exhaustion of domestic or local remedies rule 273
Priorities of rights 274
Customary international law and human rights 275
Evolving principles 276
The United Nations system – general 276
The protection of the collective rights of groups and individuals 281
Prohibition of genocide 282
Prohibition of discrimination 286
The principle of self-determination as a human right 289
Theprotectionofminorities 293
Other suggested collective rights 301
The United Nations system – implementation 302

x contents
Political bodies – general 303
The Commission on Human Rights (1946–2006) 304
The Human Rights Council 306
Expert bodies established by UN organs 307
The Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of
Human Rights 307
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights 308
Expert bodies established under particular treaties 311
The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination 311
The Human Rights Committee 314
The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against
Women 322
The Committee Against Torture 326
The Committee on the Rights of the Child 331
TheCommitteeontheProtectionofMigrantWorkers 333
The Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 334
The Committee on Enforced Disappearances 334
Conclusions 335
The specialised agencies 338
The International Labour Organisation 338
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation 341
7 The regional protection of human rights 345
Europe 345
The Council of Europe 345
The European Convention on Human Rights 347
The convention system 351
The European Social Charter 360

The European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and
Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment 362
The Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of
National Minorities 365
The European Union 369
The OSCE (Organisation for Security and Co-operation in
Europe) 372
The CIS Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms 378
The Human Rights Chamber of Bosnia and Herzegovina 379
The Inter-American Convention on Human Rights 381
The Banjul Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights 391
The Arab Charter on Human Rights 395
contents xi
8 Individualcriminalresponsibility ininternational law 397
International criminal courts and tribunals 399
The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) 402
The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) 407
The International Criminal Court (ICC) 410
Hybrid courts and other internationalised domestic courts and
tribunals 417
The Special Court for Sierra Leone 418
The Extraordinary Chambers of Cambodia 421
Kosovo Regulation 64 panels 423
East Timor Special Panels for Serious Crimes 424
The Bosnia War Crimes Chamber 426
The Special Tribunal for Lebanon 427
The Iraqi High Tribunal 428
The Serbian War Crimes Chamber 429

International crimes 430
Genocide 430
War crimes 433
Crimes against humanity 436
Aggression 439
Conclusion – fair trial provisions 440
9 Recognition 444
Recognition of states 445
Recognition of governments 454
De facto and de jure recognition 459
Premature recognition 460
Implied recognition 462
Conditional recognition 465
Collective recognition 465
Withdrawal of recognition 466
Non-recognition 468
The legal effects of recognition 470
Internationally 470
Internally 471
The UK 472
The USA 482
10 Territory 487
The concept of territory in international law 487
Territorial sovereignty 489
New states and title to territory 492
xii contents
The acquisition of additional territory 495
Boundary treaties and boundary awards 495
Accretion 498
Cession 499

Conquest and the use of force 500
The exercise of effective control 502
Intertemporal law 508
Critical date 509
Sovereign activities (effectivit´es)511
The role of subsequent conduct: recognition, acquiescence and
estoppel 515
Conclusions 520
Territorial integrity, self-determination and sundry claims 522
The doctrine of uti possidetis 525
Beyond uti possidetis 528
International boundary rivers 531
The Falkland Islands 532
‘The common heritage of mankind’ 533
The polar regions 534
Leases and servitudes 538
Thelawofouterspace 541
The definition and delimitation of outer space 543
Theregimeofouterspace 544
Telecommunications 549
11 The law of the sea 553
The territorial sea 556
Internal waters 556
Baselines 558
Bays 562
Islands 564
Archipelagic states 565
The width of the territorial sea 568
The juridical nature of the territorial sea 569
The right of innocent passage 570

Jurisdiction over foreign ships 574
International straits 575
The contiguous zone 578
The exclusive economic zone 580
The continental shelf 584
Definition 586
The rights and duties of the coastal state 588
contents xiii
Maritime delimitation 590
Conclusion 605
Landlocked states 607
Thehighseas 609
Jurisdiction on the high seas 611
Exceptions to the exclusivity of flag-state jurisdiction 614
Right of visit 614
Piracy 615
The slave trade 616
Unauthorised broadcasting 617
Hot pursuit 617
Collisions 618
Treaty rights and agreements 619
Pollution 620
Straddling stocks 623
The international seabed 628
Introduction 628
The1982LawoftheSeaConvention(PartXI) 629
The Reciprocating States Regime 631
The 1994 Agreement on Implementation of the Seabed Provisions
of the Convention on the Law of the Sea 632
The International Seabed Authority 633

Settlement of disputes 635
The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea 638
12 Jurisdiction 645
The principle of domestic jurisdiction 647
Legislative, executive and judicial jurisdiction 649
Civil jurisdiction 651
Criminal jurisdiction 652
The territorial principle 652
The nationality principle 659
The passive personality principle 664
The protective principle 666
The universality principle 668
War crimes, crimes against peace and crimes against
humanity 668
Treaties providing for jurisdiction 673
Illegal apprehension of suspects and the exercise of
jurisdiction 680
The US Alien Tort Claims Act 683
Extradition 686
Extraterritorial jurisdiction 688
xiv contents
13 Immunities from jurisdiction 697
Sovereign immunity 697
The absolute immunity approach 701
The restrictive approach 704
Sovereign and non-sovereign acts 708
State immunity and violations of human rights 715
Commercial acts 718
Contracts of employment 725
Other non-immunity areas 727

The personality issue – instrumentalities and parts of the state 728
The personality issue – immunity for government figures 735
Waiver of immunity 740
Pre-judgment attachment 742
Immunity from execution 744
The burden and standard of proof 748
Conclusion 749
Diplomatic law 750
The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 752
The inviolability of the premises of the mission 754
The diplomatic bag 759
Diplomatic immunities – property 762
Diplomatic immunities – personal 764
Waiver of immunity 771
Consular privileges and immunities: the Vienna Convention on Consular
Relations, 1963 772
The Convention on Special Missions, 1969 774
The Vienna Convention on the Representation of States in their
Relations with International Organisations of a Universal
Character, 1975 775
The immunities of international organisations 776
14 State responsibility 778
The nature of state responsibility 781
The question of fault 783
Imputability 785
Ultra vires acts 788
State control and responsibility 789
Mob violence, insurrections and civil wars 791
Circumstances precluding wrongfulness 793
Invocation of state responsibility 799

The consequences of internationally wrongful acts 800
Cessation 800
Reparation 801
contents xv
Seriousbreachesofperemptorynorms(jus cogens)807
Diplomatic protection and nationality of claims 808
The exhaustion of local remedies 819
The treatment of aliens 823
The relevant standard of treatment 824
The expropriation of foreign property 827
Thepropertyquestion 830
The nature of expropriation 830
Public purposes 833
Compensation 834
Bilateral investment treaties 837
Lump-sum agreements 840
Non-discrimination 842
The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency 842
15 International environmental law 844
State responsibility and the environment 851
The basic duty of states 851
The appropriate standard 853
Damage caused 856
Liability for damage caused by private persons 858
Prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous
activities 859
The problems of the state responsibility approach 862
International co-operation 862
Atmospheric pollution 871
Ozone depletion and global warming 875

Outer space 881
International watercourses 883
Ultra-hazardous activities 887
Nuclear activities 888
The provision of information 890
The provision of assistance 891
Nuclear safety 892
Civil liability 893
Hazardous wastes 895
Marine pollution 898
Pollutionfromships 898
16 The law of treaties 902
The making of treaties 907
Formalities 907
Consent 909
xvi contents
Consent by signature 910
Consent by exchange of instruments 911
Consent by ratification 911
Consent by accession 913
Reservations to treaties 913
Entry into force of treaties 925
The application of treaties 926
Third states 928
The amendment and modification of treaties 930
Treaty interpretation 932
Invalidity, termination and suspension of the operation of
treaties 939
General provisions 939
Invalidity of treaties 940

Municipal law 940
Error 941
Fraud and corruption 942
Coercion 942
Jus cogens 944
Consequences of invalidity 944
The termination of treaties 945
Termination by treaty provision or consent 945
Material breach 947
Supervening impossibility of performance 949
Fundamental change of circumstances 950
Dispute settlement 952
Treaties between states and international organisations 953
17 State succession 956
Continuity and succession 960
Succession to treaties 966
Categories of treaties: territorial, political and other treaties 967
Succession to treaties generally 970
Absorption and merger 971
Cession of territory from one state to another 973
Secession from an existing state to form a new state or states 974
‘Newly independent states’ 977
Dissolution of states 979
International human rights treaties 981
Succession with respect to matters other than treaties 985
Membership of international organisations 985
Succession to assets and debts 986
contents xvii
State property 987
State archives 993

Public debt 996
Private rights 1001
State succession and nationality 1004
Hong Kong 1008
18 The settlement of disputes by peaceful means 1010
Diplomatic methods of dispute settlement 1014
Negotiation 1014
Good offices and mediation 1018
Inquiry 1019
Conciliation 1022
International institutions and dispute settlement 1024
Regional organisations 1024
The African Union (Organisation of African Unity) 1026
The Organisation of American States 1030
TheArabLeague 1031
Europe 1032
International organisations and facilities of limited
competence 1034
Binding methods of dispute settlement 1047
Arbitration 1048
19 The International Court of Justice 1057
The organisation of the Court 1058
The jurisdiction of the Court 1064
General 1064
The nature of a legal dispute 1067
Contentious jurisdiction 1070
Article 36(1) 1075
Article 36(2) 1081
Sources of law, propriety and legal interest 1086
Evidence 1088

Provisional measures 1093
Counter-claims 1096
Third-party intervention 1097
Remedies 1101
Enforcement 1104
Application for interpretation of a judgment 1105
Application for revision of a judgment 1105
Examination of a situation after the judgment 1107
The advisory jurisdiction of the Court 1108
xviii contents
TheroleoftheCourt 1113
Proliferation of courts and tribunals 1115
20 International law and the use of force by states 1118
Lawandforcefromthe‘justwar’totheUnitedNations 1119
TheUNCharter 1123
‘Force’ 1124
‘Against the territorial integrity or political independence
of any state’ 1126
Categories of force 1128
Retorsion 1128
Reprisals 1129
The right of self-defence 1131
The protection of nationals abroad 1143
Conclusions 1145
Collective self-defence 1146
Intervention 1147
Civil wars 1148
Aid to the authorities of a state 1151
Aidtorebels 1152
The situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 1154

Humanitarian intervention 1155
Terrorism and international law 1159
21 International humanitarian law 1167
Development 1168
The scope of protection under international humanitarian law 1170
The wounded and sick 1171
Prisoners of war 1172
Protection of civilians and occupation 1176
The conduct of hostilities 1184
Armed conflicts: international and internal 1190
Non-international armed conflict 1194
Enforcement of humanitarian law 1199
Conclusion 1201
22 The United Nations 1204
TheUNSystem 1204
The Security Council 1206
The General Assembly 1210
Other principal organs 1213
The peaceful settlement of disputes 1216
The League of Nations 1216
contents xix
The United Nations system 1217
The Security Council 1218
The General Assembly 1221
The Secretary-General 1222
Peacekeeping and observer missions 1224
Conclusion 1233
Thecollectivesecuritysystem 1235
The Security Council 1236
Determination of the situation 1236

Chapter VII measures 1241
The use of force in non-enforcement situations 1257
The range of UN actions from humanitarian assistance to enforcement
– conclusions 1266
The Security Council, international law and the International
Court of Justice 1268
The role of the General Assembly 1271
The UN and regional arrangements and agencies 1273
23 International institutions 1282
Introduction 1282
A brief survey of international institutions 1284
Institutions of a universal character 1284
Regional institutions 1287
Europe 1288
The American continent 1291
TheArabLeague 1292
Africa 1293
Asia 1294
Some legal aspects of international organisations 1295
Personality 1296
The constituent instruments 1303
The powers of international institutions 1306
The applicable law 1309
The responsibility of international institutions 1310
Liability of member states 1314
The accountability of international institutions 1317
Privileges and immunities 1318
Dissolution 1329
Succession 1330
Some useful international law websites 1332

Index 1342

PREFACE
The fifth edition of this book that appeared in 2003 has been extensively
revised. To mark the growing importance of the international prosecu-
tion of alleged war criminals and others accused of egregious crimes, a
new chapter on Individual Criminal Responsibility in International Law
has been introduced. The chapter on Air and Space Law has had to be
removed, with the section on Outer Space being moved to the chapter
on Territory. The increasing significance of the International Court of
Justice is recognised by devoting a separate chapter to it. The section on
the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea has been moved to the
chapter on the Law of the Sea. The other chapters in the book have been
re-examined, updated and, where necessary, rewritten. I have also been
able to correct some errors. I am particularly delighted that the book
has been translated into, among other languages, Chinese, Polish, Hun-
garian and Portuguese and I am very grateful for the work of all those
involved.
I would especially like to thank Sinead Moloney of Cambridge
University Press for her encouragement, assistance and above all patience.
Particular gratitude is owed to Merel Alstein for her meticulous research
assistance and for updating the web reference section. I am, once again,
very grateful to Diane Ilott for her careful and thorough copy-editing and
to Maureen MacGlashan for so carefully preparing the index and tables
respectively. A debt remains to Sir Elihu Lauterpacht QC for his encour-
agement in the early development of this work. I also remain grateful to
my many colleagues from many countries for their advice and encour-
agement, while reassuring them that all responsibility for the end product
rests squarely with me.
xxi

xxii preface
As ever, the real and deepest thanks are due to my wife Judith and
my children, Talia, Ilan and Daniella. They have borne the brunt of my
travails over the years and endured the inevitable pressures and have done
so in a caring and loving manner. Their support remains the indispensable
foundation of this work.
Malcolm N. Shaw QC
Faculty of Law
University of Leicester
Spring 2008
TABLE OF CASES
Note: Figures in square brackets refer to volume and page of the Annual
Digest/International Law Reports where cited cases are reproduced. ‘Et al.’
reflects the fact that the Annual Digest practice was to reproduce reports
in sections according to subject matter so that reports are liable to be
distributed throughout a volume.
I
◦
Congreso Del Partido [64 ILR 154] 145 n72, 699 n699, 707, 710–13,
714, 719, 735 n205
A v. B 1323 n184
A. Ahlstr
¨
om Oy v. Commission: see Woodpulp Cases (Ahlstr
¨
om
Osakeyhti
¨
o and Others v. Commission (In re Wo od Pulp Car tel)
(Joined Cases 89/85, 104/85, 114/85, 116–17/85 and 125–9/85)) [96

ILR 148]
A and B v. State of Israel 166 n190, 1174 n33
A Company Ltd v. Republic of X [87 ILR 412] 740 n237, 743, 748 n280,
771–2
A (FC) v. Secretary of State for the Home Department 150, 153 n119
A Limited v. B Bank and Bank of X [111 ILR 590] 182
A and Others v. Secretary of State for the Home Department 140 n50
AA v. Azerbaijan 329 n351
Aaland Islands case 200–1, 251–2, 489 n12, 539–40, 969
Abbasi and Juma case [123 ILR 599; 126 ILR 685] 130, 181 n269, 182
n276, 187, 188, 811 n212, 812
Abbott v. Republic of South Africa (Decision No. 107/92) [113 ILR 411]
707, 746 n263, 747–8
Abu Dhabi Arbitration (Petroleum Development Limited/Sheikh of Abu
Dhabi) [18 ILR 144] 105 n146, 585 n144
Re Accession of the European Community to the Convention for the
Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Opinion
2/94) [108 ILR 225] 369
xxiii