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PART- III SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

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SHEEP AND GOAT
PRODUCTION







Bakht Baidar Khan
Arshad Iqbal
Muhammad Iqbal Mustafa

Department of Livestock Management
University of Agriculture Faisalabad
2003





PART- III SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

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FOREWORD

The past more than half a century is a witness to the fact that except a few, no serious attempts have been made to write books even on a few of the so
many wide open aspects of the field of animal sciences. Among other factors that keep the animal science sector lagging behind, utter lack of relevant
books of local origin is probably the most important. The dearth of documented information concerning various species of our farm animals adversely
affects the learning potential of our students, who have been reported to complain about the non-availability of professional books written in Pakistan. I
personally feel that as animal scientists we cannot exonerate ourselves of this responsibility. Of course, not all of us would have the aptitude to write
books. However, those who opt to take up this tiresome and time-consuming job, their efforts must be appreciated. We must not forget that beginnings
are always small.

It is really encouraging to learn that sheep and goats being the victims of a long neglect, have attracted the attention of experienced animal scientists and
teachers of long standing to write a book on them. A look into the contents of the book ‘Sheep and Goat Production’, makes me believe that it would
adequately serve the purpose for which it has been produced. Its made-easy format would be rather more helpful to the students, field workers and
progressive farmers. A collection of over 650 questions along with their answers should more than suffice to cover the discussion on important topics in
relation to sheep and goat production.


Sajjad Zaheer Malik

Director General (Ext.)
L & DD Dept., Punjab

PREFACE

Innumerable publications on sheep and goat farming/production are there in the world market. More than 98% of them are of foreign
origin and are thus either not available here or their prices are beyond the means of a common man. The book under discussion has not
been produced to burden the market with another such publication rather it has been brought out employing a novice format to meet
the requirements of beginners who venture to plan a small ruminant enterprise, but are found confronted with a series of questions.
Answers to many of such questions are already embodied in this ‘easy to read and understand’ book. In addition, feasibilities in
respect of keeping sheep and goats (pertaining to one breed of each spp.) have been outlined herein to facilitate the solution of their
input: output dilemma.

Another section of society most pertinent to books is professional students community. It often happens that even at the end of an
academic session/semester, many students in a class, would not know what type of questions, relevant to a course, may be asked in the
Exam. This book, for sure, would create an awareness in them as to the type of Exam. questions and as to the manner of answering
them. Among other features of the book are: the discussion on behaviour and welfare of small ruminants and clues on the application
of biotechnology in animals. A comprehensive review on terminology related to various aspects of small ruminants is also a part of
this book. Most of the answers to the questions included in this book have been picked up as such from various sources of literature
listed under references at the end. We feel highly obliged in sharing the fruit of hardwork of those so many authors/editors. Under the
circumstances it does not seem possible for us to individually convey to them our grateful thanks, but indeed we remain indebted to all
of them.

No book will ever be complete and this one is no exception since knowledge about sheep and goats is increasing so rapidly that no
book can be an absolute ultimate. We feel no hesitation to mention here that at places details of a few most sophisticated techniques
used abroad in small ruminant production have been intentionally avoided simply because farmers/producers here have yet to go a
long way to enable themselves to take full advantage of such costly tools and techniques.

We would like to record our thanks to our colleagues, namely Drs. Muhammad Younas, Muhammad Abdullah, Muhammad Yaqoob,
Syed Hassan Raza and Prof. William Hohenboken, a friend from USA; all of them provided us a lot of useful literature for this book.

Special thanks are extended to Mr. Farooq Ahmed, Dr. Akhter Saeed and Dr. Asad Saeed for arranging recent literature for the
purpose from abroad.

Suggestions in black and white from any quarter to effect further improvement and to remove any omissions in the contents of this
book will always be welcome.


March, 2003 Bakht Baidar Khan
Arshad Iqbal
Muhammad Iqbal Mustafa

PART- III SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

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PART- III
includes following contents of the book:

• INTERNAL PARASITES IN SHEEP AND GOATS
• EXTERNAL PARASITES
• MEDICATION
• HOOF CARE
• RANGE SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION
• HOUSING AND HANDLING FACILITIES

• DAIRY GOATS
• MEAT
• WOOL
• MOHAIR














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INTERNAL PARASITES IN SHEEP AND
GOATS

Q. In what way the internal parasites harm the sheep/goats?
There are reports that indicate that sheep and goats are comparatively more resistant to
bacterial and viral diseases, but more susceptible to internal parasites. Another report
suggests that goats as compared to sheep are less prone to parasitic infestations. A
weekend condition from parasite infestation can be a principal cause of a disease
outbreak. A heavy load of parasites is a vicious cycle leading to undernourishment of the

animals, making them further vulnerable to parasite damage. The highest death loss
occurs in lambs/kids, yearlings and extremely old animals, with death loss higher in
poorly fed animals. Internal parasites (Figure 19) reduce productivity, cause anaemia,
bottle jaw, coughing, bronchitis, wool break, progressive weakness reduced milk yield
and death.
Q. Can sheep/goats develop some degree of immune resistance to worms?
The development of a degree of resistance to worm loads in old animals results from
constant exposure to migrating worm larvae over time because the larval proteins act as a
form of vaccination against the larvae. This immunity is actually the development of
antibodies that cause allergic reactions. A mini-allergic reaction occurs in the tissues
surrounding the encysted worm larvae, in which a combination of smooth muscle
contractions and fluids cause the parasites to be dislodged and expelled into the lumen of
the intestine. Then they pass out with the faeces. This partial immunity to worms takes
about two years to develop fully. This explains why older ewes/does do not accumulate
as much worm burden as lambs/kids in the same pasture and younger animals must be
dewormed more often than the older population.
Q. Discuss briefly the life cycle of worms.
For specific and detailed information about life cycles of various internal parasites, you
are referred to a text book on Parasitology. Here the life cycle will be dealt in very
general terms. More than twelve species of parasites are considered responsible for
causing problems in sheep/goats. They live in true stomach, small and large intestines,
lungs and liver where they feed on blood and body fluids, causing anaemia and serum
loss. Millions of eggs from these parasites pass out with faeces, with cough and under
favourable conditions of warm weather and moisture, hatch into infective larvae in about
5 to 7 days. These larvae migrate into the moist sections of the grass and are ingested
more by sheep than goats (probably due to their habit of grazing close to ground surface).
Once swallowed they invade the tissues of digestive tract etc. where they undergo a
maturing stage and emerge as adult worms in about 21 days. Most of the eggs and/or
larvae are killed under conditions of hot dry weather and severe cold temperatures, which
largely helps sterilize the pasture. However, nature has provided a survival mechanism

for these worms that allows them to survive periods of adverse conditions by hibernating
as immature worms in tissues and then emerge weeks or months later when conditions for
survival are more favourable.


Q. Suggest measures that can help reduce parasite load of small ruminants.
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Population density appears to be the main contributory factor for heavy parasite loads. A
small number of animals on a given area will deposit less eggs than a large number on the
same area. By rotating animals from one pasture to another, you can allow time for worm
larvae to die from age and exposure on the recently contaminated grass. The eggs/larvae
of many stomach worms can survive three months in cool damp weather but much less in
dry hot weather. An old Scottish rule of thumb is ‘Never let the church bell strike thrice
on the same pasture’. Overstocking of pastures cuts down the feed supply which weakens
the animals. It also causes them to graze the grass more closely, ingesting more larvae to
increase their worm load. Animals in poor nutritional condition cannot tolerate as much
worm load as well nourished can. Lack of proper diet, insufficient protein and incorrect
balance of nutritional elements, including vitamins and minerals (such as Se), makes
them more vulnerable to worm damage.
Another step toward better parasite control is sanitation. Never put feed directly on the
ground to avoid contamination. Make sure that the water supply is clean and protected
from faecal contamination. It is necessary to be able to recognize symptoms of worm
build up and carry out an adequate control programme using appropriate medicines.
Q. What are the more appropriate time periods for deworming sheep/goats?
With the development of safer and more effective deworming drugs, deworming can be
carried out without harming ewes/does or their youngones. Ewes and may be does too
should be dewormed at the beginning of the flushing period i.e. two to three weeks before
breeding. With higher parasite loads they will not settle properly and will have protracted

lambing/kidding period. They will produce fewer twins and more weak newborns and
will have less milk for them. Pregnant animals with more worms are drained of needed
energy. Their weakness leaves them more susceptible to pneumonia or pregnancy disease
and too weak to withstand a difficult delivery. Post parturition rise in parasite load also
takes place, which is due to hormonal changes that trigger the encysted larvae to wake up
and complete their life cycle. A similar rise in worm burden also occurs in breeding male,
more so in ram than buck, as spring approaches. This refers to the worm’s survival
mechanism already mentioned in a foregoing question/answer. Therefore, deworming at
three weeks postparturition is advisable. It helps save the ewe/doe energy for milk
production which otherwise could have been wasted by worms. In climates where worm
infestations can occur during gestation, it may be necessary to deworm two to three
weeks prior to lambing/kidding. However, at this late stage handle the pregnant animals
carefully since the stress of catching and deworming may trigger some problem.
Levamisole or Ivomec is good for this late pregnancy deworming, because they have
some effect against hypobiotic (arrested) and migrating larvae. Other vermifuges kill only
the adult forms, allowing the migrating larvae to become active the day following
deworming. For the most part, deworming medicines have no residual activity. They are
only good the day you give them. Next day the immature larvae are free to build up the
worm burden all over again.
In most small ruminant-rearing areas, the worm population is severely depressed during
severe winter months. This then means that about 90% of the parasite population is in the
sheep/goat with 10% on the pasture. When these animals gain access to the pasture
during favoruable weather, the ratio reverses. Thus the most suitable time to exhaust the
new season’s worm population is to reduce it as much as possible in the sheep/goats prior
to grazing season so that these animals cannot transfer or seed the population back to the
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pasture. The animals should be dewormed three days before turning them out on pasture
so that the worm eggs excreted in the faeces can fall outside the barn where the larvae

cannot survive.
In areas where the grass begins to dry, deworming the animals at that time, then followed
up with another deworming six weeks later, will reduce the worm load below harmful
levels. The hot dry weather significantly reduces the larvae population in the pasture, thus
reducing the infection rate in the animals. It is also helpful to move animals to a clean
pasture 24 to 48 hours after deworming, to keep the pasture clean.
Young lambs/kids sent to pasture with their dams pick up worms that will grow to
maturity in about a month. As the worms increase they cause anaemia and even death.
You can prevent anaemia by deworming the lambs/kids at about 2½ to 3 months of age.
When rotating pastures, let the lambs/kids graze each clean pasture ahead of the
ewes/does.
Q. Suggest an economical parasite reduction mixture.
An economical and popular mixture is 6 kg trace mineralized salt, 3 kg dicalcium
phosphate and 1 kg phenothiazine. This low-level feeding of phenothiazine keeps worm
eggs from developing properly. The killing of eggs and larvae cuts down on the source of
parasite infection on the pasture. No immediate results will be seen, as it does not affect
the eggs and larvae on the pasture. However, over a period of time there will be fewer
worm larvae on the pasture to reinfect the animals.
Q. What symptoms are commonly observed as a result of parasite infestation in
small ruminants.
One visible sign of parasite infestation is bottle jaw (swelling under the jaw). It is a sort
warning that the animals have severe attack of worms. Other symptoms are diarrhoea (for
some kind of worms) and anaemia (for most kinds of worms). Anaemia is indicated by
the very pale colour of the inner lower eyelids and gums caused by intestinal worms
sucking the animal’s blood. There are eight or more kinds of small stomach worms
(round worms) that cause anaemia but not diarrhoea. The animals become listless, with
pale mucous membranes and lose condition, wasting away and dying if they are not
dewormed. The small brownish stomach worm ‘ostertagia’ causes scours. It is so
perfectly camouflaged against the walls of sheep’s small intestine that it is difficult to
spot in a postmortem.

Other symptoms are accelerated breathing, coughing, and discharge from nose, bronchitis
and pneumonia caused by lungworms. Liver flukes may cause bottle jaw, pot-belly etc.
Q. In what different forms deworming drugs may be administered to small
ruminants?
Most infestations involve more than one kind of parasites, the broad-spectrum
deworming drugs are recommended for general deworming. One of the several major
broad-spectrum, low-toxicity vermifuges will take care of the most prevalent of the
stomach parasites.
For dosage and method of administration (as well as withdrawal days before slaughter)
follow label directions. Deworming drugs are given as: boluses, these are sort of large⎯
sized pills, may be given by hand, by a bolus gun or with a capsule forceps; drenches,
these are given by a drenching gun if the flock is of large size, for a small flock use a
handy 2-ounce dose syringe; powders or granules, these are mixed with salt and
dicalcium phosphate and offered to the animals free choice; premixes, these are given
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mixed in feed; paste, this can be smeared on the animal’s tongue; injection, be sure to
follow label directions as to the site for injection, type of injection and the dosage as
given for sheep/goat weight.
Q. Give a list of the deworming drugs (for sheep and goats) that are in common
use the world over.
It cannot be a complete list since recent and new drugs keep on coming in the market, at
the same time the use of certain drugs is abandoned in certain countries. Drugs under
different brand names are also locally produced. The list given below includes such drugs
that have been found safe, effective and easily available in the market:

• Tramisol (Levamisole): Effective against three species of stomach worms, six
species of intestinal worms and a lung worm, safe for pregnant animals (after
first 30 days), for older lambs/kids as well. Marketed as oblets (bigger pills),

drench or injection.
• Thiabendazole (TBZ) (Omnizole R): For stomach, small and large intestine
worms, sold as bolus, paste, drench or feed additive.
• Phenothiazine: Now not considered a standard treatment. However, pheno is
excellent for continuous low-level use, mixed into your salt formula.
• Ivomec (Ivermectin): Sold as injection or drench, effective against stomach,
small and large intestine and lung worms, blood-sucking lice and keds (ticks),
not effective against tapeworms.
• Fenbenzadole (panacur, safegard): Safe and effective against stomach, small
and large intestine worms, lungworms and tapeworms.
• Equipar (Oxibendazole): The same as Fenbenzadole but does not kill
tapeworms.
• Telmin (Mebendazole): Effective against stomach, small and large intestine
worms, some effect on tapeworms and liver flukes.
• Curatrem (Clorsulon): Excellent for developing and adult flukes, if liver much
damaged then recovery not complete.
• Rumatel (Moratel tartret): Effective for small and large intestine worms as
well as stomach worms.
• Bovatec (Lasalocid): For prevention of coccidiosis.
• Deccox (Decoquinate): Prevents coccidiosis, used in free-fed salt/mineral
mixture.

Q. Write a note each on lungworm and tapeworm infestation in sheep/goats.
Lungworms: These are prevalent in low-lying or wet pastures and live in air passages of
small ruminants causing accelerated breathing, coughing and sometimes a discharge from
the nose. The coughing can precipitate prolapse during pregnancy. The small lungworm
(hair lungworm) can cause pneumonia and bronchitis. Good nutrition helps build up
resistance to the worm. Keep the animals away from ponds and wet areas where snails
can be found as several species of snails and slugs act as intermediate hosts for the
lungworms. When an infected animal coughs, eggs are expelled and eaten from the grass

by other animals. This problem needs consideration when buying sheep/goats from a
farm or an area having low-lying pastures. Tramisol given once a year should control
lungworms. Ivomec and Fenbenzadole are also effective.
PART- III SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

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Tapeworms: The feeding head of the tapeworm injures the intestine and is thought to
facilitate absorption of toxin involved in enterotoxaemia. Tapeworms are not usually the
primary worm infestation in small ruminants, but since the passed tapeworm segments
are large enough, their presence in droppings becomes alarming. A moderate level of
tapeworms is said to be of little damage to adult animals but can seriously retard the
growth of youngones. Fenbenzadole (Panacur, Safegard) is effective against tapeworms.
Q. Write a note on each of the three: Nose bots, Liver flukes and Coccidiosis in
small ruminants.
Nose Bots: The nose bot, Oestrus ovis, is a fly in its mature form, dark grey about the
size of a bee. The full grown larvae are thick yellowish white grubs about 2.5 cm with
dark transverse bands and found primarily in the frontal sinuses of sheep. When
deposited by the fly on the edge of the nostril, the grub is about 2 mm and gradually
moves up the nasal passages. During fly season, sheep will put their heads to ground,
stamp and run with heads down to avoid fly. They press their noses to the ground or
against other sheep, as the flies attack them. This is more observed in the heat of the day
and in hot summer. The head grubs cause irritation in nostrils, sinuses resulting in
inflammation which causes a thin and then a thick secretion. The mucous membranes are
affected and the secretions thicken, the sheep thus have difficult breathing and may
sneeze frequently. They become run-down because of being so much annoyed by flies
that they cannot graze in peace. Ivomec R has but a slow effect on nose bots, taking about
thirty days before they are all dead, decamped and sneezed out.
Liver Flukes: They require an intermediate host i.e. part of their life cycle is spent in
another creature. In case of flukes it is snail or slug, found on wet marshy land. Ponds,
ditches or swampy land provide the breeding place for the snails. Therefore, this kind of

pasture is not suitable for small ruminants. If possible drain out wet areas where snails
propagate or put fence around marshy parts. Snail-destroying chemicals can be used if
these do not harm fish, other livestock or human beings. A mixture containing 1 kg
copper sulphate with 4 kg of sand can give good control of flukes. About 350 g of this
mixture may be applied twice a month per hectare of pasture. Liver flukes cause bottle
jaw or pot-belly during early stages, followed by loss of condition, diarrhoea, further,
weakness and death. It can be diagnosed by microscopic examination of faeces and from
the liver of slaughtered small ruminants. Affected livers must be discarded. Merck’s
curatrem (clorsulon) kills developing flukes as well as adults and is especially useful for
animals treated in early stages of infestation.
Coccidiosis: Coccidia are microscopic protozoan parasites, present in most flocks
without causing any serious problem. Overcrowding and contamination of food and water
are the main sources of infection. Other factors are chilling, heat stress, transportation
fatigue and sudden change in feed as well as interruption of feeding which predispose the
young stock to an outbreak of coccidiosis, resulting in diarrhoea, then diarrhoea with
straining, chronic dark green or bloody diarrhoea, loss of appetite and some deaths.
Lambs/kids that recover are usually considered immune. A routine faecal examination
showing evidence of this parasite will allow you to use appropriate drug at an early stage.
Once coccidiosis is diagnosed (or be before as a preventive), Bovatec may be used as a
feed additive. Antibiotics can be given to check any secondary bacterial infection in
intestines damaged by coccida. Amprolium 1.25% can be prescribed and fed for 21 days
during an attack. Meat fed to dogs and cats that associate with livestock should be
PART- III SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

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previously cooked or frozen to render these parasites (in muscle tissue of cattle, sheep or
goat) noninfectious.
Q. Discuss worm resistance to drugs used for deworming.
The problem of parasite control has somewhat been compounded by the development of
resistance in selected worm species to some worm-control products. All populations of

living things contain individuals that naturally possess a greater resistance to something
than the average population. Possible dewormer resistance increases with the frequency
of treatment because we keep killing off the susceptible worms and leaving the possible
resistant ones to regenerate the population. Keep in mind that if you must deworm very
frequently, you are increasing selection pressure on the worm population and resistance
may become a problem sooner for you than for your neighbour who needs to deworm
less often.
The old recommendation to change dewormer drugs often to avoid developing resistance
is wrong. It is now recommended to use the same vermifuge until you see resistance
becoming a problem, then switch to another dewormer. If you must change a vermifuge,
do not alternate with a dewormer of the same chemical family or class. Resistance
usually develops on chemical class lines, not brand names. Read the fine print for the
generic name or chemical class. The more effective a dewormer is on several different
species (broad-spectrum), the less chance of selection for resistant strains. Do not
underdose the dewormer, because natural resistance is rarely an all-or-none phenomenon;
it is a dose-related thing. By underdosing you may allow a marginally resistant worm to
survive and propagate offspring with greater natural resistance, when it might have been
susceptible to the full dose. With a highly effective drug, the worm numbers become so
depleted that they lack the genetic variability required for selection for resistance in a
short time.
To know for sure whether you have worm resistance to the drug you are using, you need
egg counts. If egg counts are taken just before and then one week after administration of
the correct dose, and the percentage decrease in the egg count is les than 80%, the
presence of anthalmintic-resistant parasites must be strongly suspected. To avoid
introducing resistant strains, you would need to treat all incoming new animals.

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PART- III SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

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EXTERNAL PARASITES

Among the external parasites are included ticks, wool maggots (fleeceworms), common
scab mite, lice etc.
Q. Are sheep ticks real ticks? Give a brief account of them and discuss measures
for their eradication.
No! Sheep tick is not a real tick rather it is a wingless parasitic fly, known as a sheep ked
that passes its whole life cycle on the body of the sheep. It lays little brown pupae, which
hatch into almost mature keds in about nineteen days. Ticks are bloodsuckers and roam
all over the sheep, puncturing the skin to obtain their food. As a result firm dark nodules
develop, damaging the sheep skin and thus reducing its value. These defects are called
‘cockles’ by leather traders. The ticks produce such irritation that sheep rub and scratch
and injure their wool and bite at themselves to relieve there suffering, sometimes
becoming habitual wool chewers. From eating the wool they may get impacted rumens.
Ticks reduce weight gain and cause anaemia. All this ultimately impairs the quality and
yield of wool and meat. Ticks stain the wool with their faeces. Such wool is sometimes
referred to as ‘dingy’ and does not readily scour out.
With systematic treatment ticks can be easily eradicated. The mature tick lays a single
puparia a week and thus a total of about a dozen or so in her lifetime. The pupa shells are
attached to the wool nearly 1½ to 2½ cm from the skin. Thus most of them are removed
in shearing, making it easy to eliminate ticks by treating after shearing. The newly
hatched ticks die within an hour unless they can suck blood from a sheep. The mature
tick cannot survive more than two to four days away from the sheep. To be effective, all
sheep must be treated for ticks at one time; otherwise the untreated ones will pass the
ticks back to the treated. Examine a new lamb or sheep before turning it in with your own

and treat it if you find even a single tick. Following are the methods commonly used for
treating sheep to eliminate ticks from their bodies.
Dip: This is a standard method used with large flocks. The sheep are run through large
dipping vats full of sheep dipping liquid or through spraying vats, where they are given a
high-powered spray from several sides at once. This is done usually ten days after
shearing while the wool is still short and the shearing injuries have healed. For a small
flock this method is not practicable. Their deticking requires small dipping vats or some
other method such as spray or sprinkle may be used (details of dipping to be discussed
elsewhere).
Spray or Sprinkle: Low-pressure sprays are ideal for treating sheep when they have
been sheared recently as stated under dip method.
Sprinkling with insecticide solution in a garden sprinkler can, requires very little
equipment.
Injection: Ivomec (Ivermectin) dewormer is effective against most internal and external
parasites including ticks. It is not effective against tapeworms, flukes or biting lice.
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Q. Give a list of effective sheep ked control chemicals along with brief
instructions for their use.
Ectrin, Expar, Atroban: These are synthetic pyrethroids (a stable form of the garden
insecticide made from the chrysanthemum). They are considered both safe and effective.
Used for both ked and lice control as a pour-on or spray. No label withdrawal period
prior to slaughter.
Ivomec: This is effective against keds (ticks) and sucking lice. Consult label for
withdrawal times.
Co-Ral (Coumaphos): A systemic organophosphate. Used as a 0.6% spray or dip, or a
0.5% dust (1 to 2 ounces per sheep). Not to be used on lambs under three months of age.
Diazinon: Used as a 0.5% spray or dip. Not to be used on lambs under one month age.
Rotenone: It is the powdered root of a tropical plant and an insecticide used by organic

gardeners. For dip use 8 ounces of the 5% wettable powder to 100 gallons of water (1½
ounces in 20 gallon can). Mix it to a paste in a small amount of water and add it to the
large quantity of water in the can stirring well. The addition of a small amount of liquid
dishwashing detergent will make it more penetrating and effective. Safe for ewes and
lambs. For dusting use 1.5% (garden type) dust about 2 ounces per sheep. The effect of
Rotenone is not immediate. It takes a few hours to show its effect. Ticks no longer can
bite and will die.
Official regulations on chemicals can change from year to year, as new chemicals are
approved, some old may be banned or tolerances change. The concerned agency may be
consulted for a current list of such products.
Q. Give a brief account of wool maggots (fleeceworms) and suggest measures to
prevent them.
Several types of blowflies lay maggot eggs and they all are about twice the size of
houseflies. They appear in spring and then reproduce through hot weather, laying their
eggs in masses at the edge of a wound or in manure-soiled fleeces. The eggs hatch in six
to twelve hours and the larvae feed on the live flesh at the edge of the wound. They
enlarge the wound and if not detected, can eventually kill the animal. Watch for moist
fleece areas or any injury that may become infested. Notice if animals scratch excessively
on fences, trees, and gateposts. This could be maggots or ticks. When you locate an
infestation, clip the wool around it and spray it with any of the fly-strike aerosol sprays
(or one of the sheep tick chemicals can substitute for fly repellent). If none of these is
available, pick out all the maggots you can see and disinfect the wound. The animal
should be kept under observation for a few days and may be treated again if needed.
Shearing the sheep would make it easier to spot other infestations. Maggots often infest
dog bites if your sheep are chased by dogs, check them often for unnoticed wounds and
fly-strikes. The wool maggot or fleeceworm can be distinguished from the more
dangerous screwworm. Wool maggots can move and crawl around, while the
screwworms do not, since they are imbedded in the flesh.
Prevention Measures :1) Keep rear ends of ewes regularly tagged, especially when
droppings become loose. Deworm your sheep regularly. Urine also attracts blowflies if it

soils heavy tags; 2) Treat all cuts or shearing injuries with fly repellents during hot
weather, even insect bites invite flies; 3) Put fly repellent on castration sites on lambs in
warm weather; 4) Possibly use fly traps or other means to cut down the number of flies in
the barn; 5) Be especially vigilant during prolonged wet weather in summer. Warm and
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moist conditions more favourable for fly strike. If by chance whole of the flock has
maggot problem, use Atroban or Expar- the sheep dip chemicals on all of them.
Q. Write a note on each of the two, i) common scab mite and ii) lice.
Common Scab Mite: Several kinds of parasitic mites produce scab in sheep. The
Psoroptes ovis is the common scab mite, a little more than ½ mm long, with four pairs of
brownish legs and sharp pointed brownish mouthparts. The mites puncture the skin and
live on the blood serum. The skin becomes inflamed, then scabby with a grey scaly crust.
The wool falls out, leaving large bare areas. This may not be confused with the loss of
wool that sometimes occurs along the backbone of some breeds of sheep when kept in
areas of heavy rainfall. To determine whether mites are present, scrape the other edge of
one of the scabs (mites seek the healthy skin at the edge of the lesions) and put the
scrapings on a piece of black paper. In a warm room under bright light, examine the
paper with a magnifying glass. The mites become more active when warm and are visible
under the glass. Any infestation with common scab mite (often called mange mite) is
very susceptible to Expar, Atroban or Ectrin. These are effective as a spray and can even
be used on pregnant ewes. All sheep must be treated in one session since the mite is quite
contagious from sheep to sheep. Infected premises should not be used for clean sheep for
thirty days.
Lice: These are probably second to ticks (keds) among the common ectoparasites
affecting sheep and goats. One species of biting lice and several species of sucking lice
affect small ruminants. The eggs are attached to the individual wool/hair fibres and hatch
in one to two weeks into the nymph stage. After several molts which require another two
to three weeks, the nymphs emerge as adults. The feeding lice (sucking) cause intense

irritation and itching to the sheep/goats which results in restlessness, constant scratching
and rubbing against walls, trees, fences, interrupted feeding, loss of weight and severe
damage to wool/hair. A clear-cut sign of lice in the flock are hundreds of telltale tags of
wools hanging from fences, trees etc. where the sheep have been rubbing. Lice are very
susceptible to the commonly used insecticides but often two treatments are needed to kill
any newly emerged nymphs (as the egg is a protected stage). Once removed from the
flock, they will not return until you introduce new/more infested animals into the flock. If
in doubt, you must treat any new animals prior to placing with your flock. The pyrethroid
products such as Atroban, Ectrin, Expar, do an excellent job of ridding the flock of lice
and are safe to use.













PART- III SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

14
MEDICATION

Q. From a flock of 80 sheep/goats, how would you detect a sick sheep/goat?
Successful treatment of any sheep/goat illness requires detection as early as possible,

before the animal is down. Gone are the days when it was said that “a down sheep is a
dead sheep”, but the chance for recovery is much better if illness is diagnosed and treated
before it has progressed. Prevention is always better than treatment and early treatment
has better success than late.
For early detection of a sick animal you must be familiar with its normal behaviour, even
for each individual in the flock, to know when one is acting abnormally. Have some
quick and easy way of catching the animal (such as a corral) when needed for its close
examination. Signs of abnormality are loss of appetite, not eating as usual and standing
away from the group when at rest; unusual discharge from nostrils, eyes or mouth. Be
concerned if a sheep/goat is lying down most of the time when others are not; any
weakness or staggering gait; unusually laboured or fast breathing; change in bowel
movements (loose faeces or constipated); temperature over 104 degrees. Normal
temperature of small ruminants (except in very hot weather) is in the range of 100.9 to
103.0°F degrees (average 102.3 degrees). If it is necessary to have a urine sample, try to
hold the sheep’s/goat’s nostrils closed for a moment; this stress sometimes triggers
urination.
Q. In general, what may be the possible causes of illness of sheep/goats?
Some of the common causes of illness are: Unsanitary housing, lack of exercise, moldy
or spoiled feeds, poisonous plants, toxic substances improper diet (insufficient/
contaminated water and feed or overeating), parasites, injuries, infection from assisted
lambing/kidding, bacterial infection from other sick sheep/goats, abrupt change of feed,
stress due to severe weather, transportation, predators etc. and infection from newly
purchased animals.
Q. Give a list of common sources of germ transmission to sheep/goats.
• Water or feed contaminated by faeces from small ruminants or other animals,
can transmit intestinal diseases and certain parasites. Respiratory disease may
also be spread by nasal discharge into drinking water and feeding troughs.
• Manure accumulated in a lambing/kidding shed or around the feeding trough
can intensify exposure to disease germs and coccidiosis; serve as breeding
media for flies and other vermin.

• Dirty uncrotched wool on an ewe can infect the newborn.
• Feeding on bare ground greatly contributes to disease and parasite exposure.
• Wet muddy places predispose the sheep/goats to hoof diseases.
• Low-lying marshy areas predispose the sheep/goats to a number of parasitic
diseases.
• Newly acquired animals can be carriers of many serious diseases such as foot
rot and brucellosis as well as ticks and lice.
• Venereal transmission of disease at breeding time.
• Dirty hypodermic syringes and needles can cause injection site infections and
abscesses and transmit certain infectious diseases.
PART- III SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

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Q. To meet emergencies in respect of small ruminants farm/in field, what
medicines and equipment need to be on hand?
It may be referred to as a First Aid Kit. It should at least include bloat medication (and
trocar cannula for extreme emergency), cal-phos or any other preparation for milk fever,
propylene glycol for pregnancy toxaemia, tincture iodine and other disinfectants, mineral
oil for constipation, dextrose solution, antibiotics, uterine boluses and some sterile
equipment (syringes, needles etc.). Of the antibiotics pen-strep (Penicillin-
dihydrostreptomycin) (or any other recent one) will check many infections. For specific
infections, other antibiotics are necessary. Penicillin and tetracycline are safe to use since
their toxicity in sheep/goats is extremely low. These drugs are of use in pneumonia,
infection after parturition and as a preventive against infection following cleaning and
dressing of maggot infestation. These are of minor help for enterotoxaemia. Certain drugs
labeled for buffalo/cattle can be used for small ruminants in an emergent situation. Such a
drug can be administered at the same dose level on per kg body weight basis. On average,
the dose for one buffalo/cow would suffice for five to six adult sheep/goats. However,
with many drugs exact dosage is very important. Help of a competent veterinarian may
preferably be sought.

Q. Give a list of methods used for administering medicines, vaccines etc.
Oral, by mouth such as boluses for deworming with bolus gun or capsule forceps. Oral,
powder such as vitamins, placed well back on the tongue for treatment of an individual
animal, or in feed or drinking water for general treatment of whole flock. Oral, liquid
given as drench with syringe or in drinking water. Spray-on, such as insecticides for
ticks. Pour-on, such as tincture of iodine on newborn navel, disinfectant on minor
wounds. Subcutaneous, medication injected just under the skin. Intradermal, medication
injected into the skin. Intramuscular, liquid such as antibiotics injected into heavy
muscle. Pessaries, as uterine boluses to prevent infection after a difficult
lambing/kidding. Intramammary, injection of fluid or ointment through the teat opening,
as mastitis drugs. Intraperitoneal, injection of liquid through right flank into the
abdominal cavity. Intraruminal, injection of fluid into the rumen, on the left side, as for
bloat treatment when too late to give by mouth. Intranasal, spraying of vaccine into the
nasal cavity. Intravenous, injection of fluid into a vein. Intraperitoneal, intraruminal and
intravenous medication should preferably be given by a veterinarian or by an experienced
person.
Q. Give some details of administering drugs etc. by oral method.
Boluses (small or large pills) meant for small ruminants will go down the throat easier if
coated with mineral oil or cooking oil or mustard oil. Do not soak them otherwise they
will disintegrate. The easiest way to hold the sheep/goat is to back it into a corner and
straddle it, facing forward. Hold the bolus in a bolus applicator/balling gun (Figure 20)
and eject it when you have the pill over the hump of the tongue. Capsule forceps can be
used to deposit the bolus at the base of the tongue. However, forceps is more likely to
damage the throat. Forceful jamming of the bolus too deep into the throat can cause the
bolus to be deposited into the windpipe (trachea) with fatal results. Keep the mouth of the
animal open by inserting your left thumb in the mouth in the space between the front
teeth (incisors) and the molars, while gently inserting the bolus gun with the other hand.
Do not release the animal until you are sure that the medication has been swallowed.
PART- III SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

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Liquid medicines can be given with a dose syringe or a drenching gun or with a dose gun
when there are large number of animals in a flock (Figure 21). The nozzle of the syringe
should be about 12 to 15 cm long with a smoothly rounded tip that will not injure the
sheep/goat. The head of the animal should be held in a level position, with the nose no
higher than the eyes so that the liquid will not be forced into the lungs and cause
pneumonia. The safest way is to trickle the liquid slowly while holding the animal’s head
in the level position (Figure 22).
Q. Give a detailed account of general information regarding the use of injections
as a method for administering medicines to small ruminants.
To avoid serious infections, maintenance of sterile procedures is a must. Use only clean
and sterile syringes (boiled at least twenty minutes) and sharp sterile disposable needles.
Boiling of needles again and again makes them dull. Disposable plastic syringes are the
best. To fill a syringe with medicine, first clean the top of the vial with a disinfectant to
remove any dirt. Shake the bottle to thoroughly mix the contents without causing undue
bubbles. Hold the vial upside down, pull the syringe plunger back to approximately the
volume of drug to be removed, insert the needle into the center of vial stopper and press
the plunger forcing the air into the vial. Withdraw a greater volume of drug than needed
and then express the excess drug back into the vial to remove air bubbles that may form
in the syringe.
If you are withdrawing doses for a number of animals and particularly if you wish to save
the balance of the contents of medication vial, you can protect it from contamination by
sanitizing the top of the vial with a disinfectant as stated above, then insert a sterile
needle, which is to be left in place in the stopper of vial. Fill the syringe, leave the needle
in the bottle and attach a separate needle to the syringe for vaccinating. For the next dose,
detach the used needle, fill the syringe with the needle left in the vial, leaving again the
needle in the bottle (vial) and reattach a new or disinfected needle for the injection. In
this way you can protect your medicine from any contamination and can save the balance
of the contents till its reuse. You cannot, however, save a live vaccine (such as Nasalgen).
Inactivated vaccine such as Covexin-8 may be saved.

Once the needle is filled with medication, do not let it touch anything, or it will no longer
be sterile. Possibly have a helper hold the sheep/goat and then inject the medicine after
sterilizing the site of injection with an alcohol swab well rubbed over the site. Simply
touching the site with an alcohol swab is not sufficient.
If at all possible, do not inject a wet animal for reasons of infection and contamination of
injection site. Read the label carefully on each injectable medicine. Check the expiry
date. Read the dosage and strictly follow it because overdosing of certain medicines
could be harmful or even fatal. Protect drugs from freezing and from heat. Many
antibiotics require refrigeration.
Q. Write short notes on subcutaneous, intradermal and intramuscular
injections.
Subcutaneous Injection: It is often abbreviated as ‘sub-cut; it denotes depositing
medicine directly between the skin and the underlying muscle tissue. The medicine
should be at body temperature, especially with youngones and can be given in the neck.
A preferred site is in the loose hairless skin behind and below the armpits, over the chest
wall. Do not inject into the armpit. Some vaccines are highly irritating and if injected into
the maxillary space (armpit), could cause severe irritation and lameness. A dosage of
PART- III SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

17
more than 10 ml is best distributed among several sites instead of all at one place,
especially so with lambs/kids. To inject, pinch up a fold of loose skin, insert the needle
into the space under the skin, holding the needle parallel to the body surface. Rub the area
afterward to distribute the medication and hasten its absorption. Do not make the
injection near a joint or in areas having more fat under the skin. If you want to make sure
that you are not in a vein, the plunger can be pulled out a bit before injecting. If it draws
out some blood, try another spot. Medication for subcut should never be injected into a
muscle.
Intradermal Injection: Sometimes it is called as ‘intracutaneous’. This injection is made
into the skin instead of under it and is rarely used. The inserted fine needle is so close to

the surface that it can be seen through the outer layer of skin, in the same site as
suggested for subcut injection. The medicine is injected slowly while drawing out the
needle, distributing the dose along the needle’s course.
Intramuscular Injection: Using this injection the medicine is deposited deep into a large
muscle such as in the neck or heavy muscle of the thigh. An experienced person can
demonstrate the proper site that will avoid both a nerve and the best cuts of meat. Fresh
and sterile antibiotics and drugs are important, as are a sterile needle and sterile
procedure to avoid risk of deep-seated infection. Use a new sharp disposable needle and
syringe to avoid tissue damage. Sanitize the top of the vial stopper with alcohol before
withdrawing the medicine into the syringe. Thrust the needle quickly into the muscle
while a helper holds the animal still. Check that the needle is not in a blood vessel. It is
usually advisable not to inject more than 10 ml into any one spot.
Q. Write short notes on intramammary and intraperitoneal injections.
Intramammary Injection: Infusion of liquids or ointments are sometimes administered
into the teat for udder ailments such as mastitis. The nozzle of the tube of udder
antibiotics is designed for buffalo/cattle and is difficult to use in sheep/goat, requiring
care and patience. Cleanliness is important when infusing the udder. First milk out the
affected side of the udder as completely as possible. Afterwards wash your hands and the
udder thoroughly, then carefully disinfect the teats several times a few minutes apart. Dry
the end of the teat(s) with a clean towel to avoid germs when the medicine is inserted.
Remove the cap of the infusion and gently insert it into the teat canal, maintaining the
sterile procedure. Squeeze the dose into the teat, then massage the dose upwards toward
the base of the udder. Most udder infections can be cured by antibiotics but unsanitary
infusion techniques could introduce molds and fungi that are not sensitive to the
antibiotics, resulting in a further complicated situation.
Intraperitoneal Injection: This should be done by a person who is familiar with
anatomy of the animal and aseptic technique. Complications such as peritonitis are
common after this procedure. One helper needs to hold the animal and straddle it just in
front of the shoulders. Clip the wool from the right flank in the shallow triangular
depression below the spine, between the last rib and the point of hip bone. Medication

injected into the center of this depression goes into the peritoneal cavity. Scrub the
injection area with soap, rinse dry and then disinfect the skin with alcohol. Medicine
should be at the body temperature of sheep/goat. A sterile 25 ml or 50 ml syringe and a
sterile 16-gauge needle are required. Disinfect the bottle stopper and complete the rest of
the steps as stated earlier maintaining sterile procedure. Hold the needle perpendicular to
the skin, pointed toward the center of the body. Inject quickly the full length of the needle
PART- III SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

18
and eject the medicine. If the needle does not insert easily, it may be clogged with a plug
of tissue, or may not be in the right place. If so, withdraw the needle, replace it with a
new one and try again. Rub the injection site with a disinfectant afterwards.
Q. What are the antibiotics? Discuss briefly in a general way.
Antibiotics is the general term for a group of products that either kill or seriously impair
bacterial growth. They are effective against many bacterial diseases. Antibiotics are only
effective when present in adequate concentration. Low concentration (below
recommended levels) or discontinuation of treatment too soon may fail to kill the more
resistant bacteria present in the infection. This could result in a relapse of the condition or
more seriously a chronic infection, which could be difficult to treat due to bacterial
resistance to the antibiotic.
The availability of antibiotics should not encourage improper sanitary practices or
treatment of diseases that can be prevented through proper management and vaccination.
There is a concern that improper use of antibiotics can give rise to new strains of drug-
resistant bacteria that may pose a threat to both humans and animals. Care must be
exercised to ensure that antibiotics as well as other drugs are properly used, but not
overused. Mastitis and certain respiratory diseases are among the few examples in which
there are no preventive vaccine substitutes for antibiotics. While management practices
can minimize the occurrence of mastitis etc. antibiotics are needed once the infection is
established. Certain antibiotic dosage can upset normal body functions. Some may
sterilize the gut, making animals, susceptible to enteric upsets. Many times antibiotics are

used when they are of no benefit whatsoever, as in case of a disease caused by viruses.
When the exact cause of sickness is unknown, there is a temptation to give an injection,
usually a broad-spectrum antibiotic, to see if it helps. Ideally, any illness should have an
accurate diagnosis first.
Q. What is meant by biologicals/vaccines? Explain in detail.
Biologicals (vaccines, bacterins and toxoids) are intended solely for disease protection.
They have very little, if any, effect in treating the disease. These immunizing agents are
proteins called antigens that only stimulate the small ruminant’s immune system to
produce protection against the particular disease. It needs to be understood that
vaccination and immunization are not the same thing, because administration of the
antigen by vaccination will result in immunization only if the sheep’s/goat’s immune
system is normal and functioning. Vaccination must be accomplished well ahead of the
period in which disease exposure may occur, because it takes approximately one month
for maximum immunity to develop. Very low levels of protection are observed at two to
three weeks after vaccination and it can take up to forty-five days after the last dose of
some vaccines for maximum protection. Immunizing agents fall into four groups and all
are commonly called vaccines:
Bacterins: Containing killed bacteria and/or fractions of the bacterial cell.
Toxoids: Containing the inactivated toxins produced by bacteria, usually clostridial
organisms such as causing tetanus and overeating disease.
Vaccines: Derived from viral agents.
Anti-serums: Often called serums or antitoxins, are derived from the serum of
hyperimmune animals, one that has received multiple doses of vaccine to confer a high
and specific antibody level against the particular disease.
Q. Write short notes on vaccines, toxoids, bacterins and anti-serum.
PART- III SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

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Vaccines: A vaccine is a modified live or killed biological preparation, which when
injected into the animal (or instilled intranasally as nasalgen,), stimulates the animal’s

immune system to build its own protective antibodies. Modified live vaccines (MLV)
contain strains of virus that are incapable of causing the disease but still retain the
immune-stimulating potential of the disease-causing strain. MLV vaccines (with few
exceptions) produce greater and longer protection than the inactivated (killed) virus
vaccines. It takes approximately two weeks for protection to appear and the immune
response will maximize in about a month.
Toxoids: These are solutions of inactivated toxins derived from bacteria that cause
disease by producing toxins that enter blood stream and cause severe tissue or nerve
damage (such as tetanus, blackleg). Since it is the toxin produced by bacteria and not the
bacteria themselves that cause disease. Toxoids stimulate the animal to produce
neutralizing antibodies against the toxin, thus protecting against their deadly effect.
Bacterins: These are suspensions of bacteria grown in culture media and killed
chemically or by heat. They are unable to produce disease and may be used without
danger of spreading disease. The bacteria used in the production of various bacterins are
highly antigenic strains isolated from animals that have succumbed to the particular
disease. Bacterins are often suggested as an aid in establishing immunity to specific
diseases. Most bacterins require a primary (priming) injection followed by a booster in
one to four weeks. The actual protection is obtained following the booster injection.
Bacterins do not confer long-lasting immunity. At the best maximum protection is
usually for six months to a year between boosters.
Anti-serum: Also called serum or antitoxin. By injecting an anti-serum, antibodies
produced in another animal are borrowed to confer a temporary or passive immunity for a
short period, often ten to twenty-one days. It is used to protect animals for a short period
when disease is present in the flock and to treat infected animals as an aid to overcome
disease. In a unique situation, anti-serum may be administered along with a vaccine to
give immediate protection while the animal is developing its own active immunity. It is
advisable to consult a competent veterinarian under such circumstances, because in some
instances the hyperimmune serum will neutralize the vaccine.
Store all immunizing supplies in a cool place, but do not allow them to freeze. Obtain
vaccines from a reputable source, because if they are not properly stored or transported

before you get them, they may be worthless.
Some vaccines are applied by scratching the skin, some are subcut, others intramuscular
and still others are sprays into the nasal cavity. You must follow the directions of the
manufacturer regarding both the dosage and the manner of administration. Vaccination
sites on sheep/goats and their youngones are the side of the breastbone i.e. lower chest
wall behind the elbow or the side of neck. It is difficult to pinpoint that what vaccines are
required by your flock because it depends on what part of the country you are, what
diseases are prevalent there, presence of other flocks nearby, the climate, the type of
operation, the purchase of new animals and the conditions under which the animals are
being raised.
Q. Name some of the most useful immunizing agents for small ruminants that
are in use in New Zealand, Australia, Canada and USA.
• Nasalgen-IP (P13): To protect against certain types of pneumonia and
respiratory diseases.
PART- III SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

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• Footvax: Foot rot vaccine. This product contains an oil adjuvant (immune
enhancer) that can cause injection site swellings and small abscesses.
Therefore be sure to inject high up on the side of the neck.
• Covexin-8: It immunizes against all the common clostridial diseases including
tetanus.
• EAE-Vibrio combination: It protects against the two common disease caused
abortions.
• Ovine Pili Shield: It is a new vaccine given to ewes to immunize lambs
through the colostrum, against scours caused by E. coli bacteria.
• Selenium-Vitamin E: Selenium-E is not a vaccine but an injectable essential
nutrient needed for protection of sheep/goats and youngones against white
muscle disease and immune deficiency. It is mainly required in selenium
deficient area. Too much of it is highly toxic.

Q. Give schedule for vaccination of sheep/goats against various diseases.
Tentative vaccination schedule
Month Week Sheep Goats
January 2
nd
Enterotoxaemia Enterotoxaemia
February Ist Anthrax Anthrax
March Ist Sheep pox Goat pox
April Ist FMD FMD
May Ist Pleuropneumonia Pleuropneumonia
June Ist Enterotoxaemia Enterotoxaemia

(Overleaf)
July 2
nd
Enterotoxaemia Enterotoxaemia
August Ist Anthrax Anthrax
September Ist Sheep pox Goat pox
October Ist FMD* FMD*
November Ist Pleuropneumonia Pleuropneumonia
December Ist Enterotoxaemia Enterotoxaemia
* Optional. Source: Booklet issued by Vet. Res. Institute, Lahore.

Q. What general instructions need consideration for use and dosage of vaccines?
• The vaccines are intended for prophylactic and not for curative purpose.
• The bottle should be thoroughly shaken before each injection to ensure a
uniform suspension.
• The syringes, needles and other instruments to be used carefully sterilized
before use.
• The bottles, ampoules, vials etc. must not be exposed to direct sunlight or

heat. Shelf-life depends on proper storage.
• Protective immunity level can be achieved and maintained through adopting a
planned and systematic schedule of vaccination.
• Live virus vaccines should not be demanded through ordinary post. It is
preferable to collect them in ice from the institute through a special courier.
• Distilled water for reconstitution of vaccines must be sterilized and chilled.
• After reconstitution, the inoculum must be kept cool and used within 2 hours.
PART- III SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

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• Instructions given on the label must be strictly adhered to.
• Empty ampoules/vials and left-over inoculum should be properly disposed off.
Q. What do you know about ovine progressive pneumonia (OPP)? Explain in
detail.
Any chronic ailment can result in thin sheep but OPP accounts for many of the
persistently thin adult sheep (if nutrition and parasites have been eliminated as disease
causes). OPP is a slow virus similar to AIDS in humans, taking about two years to show
its symptoms. The virus slowly causes progressive lung damage. Ewes gradually lose
stamina and body weight and have serious breathing problems ending in fatal pneumonia.
While at present there is no cure and no vaccine against OPP, there are new tests that
make disease control possible. It is necessary to have annual testing of all breeding
animals (eliminating the infected ones) to ensure that no OPP problems occur and to be
further sure you purchase only OPP-free breeding stock replacements. Since it is
transmitted from ewe to lamb through milk, therefore, infected valuable breeding ewe
could be isolated from the flock and her lamb taken immediately at birth and raised on
colostrum-replacer and lamb milk-replacer. This is almost 100% effective. All animals
that test OPP positive should be isolated from the rest of the flock, since transmission can
result from close contact with infected animals mainly via respiratory secretions when
animals are confined to crowded quarters. Once the signs of disease appear, the outcome
is always fatal. Positive cases should be isolated and culled. At Cornell University, there

is an Indirect Immunofluorescent Test (IIFT) for OPP. When buying initial flock and any
replacement animals, the owner should be requested to provide proof that his flock has
been tested for OPP.
Q. What is meant by urolithiasis? Write down its main causes, symptoms and
treatment.
Urolithiasis simply means urinary calculi. The latter are stone like concretions in the
urinary tract, which usually originate in the kidneys. Sheep and goats are susceptible to
urinary calculi formation and serious losses can occur when breeding males develop this
problem. Nutritional imbalances are generally considered the primary cause of stone
formation. For example i) a high-potassium intake, ii) a high-phosphorus-low-calcium
ratio; the C:P ratio should be about 2:1, iii) a high silica content in the ratio and iv) a
deficiency of vitamin A may be a contributing factor. Symptoms commonly observed
are: frequent attempts to urinate, dribbling or stoppage of the urine, pain and renal colic.
Mostly males affected since females are able to pass the concretions. Bladder may
rupture, with death following. Otherwise, uraemic poisoning may set in. When calculi
develop, it is advisable to dispose off the affected animals, since treatments have limited
success. The following preventive and curative measures are recommended.
Feed salt at level equivalent to 4 % of total diet in order to induce more water
consumption. Feed ammonium chloride at level of 7 g per head per day to reduce the
alkalinity of the urine. Incorporate 20 % alfalfa in the ration. Administer muscle relaxants
to help the passage of calculi from the bladder. As a last resort, surgically remove the
calculi, however, males will become non-breeders after such an operation.
Q. Give causes, symptoms and treatment of bloat in small ruminants.
Bloat is an excessive accumulation of gas and/or foamy material in the rumen. Severe
cases can be fatal in as little as two hours if not treated. Too much of almost any feed can
cause bloat but over consumption of unchoped wet clover, leafy alfalfa, grain or orchard
PART- III SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

22
fruit etc. is the most common cause. When changed from sparse to lush pasture, animals

may gorge themselves unless given a feeding of dry forage prior to turning out on the
grazing area. The coarse feed is thought to stimulate the belching mechanism as well as
keeping the green feed from making a compact mass. Some sheep/goats seem more prone
to bloat than others, possibly due to a faulty belching mechanism.
Enlargement of the rumen on the left flank is the major sign of bloat. Difficult breathing,
grinding of teeth because of abdominal gas pain, sometimes profuse salivation and off
feed are other symptoms. When the animal falls to the ground death usually follows
probably from suffocation. If bloat is not so severe as to have caused a breathing
problem, you can prevent further gas formation by giving two table spoons of baking
soda in a cup of warm water, using a dose syringe. Be careful so that the mixture does not
go into the lungs. Repeat the dosage in thirty minutes if necessary. You can place the
sheep/goat in sitting position and massage the abdomen to encourage belching. May be
the bloat is foamy type, for that one-half cup of vegetable oil (maize oil or mustard oil) is
given by mouth if the animal is still able to breathe and swallow normally. One cm
rubber tubing may be passed down the throat into the rumen to release gas, unless there is
too much foam. If you are sure that the tube is not in the lungs, you can pour one-half cup
vegetable oil into the tube with a funnel to break up the foam somewhat. In an emergency
the rumen can be punctured by an experienced person, using a sterilized trocar and
cannula to relieve both foam and gas and to treat to prevent infection.
Q. What is meant by an abscess and how to treat it?
An abscess is a lump or boil usually in the neck or shoulder region of goats. It grows until
it bursts and a thick pus is exuded. Any animal with an abscess should be isolated. If the
goat is wet, its milk should be boiled well before consuming it. If, however, the abscess is
on the udder, the milk should be discarded. The lump will become the size of a tennis ball
or even larger, and burst by itself or it can be lanced when it appears ripe. A small X-
shaped cut will heal better than a straight cut and the incision should be made low on the
abscess to facilitate drainage. Squeeze out the pus and burn the material. Isolation and
strict sanitation are especially important during the period of drainage. If the abscess is
caused by lymphadenitis, it will have cheese-like pus; if the pus is like mayonnaise it
indicates pseudopeumonia. The wound should be treated with acryflavine or tincture of

iodine. Some reports suggested that goat flocks vaccinated for corynebacteria became
abscess free.

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PART- III SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

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HOOF CARE

Q. What are the various causes of lameness in small ruminants? Suggest
preventive measures in this regard.
The possible causes of lameness are: overgrown untrimmed hooves; wedges of mud or
stone or other matter lodged in the cleft of the hoof; plugged toe gland (in sheep),
squeeze to remove plug, then disinfect injury; sprain, nail puncture or thorn; abnormal
foot development, may be a genetic defect, cull out; foot abscess; foot scald; true
infectious hoof rot; vitamin deficiency, try ADE in food or injection.
When you notice an animal limping, try to find out the reason. Notice which foot seems
affected, then catch the animal and trim all four hooves if needed, doing the sore one last
so as not to spread any possible infection. You can help prevent sheep/goats from
becoming lame by: trimming all feet at least twice a year, hooves may need trimming
more than twice a year when the wet weather is unduly prolonged, untrimmed hooves
curl under on the sides and provide pockets for accumulation of moist mud and manure
ideal for growth of foot disease germs; maintaining dry bedding area in winter; keeping
animals away from low lying marshy pastures; changing location of feeding sites

occasionally to prevent accumulation of manure and formation of muddy areas; and
having footbath arrangement for use when needed.
Q. What do you know about foot gland? Explain.
Sheep have a deep gland between the two toes of each foot, with a small opening at the
front and top of the hoof. It can be readily seen. Goats do not have these. The gland’s
secretion is waxy and has a faint, strange odour, said to scent the grass and reinforce the
herding instinct. If these glands are plugged with mud, the secretion is retained and the
foot becomes lame. Squeeze the gland and sometimes a fairly large amount of waxy
substance pours out. With this the animal gets better. You must have to get a clear idea of
what a normal hoof looks like, only then you can spot a diseased condition.
Mighty Mike Sheep Squeeze: Sheep enters squeeze and sides are squeezed together. It is
then simple to turn sheep completely upside down. Feet can be restrained in stirrups for
foot trimming. Adjustable from 45 kg animal to the largest adult ewe or ram.
Q. Write notes on foot scald, foot abscess and foot rot.
Food Scald: It is sometimes mistaken for foot rot. In scald the soft tissues above and
between the toes are involved. There is inflamed tissue and moistness, sometimes open
sores, often only one foot involved. It is caused by dampness, wet pasture, prolonged
walking in mud or the abrasion due to foreign objects lodged between the toes. The soft
tissue between and above the toes and heel become inflamed. This occurs primarily
during wet winter and the condition sometimes improves without treatment in dry
weather. It, however, lessens foot resistance to more serious conditions like foot abscess
or foot rot and causes lame animals to eat poorly and not get enough exercise.
Trim hooves and spray with antibacterial hoof spray. If no improvement, treat with
footbath solution or ordinary hydrogen peroxide. Penicillin injections may be helpful. As
prevention it is necessary to get rid of muddy places.
Foot Abscess: Also called bumble foot. It is a true abscess and occurs within the hoof
structure, usually affects only one foot. It is considered infectious, but not extremely
contagious like foot rot. The infection causes formation of thick pus and as the internal
pressure increases, the animal becomes more and more lame. Sometimes, there is a
PART- III SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

25
swelling above the hoof. It is caused by bacteria in manure and dirt, which enter through
cuts or a wound, causing an infection of soft tissue and reddening of the tissue between
the toes. This infection may become advanced if not treated and can move into the joints
and then it is almost incurable. Because of abscess pregnant sheep/goats will fail to graze,
slow about getting grain feeding, not enough exercise, which can bring on pregnancy
toxaemia. Insufficient nutrition results into low birth weight of newborns and a little milk
for them. The abscess may eventually break/burst and discharge pus or pressure is
released by an incision (X-cross type). When it is opened or breaks, squeeze out the pus
and treat with an antiseptic and may bandage the foot. An intramuscular injection of up to
a million units of penicillin for three to five days may be given.
Foot Rot: It is caused by bacteria (Bacillus nodosus). Clean animals become infected by
walking over ground contaminated by infected animals within the last seven to ten days.
These bacteria cannot survive on the ground much longer than seven days, but can
survive indefinitely in the feet of infected sheep/goat. It spreads rapidly in warm moist
weather. The foot rot organism is an anaerobe. This is why hoof trimming is an important
part of foot rot treatment so that dead tissue is removed to allow oxygen to enter (to
antagonize the survival of these bacteria). The availability of Footvax vaccine (in USA,
Canada etc.), coupled with hoof paring and a hoof bath solutions makes both prevention
and cure possible.
Foot rot starts with a reddening of the skin between the claws of the hoof. The infection
starts in the soft horny tissue between the hoof or on the ball of the heel then spreads to
the inner hoof wall. By this time there is a strong unpleasant odour. As the disease
progresses, the horny tissue of the claws becomes partly detached and the separation of
the hoof wall from the underlying tissue lets the claw become misshapen and deformed.
In severe infections, it is often more practical to dispose of the most seriously affected
animals and concentrate treatment on the milder cases.
Treatment consists of the following: remove as much part of the affected hoof as possible
to expose the infected areas to the footbath. Disinfect knife after each hoof trimmed. Burn

the hoof trimmings. Footbath treatment be given. Hold the animals on a dry yard for
several hours after footbath treatment. Vaccinate with Footvax if available. May be
imported for more valuable animals.
Q. What is meant by footbath treatment? Give some footbath formulae for use
with small ruminants.
Footbath trough is a device containing preventive/curative solutions of various chemicals
in which feet of sheep/goats are given bath to treat problems such as foot rot.
If you run sheep/goats through a trough of plain water first, it keeps the footbath solution
clean longer. Be sure that the animals have had water and are not thirsty so that they do
not drink from the footbath. Feet should be trimmed before the footbath to allow better
penetration. Disinfect knife between each hoof and each animal to avoid spread of germs.
The footbath contains 10% zinc sulphate solution in which the animals are made to stand
for about an hour on two occasions a week apart. Trim nonlimpers first, then put them in
footbath first, now turn them into a clean grazing area. Next foot-bathe the limpers and
keep them in dry area, treating them regularly every week or have them walk through the
bath on the way to daily feeding. In conjunction with vaccination with Footvax, trimming
and isolation of the infected animals from the clean group, total eradication of foot rot
from treated flocks has been accomplished.