ENERGY EFFICIENCY MANUAL ppt

ENERGY
EFFICIENCY
MANUAL
Donald R. Wulfinghoff
ENERGY INSTITUTE PRESS
Wheaton, Maryland U.S.A.
for everyone who uses energy,
pays for utilities,
controls energy usage,
designs and builds,
is interested in energy and
environmental preservation
Energy Efficiency Manual
by Donald R. Wulfinghoff
published by:
Energy Institute Press
3936 Lantern Drive
Wheaton, Maryland 20902
U.S.A.
301-946-1196
888-280-2665
(orders only)
Copyright © 1999 Donald R. Wulfinghoff
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, or put into or stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including but not limited
to electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or recording, without prior written permission
from the copyright holder, except for brief quotations that are included in legitimate
reviews.
Custom excerpts and course packs from the Energy Efficiency Manual are available for
purchase. Please contact the publisher for selections and prices.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 99-22242

ISBN 0-9657926-7-6
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Wulfinghoff, Donald R.
Energy efficiency manual : for everyone who uses energy,
pays for utilities, / Donald R. Wulfinghoff.
p. cm.
ISBN 0-9657926-7-6 (alk. paper)
1. Energy conservation Handbooks, manuals, etc.
2. Energy consumption Handbooks, manuals, etc.
I. Title
TJ163.3.W85 1999
697 dc21 99-22242
CIP
Printed in the United States of America
Economics rates the Measure in terms of three primary
financial criteria. You must make detailed estimates for your
individual applications.
Savings Potential
states the amount of savings you can expect,
usually expressed as a fraction of the system's operating cost.
Cost
indicates the amount of money required. Gives you specific
equipment and labor costs where possible.
Payback Period
estimates the length of time needed to pay off
the investment.
Traps & Tricks alert
you to factors that threaten
success. Gives you hints for
getting it right the first time

and for keeping the Measure
effective in the long term.
the Summary
highlights aspects of
the Measure that place
it in perspective within
your overall efficiency
program.
the text of the
Measure explains
who, what, where,
when, how,
and
why
.
It focuses on issues
that are directly related
to accomplishing the
Measure. (Important
background informa-
tion for the Measures
is in the Reference
Notes, Section 11.)
The Measure is the unit of information in the
Energy Efficiency Manual
. Each Measure is a
self-contained, hands-on guide to one specific method of saving energy and reducing utility costs.
the Measure title
says what to do.
the Measure number locates this Measure within the 400 Measures of the

Manual.
the
Section
tells you the major subject area, such as boilers, water systems, or lighting.
the
Subsection
tells you the specific type of energy system, such as boiler fuel systems.
Or, it tells you a specific area of efficiency, such as reducing solar cooling load.
the
sequence number
within the Subsection. The Measures are grouped logically.
the
subsidiary sequence number
. Only "subsidiary" Measures have this.
NOTE: In the text, "ff" after a Measure number means
"
the Measure and every Measure that is subsidiary to it.
"
the Selection Scorecard rates the financial and human factors that are most important
for deciding whether to exploit the Measure in your application. The scores are for typical
commercial applications.
Shaded symbols indicate a range of scores.
Savings Potential
is expressed as a percentage of
the facility's total utility cost.
Rate of Return
estimates the percent of the initial cost
that is saved each year.
Reliability
indicates the likelihood that the Measure will

remain effective throughout its promised service life.
Ease of Retrofit
or
Ease of Initiation
indicates
how easy it is for the people involved to accomplish
the Measure properly.
FOOLPROOF. Equipment or materials will last
as long as the facility. Maintenance
requirements will not cause the Measure to
be abandoned. If a procedure, it is easy to
administer. Or, it is a simple, one-time effort.
RELIABLE. Equipment has long service life,
is not very vulnerable to damage, negligence,
or poor operating practice. May fail visibly at
long intervals. If a procedure, it is fairly easy
to maintain and requires only modest skill.
FAILURE PRONE. Equipment needs skilled
maintenance, or it is vulnerable to damage or
poor operating practice. Fails invisibly. If a
procedure, it is easily forgotten or requires
continuing supervision.
VERY RISKY. Equipment has poor or
unknown reliability. Or, it needs frequent
maintenance. If a procedure, it is difficult to
learn or it may easily cause damage.
EASY. Only minimal effort and
no extra skill are required. No
tricky factors.
ROUTINE. Not much effort or

skill required. May need to
learn a new procedure.
DIFFICULT. Needs major staff
effort. Or, hard to find reliable
contractors. May be tricky.
VERY CHALLENGING. Can
be unpleasant, likely to be
resisted. Or, installation is
difficult and expensive. Or,
requires major experimen-
tation.
over 100%
30% to 100%
10% to 30%
less than 10%
over 5%
0.5% to 5%
0.1% to 0.5%
less than 0.1%
the Ratings suggest the priority that this Measure deserves in your overall energy
conservation program, in typical situations.
Do it wherever it applies. It costs
little, and it has no significant
disadvantages.
Do it in most cases. Modest
cost. Pays back quickly. Does
not need special skill or
increased staffing.
It is very expensive. Or, the
payback period is relatively long.

Or, operation may require
substantial effort, special skill,
or continuing management
attention.
It provides only a small benefit
in relation to its cost. Or, it may
have high risk because it is
novel, unreliable, difficult to
install, or difficult to maintain.
Do it wherever it applies. Simple and
quick. Costs little in comparison with
its benefits. The risks can be managed
easily by the present staff.
Do it in most facilities where it applies.
Pays back quickly. Easy to accomplish.
Requires a modest amount of money,
effort, and/or training. May have pitfalls
that require special attention.
Expensive or difficult. Or, the saving is
small in relation to the money, effort,
skill, or management attention required.
The risks are clear and manageable.
Expensive, and provides only little
benefit. Or, exceptionally risky because
it is difficult to accomplish correctly, or
difficult to maintain, or unproven, or
unpredictable.
Simple, quick, and foolproof. Or,
it must be done to prevent
damage or major efficiency loss.

Will be done in a well-managed
facility. Pays back quickly. Fairly
easy to accomplish. Not too risky.
Requires a modest amount of
money, effort, and/or training. Or,
it is a less critical maintenance
activity.
Requires substantial money,
effort, special skill, and/or
management attention. Or, the
benefit is small.
The benefit is small in relation to
cost. Or, it is exceptionally difficult
to accomplish. Or, it has potential
for serious adverse side effects.
B
for
Operation & Maintenance
:for
New Facilities
: for
Retrofit
:
D
A
C
B
D
A
C

B
D
A
C
How to Use the Energy Efficiency Manual
The Energy Efficiency Manual is your primary tool for improving energy efficiency and reducing
your utility costs. It is a comprehensive, step-by-step guide that is designed to help you manage
your activities effectively and with confidence.
The core of the Energy Efficiency Manual is 400 energy efficiency “Measures.” The Measures
have a standard format that makes it easy to organize them into an optimum efficiency program for
your facility. Refer to the inside of the front cover to learn how to exploit the Measures.
The Measures are grouped into Sections and Subsections. These correspond to types of energy
systems (for example, boilers, chillers, or lighting) or to energy waste in specific components (for
example, air leakage through doors, or solar heat gain through windows). This arrangement lets
you quickly identify whole groups of Measures that may or may not apply to your facility. For
example, if your boilers are fueled by natural gas, you can bypass the Subsection that deals with
fuel oil systems. Use the Table of Contents to find the Sections and Subsections that apply to your
situation.
The Reference Notes, the last Section of the book, serve you in two important ways. They
support the Measures with additional explanation, which may be more basic or more advanced
than the “working” information in the Measures. Also, you can read each Reference Note by itself
for a concise overview of an important energy conservation topic.
Use the Index to find specific topics that interest you, or to find definitions of terms.
❑ If you are involved in new construction — if you are an architect, an engineer, a construction
manager, a contractor, or a code official — use the Energy Efficiency Manual as a design review
guide. As you develop your design, continually check the Manual for efficiency features that you
can exploit. Use it to find where the design wastes energy, and to find better ways of saving
energy.
❑ If you own, manage, or operate facilities — anything from a private house to an office
complex or hospital or paper mill — use the Energy Efficiency Manual to find all your opportunities

for savings. Then, use it to prioritize your activities. Finally, let it guide you in accomplishing and
preserving your improvements.
❑ If you are a specialist in energy efficiency, use the Energy Efficiency Manual as a designer or
facility manager would, depending on whether you deal with new or existing facilities. It will
improve the quality of your work and reduce the time you need to provide the best service to your
clients.
❑ If you are a student or teacher, start with the Reference Notes to learn fundamental principles.
With each Reference Note, use the related Measures as examples of practical applications.
❑ If you are an advocate for efficiency or the environment, use the Energy Efficiency Manual
to learn the real-world aspects of the conservation activities that interest you. The Manual will
help you to promote resource conservation that produces credible results.
Now, please read “A Personal Note: the Right Way to Do Energy Conservation.”
How to Use the Energy Efficiency Manual
❑ If you are involved in new construction
❑ If you own, manage, or operate facilities
❑ If you are a specialist in energy efficiency,
❑ If you are a student or teacher,
❑ If you are an advocate for efficiency or the environment,
7
© D. R. Wulfinghoff 1999. All Rights Reserved.
Improving energy efficiency may be the most
profitable thing that you can do in the short term. How
much you will actually benefit from this opportunity
depends on how you approach it. Please take a few
minutes to read the following suggestions about using
the Energy Efficiency Manual and about your role in
energy conservation. Invest a little time in learning
how to use the Manual, and it will reward you with
years of savings and achievement.
If you are involved in new construction — if you

are an architect, an engineer, a construction manager,
a contractor, or a code official — use the Energy
Efficiency Manual as a design review guide. As you
develop your design, continually check the Manual
for efficiency features that you can exploit. Use it to
find where the design wastes energy, and to find new
ways of saving energy.
If you own, manage, or operate facilities —
anything from a private house to an office complex
or hospital or steel mill — use the Energy Efficiency
Manual first to find all your opportunities for savings.
Then, use it to prioritize your activities. Finally, let it
guide you in accomplishing and preserving your
improvements.
If you are a specialist in energy efficiency — if
you are an energy consultant, a utility energy
specialist, or an energy services provider — use the
Energy Efficiency Manual in the same way, depending
on whether you deal with new or existing facilities.
You will find that it greatly improves the quality of
your work and reduces the time you need to provide
service of top quality to your clients.
If you are a student preparing to enter any of
these important fields, or if you are a teacher, you
will use the Energy Efficiency Manual in a different
way. Start with the Reference Notes to learn
fundamental principles. With each Reference Note,
use the related Measures as examples of practical
applications.
If your job or your vocation is to advocate

efficiency — for example, if you are a government
energy official or an environmental advocate — use
the Energy Efficiency Manual to learn the real-world
aspects of the conservation activities that interest you.
Both governments and advocacy groups have played
an invaluable role in promoting efficiency. At the same
time, naive enthusiasm sets the stage for failures,
A PERSONAL NOTE: THE RIGHT WAY TO DO ENERGY CONSERVATION
which undermine public confidence in energy
conservation and actually waste energy. The Energy
Efficiency Manual will help you to promote resource
conservation that produces credible results.
How to Use the Energy Efficiency Manual
The Energy Efficiency Manual is designed to be
your primary tool for improving energy efficiency and
reducing your utility costs. It is a comprehensive,
step-by-step technical guide, and it also helps you
manage your activities efficiently. Learning to use
this tool proficiently will take only a few moments.
The core of the Energy Efficiency Manual
consists of four hundred energy efficiency
“Measures.” Each Measure is a specific energy
efficiency improvement or cost saving activity. Each
Measure gives you the information you need to plan
the activity efficiently and accomplish it successfully.
All the Measures have a standard format. This
includes special features, Ratings and a Selection
Scorecard, that help you to quickly judge the value
of each Measure for your applications. Other features,
the Summary, Economics, and Traps & Tricks, give

you the main features of each Measure. To become
familiar with these features, refer to the key to the
Measures, inside the front cover, as you browse
through the Measures.
The Measures are grouped into Sections and
Subsections. These correspond to types of energy
systems (e.g., boilers, chillers, lighting) or to energy
waste in specific components (e.g., air leakage through
doors, solar heat gain through windows). This lets
you quickly identify whole groups of Measures that
may or may not apply to your facility. For example,
if your boilers are fueled by natural gas, you can
bypass the Subsection that deals with fuel oil systems.
Use the Table of Contents to select the Sections and
Subsections that apply to your facility.
First, find all your opportunities.
Resist the temptation to rush into energy
conservation projects without considering all your
opportunities first. You may be eager to get started
after attending a seminar, or reading an article, or
getting a sales pitch. Those are good ways to get an
introduction to new concepts, but they are no
substitute for knowing all your opportunities.
8
ENERGY EFFICIENCY MANUAL
If you grab at opportunities randomly, you will
miss many good ones and waste money. In a facility
of any size, there will be many things that you can do
to reduce your utility costs. Every building and plant
wastes energy in hundreds or thousands of places.

Find them all.
There is no way to find the best opportunities
first. It is like an Easter egg hunt. You can’t tell how
big the prizes are until you have searched everywhere
and found all the eggs. By the same token, don’t
expect to find a “short list” of improvements that are
best for your facility. Each building and plant wastes
energy in different ways.
Your search for efficiency improvements will be
time-consuming. (In existing facilities, this search is
often called an “energy audit.”) Typically, it requires
weeks or months. In a large, diverse facility, it may
require more than a year. Demand the time to do it
right.
A false concept that came out of the popular
energy conservation movement of the 1970’s is the
“walk-through” or “one-day” energy audit. According
to this notion, whizzing through a facility reveals
energy conservation opportunities by a mystical kind
of inspiration. Reject this ouija board approach, even
as a starting point. Quickie surveys fool you into
believing that you know your options when you really
don’t.
Budget your time as wisely as your money.
When you complete your list of potential
efficiency improvements, your next job is to decide
the most effective sequence for accomplishing them.
You want to produce the greatest payoff in the shortest
time. Be shrewd about managing your program’s two
most important resources, money and personal

capabilities.
The Energy Efficiency Manual helps you make
the best use of both these resources. The Ratings in
each Measure suggest its overall priority, taking into
account the economics of the Measure, the difficulty
of accomplishing it, and the degree of risk. To refine
your ranking, the Selection Scorecard, just below the
title, rates these factors individually. At the end of
each Measure, the Economics gives you general
estimates of the potential savings, the cost, and the
rate of return.
Recognize that your time is a more precious
resource than the money needed to make the
improvements. Energy efficiency is a profit maker.
So, you could borrow money to fund any project that
you know will pay off. The skills and effort of the
people involved are the real limiting factors. Traps &
Tricks, located right after Economics, alert you to
aspects of the Measure that will challenge the people
involved.
Give priority to the Measures, or groups of
Measures, that will produce the largest savings, even
though they may not pay off most quickly. Don’t
divert your time to minor activities while there are
more important things to be done. On the other hand,
if you see that you can accomplish a Measure quickly
and reliably, go ahead and do it. Don’t waste time
analyzing small improvements in detail.
Try to accomplish groups of related Measures
together. For example, make all the control

improvements to your air handling systems as a single
activity. This avoids duplication of effort, saves money
in contracting, and produces a better overall system.
The Energy Efficiency Manual is organized to make
this easy for you.
Most important, don’t get in over your head at
the beginning with a large project that demands all
your attention. If a Measure seems overwhelming,
defer it until you have more time to study it. Don’t
start any Measure until you are ready to complete it
successfully.
Don’t expect instant gratification.
The desire for quick and effortless results has
ruined more energy conservation projects than any
other cause. Rushing into a project blindly is
unprofessional. You would not want your surgeon to
rush through your operation just to prove how quickly
he can do it.
You have heard expressions like “no-cost energy
conservation measure,” “pick the low fruit,” and so
forth, to describe retrofit projects that are supposed
to be “easy” or “simple.” These notions are illusions
that lure you into being too hasty. Every opportunity
for saving energy requires significant effort, if it is
going to work and to endure.
Your willingness to invest the needed effort and
time is what guarantees the success of your projects.
The Energy Efficiency Manual will show you how to
make your improvements as quickly and easily as
possible.

9
© D. R. Wulfinghoff 1999. All Rights Reserved.
Rely on proven equipment and methods.
Energy conservation is not a license to use the
owner as a guinea pig. In most cases, rely on
conventional equipment and methods. Contrary to
popular opinion, energy efficiency does not require
exotic technology. That’s good news. The bad news
is that fads in energy conservation have strong appeal,
distracting people from proven profit makers. The
only good reason to do energy conservation is to
produce predictable, certain savings.
Everyone is fascinated by innovation. Innovation
drives progress. But, the price of innovation is a big
chance of failure. Most owners can’t afford that risk.
Leave unproven equipment and methods to those who
develop new products and have a laboratory budget.
On the other hand, if you are in a position to
work at the frontiers of energy efficiency, the Energy
Efficiency Manual will help you survive as a pioneer.
You will find many Measures at the leading edge of
energy efficiency (and a few that are just on the outer
fringe). These too can be profitable if you give them
the attention they need. Riskier Measures have a
Rating of “C” or “D”, and their Traps & Tricks warn
you of the dangers of unexplored territory.
Why is there so much stress on reliability?
The Energy Efficiency Manual devotes a lot of
attention to the details that make the difference
between a reliable system and one that is riddled with

problems. This emphasis on avoiding pitfalls and
dealing with tricky factors is intended to alert you,
not to frighten you. Energy conservation is still a
new subject. The blunt truth is that many energy
conservation projects have failed, almost always
because people ignored vital issues at the outset.
These issues are often simple. For example, a
common cause of energy waste is failing to mark
controls so that people know how to use them.
Only successful projects pay off. We want you
to contribute to the successes, not to the failures. The
Measures spell out the issues that you need to consider.
It’s like driving around potholes. Keep your eyes open
and don’t rush.
Why all the explanations?
A large part of the Energy Efficiency Manual is
devoted to explaining how things work. There are
several important reasons for this. If you understand
the principles, you are much less likely to make
mistakes. Knowing the principles also enables you
to keep up with changes in technology. And, knowing
what you are doing at a basic level turns the work
into fun.
The “theory” is located in two places. Each
Measure offers the basic information that you need,
and if necessary, it suggests where to get more
information. Often, a Measure will refer you to one
or more Reference Notes. Each Reference Note is a
self-contained explanation of a specific topic.
Don’t let mere words get in your way.

Each area of design, construction, and facility
operation has a separate vocabulary. Architects have
one set of jargon, mechanical engineers have another,
electrical contractors still another, and so forth. Don’t
let this deter you from making efficiency
improvements in each of these areas. The principles
are important, not knowing particular words.
The Energy Efficiency Manual keeps the
language as simple as possible. For example, we say
“lamp” or “light fixture” instead of “luminaire.” We
say “window” or “skylight” instead of “fenestration.”
To help you communicate with specialists who may
be fussy about language, the Manual explains
specialized terms in the places where you need to
know them.
Fortunately, each area has only a few specialized
terms that are important. If you find a word that is
unfamiliar, the Index will steer you to a concise,
practical explanation.
You don’t need much math, but be comfortable
with numbers.
You will probably be happy to see that the Energy
Efficiency Manual uses little mathematics. There are
only a few simple formulas, and you need only
arithmetic to use them.
Even so, energy efficiency is all about numbers.
In most cases, you are not doing something that is
fundamentally new. Instead, you are doing something
better. To judge whether the improvement is worth
the cost, you have to be able estimate the benefit in

terms of numbers. If you are not comfortable doing
the math, of if you need a calculation that requires
specialized knowledge, get a specialist to make the
calculations for you.
Recognize that energy savings are uncertain to
some extent. They are subject to conditions that you
cannot predict, including future energy costs,
10
ENERGY EFFICIENCY MANUAL
operating schedules, weather, and human behavior.
Make your estimates of savings for a reasonable range
of conditions.
Keep your facility efficient for its entire life.
When energy conservation became a public issue
during the 1970’s, it was promoted by many well-
intentioned people who lacked experience in keeping
things working. Energy conservation was treated as
a magic pill that would cure the disease of energy
waste once and for all. In reality, energy waste is a
degenerative condition that keeps trying to return.
Maintaining efficiency is like maintaining your
physical fitness. You have to keep it up. Design your
efficiency improvements to survive as long as the
facility. Each Measure that requires maintenance tells
you how to keep it profitable.
Let all your information sources work for you.
Capable professionals depend primarily on a few
well-worn references. But, they also know how to
get information from other sources quickly. Whether
you are a professional or not, the Energy Efficiency

Manual is your primary reference for energy
efficiency. However, no single book can tell you
everything you need to know. To do battle with energy
waste, assemble an armory of information that is
appropriate for the level of improvements that you
plan to make.
You will see that the Energy Efficiency Manual
is not cluttered with formulas and tables. When you
need detailed engineering data, get it from the
appropriate reference books. Fortunately, you need
only a few of these. If you are involved at a
professional level with heating, air conditioning,
refrigeration, or designing a building’s skin, you
should have the four-volume ASHRAE Handbook on
your shelf. For electric lighting, the prime reference
source is the IESNA Handbook.
Many books are available on specialized aspects
of energy conservation, such as solar energy,
cogeneration, and residential insulation. Don’t
hesitate to get another book to expand your knowledge
about a subject. There is no better bargain. A good
book costs almost nothing in comparison with your
utility expenses, and it protects your most valuable
assets, which are your time and your professional
reputation.
Once you decide to use a particular type of
equipment, study the catalogs and equipment manuals
of different manufacturers. These are a treasure of
important details, and they are your most current
source of information. But, beware. The big

weakness of manufacturers’ literature is a selective
rendition of the truth. Knowing potential problems
beforehand is critical to success, but manufacturers
tend to omit or minimize this vital information.
Talk to others.
Two heads are better than one. Seek other
people’s opinions before you get involved with
unfamiliar equipment or procedures. You can get
practical advice from books, trade magazines,
professional organizations, consultants, colleagues,
and vendors. Talk to facility operators for their
opinions about how well something really works.
As you do this, take everything with a grain of
salt. People’s perceptions are distorted by wishful
thinking, embarrassment about disappointing
outcomes, and inability to measure actual
performance. I have listened to experienced plant
operators brag about big efficiency improvements that
they were convinced they had achieved with gadgets
that were purely bogus.
Don’t try to do everything yourself.
If you have a big facility, you will not live long
enough to make it efficient by yourself. If you try,
energy and money will bleed away while valuable
efficiency improvements wait to be made.
Spread the work effectively. In a big facility,
your main job is to decide which Measures to
accomplish, and to make sure that they get done
correctly. Use engineers, architects, contractors,
specialized consultants, along with the facility staff.

As your program gains momentum, you will have
your hands full making sure that others do their work
correctly.
Many Measures straddle the boundaries of the
established design and construction disciplines. For
example, successful daylighting requires close
coordination between the architect, the lighting
designer, the electrical engineer, and the mechanical
engineer. You have to bring all these people together
and require them to address all the issues that are
critical for success. This is not always easy. Select
your people for their willingness to listen and learn.
11
© D. R. Wulfinghoff 1999. All Rights Reserved.
Seize the opportunity!
The most important point is to get started. At
every moment, motors and fans are running, lights
are turned on, boilers are burning fuel, and other
equipment is consuming energy. Some of this energy
is being wasted, and it is probably more expensive
than you realize. Remember that cost savings are pure
profit. You would have to sell a lot more of your
product or service to make as much profit as you can
from energy efficiency. Start tapping this resource.
On an industry-wide basis, the efficiency of your
facilities will increasingly determine whether your
organization can continue to survive and compete. On
a global scale, improving efficiency is the most
satisfactory way for civilization to adapt to declining
energy resources and to minimize harm to the

environment.
Enjoy yourself.
At this point, you may feel that you got into more
than you bargained for. Don’t worry. Energy
conservation is a bigger challenge than most people
expect, but the Energy Efficiency Manual breaks it
down into easy steps. Set a comfortable pace, and
stick with it. Your energy savings will soon show up
on your utility bills, and those saving will continue to
grow and accumulate.
Your energy efficiency program can be the most
interesting and rewarding part of your career. It will
give you an opportunity to become involved in every
aspect of your industry. There is probably no other
way that you can have as much fun while doing
something of fundamental importance.
Donald Wulfinghoff
Wheaton, Maryland, USA
13
Expression of Gratitude
This book aspires to bring order and understanding to the vast field of energy efficiency. It
organizes what I have learned about the subject during a career that has spanned the most exciting
years of energy conservation in the United States and the world. Almost everything that I know was
learned from others in one way or another. I would like to begin the book by recognizing those who
contributed generously and specifically to the book, and also to recognize several persons and
organizations who contributed more generally to my education in energy efficiency. This book is
largely their achievement. The following brief acknowledgments cannot adequately recognize the
individuals who made important contributions. However, I hope that these mentions will be accepted
as a token of my deep gratitude.
Clinton W. Phillips, a figure revered in the air conditioning industry for his limitless contributions,

erudition, and charm, meticulously reviewed two separate drafts of the material that deals with
cooling systems. In addition to checking the text, he made important comments on both the theory
of refrigeration and the lore of practical applications.
Henry Borger, a leader in construction research as well as a talented writer on diverse subjects,
reviewed the entire book, suggesting improvements in structure and content.
Charles Wood reviewed the text that deals with boiler systems, providing valuable comments on
this technical area and on the editorial approach.
Jim Crawford of the Trane Company contributed extensive and detailed information about the
fast-changing world of refrigerants. Dave Molin of the Trane Company reviewed the Reference
Note on energy analysis computer programs.
Richard Ertinger and Edward Huenniger of Carrier Corporation provided valuable information
about the most recent advances in cooling technology.
Ken Fonstad, of the Graham Division of Danfoss, Inc., wrote lucid explanations of the electrical
subtleties of variable-frequency motor drives, accompanied by extensive oscilloscope traces that he
made. He also contributed a number of illustrations.
Sean Gallagher shared his experience with the practical aspects of lighting retrofits and with
utility purchasing in this era of rapid change in the utility industry.
Don Warfield of Solarex provided information about the current state of photovoltaic technology,
and made several illustrations available.
Many others contributed information during the twenty years of the book’s preparation. It is
impossible now to recall all the valuable discussions and presentations. I hope that the individuals
will approve of the way that the book reflects their expertise.
Many organizations contributed illustrations that help to achieve the book’s goal of bringing to
life many unfamiliar and subtle concepts. These organizations are listed in the back of the book.
The individuals who were especially helpful in providing the illustrations include Pat McDermott
and Claudia Urmoneit of Osram Sylvania; Eric Johnson, Dave McDevitt, and Pat Barbagallo of
Carrier Corporation; Jake Delwiche and Dick Figgie of the Trane Company; Thomas Henry and
Pam Blasius of Armstrong International; Andrew Olson and Jim Baker of Rite-Hite Corporation;
Tania Davero of Advance Transformer Company; Leight Murray and Diane Iaderosa of the Airolite
Company; Doby Byers of American Mill Sales; Peter DeMarco of American Standard; John Figan

of Bacharach; William McCloskey of Baltimore Aircoil Company; Steve Hill of Blender Products;
Roy Nathan of Calmac Manufacturing Corporation; Bob Agnew of Celotex Corporation;
Sharon Quint and Bill Garratt of Cleaver-Brooks; Paul Moulton of Construction Specialties, Inc.;
Dewey Boggs of Coyote Electronics; Sherri Snow of Danfoss Automatic Controls; Lynn Hamrick
of Donlee Technologies; Trish Steele of Dow Chemical Company; Linda Byam of Duo-Gard
Industries; Herman Knapp and Keith Knapp of Fuel Efficiency, Inc.; Chris Van Name of Goodway
14
Tools Corporation; William Bakalich of Hi-Fold Door Corporation; Eric Huffman of Huvco, LLC;
Joachim Harasko of IMR Environmental Equipment; Rob Carter of Industrial Combustion;
Bruce Keller of Kalwall Corporation; Bob Hanson of Kentube; Judy Kuczynski of Leeson Electric
Corporation; Jennifer Vizvary of Lennox Industries; Lee Webster of LightScience Corporation;
Don Betts of Ludell Manufacturing Company; Dipti Datta of M&I Heat Transfer Products;
Wayne Toenjes and Susie Toenjes of Major Industries; Bob Rank of Paragon Electric Company;
Mike Leeming of Parker Boiler Company; Daniel Manna and Juli Stovall of Paul Mueller Company;
Steve McNeil of Pennsylvania Separator Company; Larry Wilton of Philips Lighting; Ken Brooks
of Preferred Utilities Manufacturing Corporation; Leon Siwek of Pure Water/Clean Air Group;
Tom Hilty of Reliance Electric; Eileen Moran of Resources Conservation Inc.; Rick Wirth of Robicon;
Henry Warner and Deb Jamour of Ruud Lighting; Mike Schweiss of Schweiss Distributing;
Jean Posbic and Cindy Axline of Solarex; Jeff Sommer of Spirax Sarco; Brian Edwards of Sun Tunnel
Skylights; James Satterwhite and Cindy Selig of Super Sky Products; Mike Williams of Todd
Combustion; Gerry Denza of Unenco Electronics; Jim Carney of Vaughn Manufacturing;
Michael Boyd of Vistawall Architectural Products; Jochen Schiwietz of Water Technology of
Pensacola; Dorothea Rynearson of WaterFurnace International, and Klaus Reichardt of the
Waterless Company.
The archives of Wulfinghoff Energy Services, Inc. yielded many of the figures, found among
thousands of photographs that were originally taken as field notes in energy efficiency projects, and
among illustrations made for courses and seminars.
Like all who are involved with energy efficiency, I owe a great debt to the American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, known to the world as ASHRAE. This
book’s many referrals to the ASHRAE Handbook attest to its role as the primary reference for the

practice of refrigeration and building design. The Society gave me the opportunity to serve with
several committees that defined the course of energy conservation in response to energy crises of
the 1970’s. Among these responsibilities were helping to organize and to serve as a judge of the
ASHRAE Energy Awards, which provided exposure to the energy conservation philosophies of the
most innovative engineers of that era. ASHRAE also provided the impetus to write Managing Your
Energy, the tutorial on the management aspects of energy conservation that became the basis of the
Energy Management chapter of the ASHRAE Handbook. Another committee assignment gave me
the opportunity to investigate how the different types of buildings use energy, then and now a topic
that is rife with misconceptions.
I am particularly indebted to the National Capital Chapter of ASHRAE. During the years that
I have been a member, the Chapter presented several hundred technical presentations, from each of
which I learned something new and valuable. Two individuals stand out for their accomplishments
in the Chapter. Jim Wolf, the president when I first began to serve in its offices, created the model
of disciplined organization that keeps the Chapter effective to this day. Jim also facilitated technical
reviews and illustrations from the Trane Company and American Standard. Jose Reig was the
mainstay of the Energy Management Committee when I served as its early chairman, and later
supported me when I became responsible for ASHRAE’s energy conservation programs in the mid-
Atlantic States. His intense dedication to everything he undertakes has been rewarded by the success
of the engineering firm that he built.
The George Washington University provided my first platform for teaching energy efficiency to
professionals, starting during the late 1970’s. This gave me the occasion to consolidate the lessons
that were being learned in those heady days of intense interest in energy conservation. The notes of
those courses became the early structure of the Energy Efficiency Manual.
The U.S. Navy Engineer Officers School, San Diego, provided my first serious introduction to
the machinery of energy systems. The School was a model of effective instruction that should be
copied by all engineering schools.
15
My education in energy efficiency would have been inadequate for this task without the practical
experience gained while working for the clients of my energy efficiency firm. Improving their
facilities taught me the lessons of energy efficiency in the real world, including the diversity of ways

that energy is wasted, the importance of details at every step, and the need for relentless maintenance
and management attention. I always tried to spare our clients from the fads that were rampant
during the infancy of the energy conservation movement. Still, those forward looking managers
were the experimental subjects who made progress possible. And, they provided the living that
financed the long years of writing.
Among our clients who became good friends, Michael Whitcomb deserves special mention as
an extraordinary facility energy manager who aggressively and successfully pioneers important
areas of energy efficiency. Our discussions about the practical realities of managing energy systems
continue to be instructive.
The Energy Efficiency Manual benefited immensely from the editorial review of two
extraordinary individuals. Nancy Dashiell, the original and veteran writer and technical editor of
U.S. Pharmacopeia Drug Information (published by Consumers Union under the title Complete
Drug Reference), edited the crucial final manuscript of the book and made valuable suggestions
about earlier versions. Felicity Evans, whose experience includes service as a government energy
official, insisted on essential changes to the early structure and style of the book. Among other
important improvements, her suggestions led to the creation of the Reference Notes.
Dan Poynter, renowned parachutist and publishing mentor, made penetrating comments on an
early draft that led to a complete rewrite to make the book easy to use by a broad audience.
In the production of the book, one individual stands out. Mark Dorbert, the proprietor of Wet
Ink Printing & Graphics, shepherded the book from manuscript to press, rendering the interior
design, accomplishing the composition and typesetting, and electronically processing the illustrations.
An inspired artist, he also designed the end material. He did an enormous amount of work that
would normally require a large team of individuals, mastering the range of prepress skills during a
period in which the technology of publishing is changing from month to month. Nothing daunts
him, he never slackens the pace, and his humor keeps the work enjoyable.
Cindy Fowler, of Graves Fowler Associates, rendered the cover design flawlessly and quickly,
patiently dealing with many details.
Steve Dolan, of Scanners LLC, made the electronic renderings of the author’s drawings, putting
in many hours of work to meet a short deadline.
— Donald Wulfinghoff

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Page 1How to Use the Energy Efficiency Manual in Knovel
08/31/2006 11:07:27 AM
How to Use the Energy Efficiency Manual in Knovel
The Energy Efficiency Manual is the world's most complete guide to energy efficiency in buildings and industry. It covers every aspect of energy
usage in buildings of all types, and it covers the common energy-using equipment of industrial plants. The Energy Efficiency Manual has unique
evaluation aids to help you select the specific information that you need for any energy conservation application. Added to this, Knovel gives you
instant access to the huge amount of information in the Energy Efficiency Manual. This page explains how to use the information access features of
Knovel and the Energy Efficiency Manual.
The "Measures" of the Energy Efficiency Manual
The MEASURE (short for "energy conservation measure") is the basic module of information in the Energy Efficiency Manual. There are 400
Measures. (In Knovel, 394 of the Measures are available interactively.) Each Measure is a self-contained, hands-on guide to one specific method of
saving energy and reducing utility costs.
Each Measure has an identifying number that uses the format, "4.7.6" or "4.7.6.1", where:
• the first number is the Section of the Energy Efficiency Manual
• the second number is the Subsection
• the third number is the sequence number of the Measure within the Subsection
• the fourth number (if present) is the sequence number of a subsidiary Measure under a primary Measure.
How to Access the Measures
There are several ways to access the Measures, depending on your needs.
• To see the Measures that are contained in each Subsection, go to Knovel's Table of Contents page for the Energy Efficiency Manual. (To do this,
find the EEM anywhere on the Knovel Web site, and click "Table of Contents.) Click the "+" icon to the left of the Subsection title. The Measures
in that Subsection will appear below the Subsection title.
• To see a complete list of all the Measures, go to Knovel's Table of Contents page for the Energy Efficiency Manual. Click "Index To the
Measures". This will yield the "Interactive Index to the Measures", listing all the Measures in numerical order.
• To find the Measures that apply to a particular application or interest, start with a Knovel topic search. The Knovel search will give you a listing of

all the publications in your Knovel subscription that cover the topic, ranked in order of relevance. Where your topic is covered by the EEM, click
"Interactive Index" at the top of the EEM listing. This will yield the Interactive Index to the Measures, which lists all the Measures that contain your
search keywords.
• Every Measure is hyperlinked wherever it is mentioned in the Energy Efficiency Manual. The EEM is highly integrated and interactive, so that
many Measures refer to other Measures. A single click takes you instantly from one Measure to another.
The Measure Evaluation Tools of the Energy Efficiency Manual
Energy conservation activities vary widely in their characteristics, such as their cost, their economic payback, and their reliability. Therefore, each
Measure in the Energy Efficiency Manual includes three sets of tools for rapid evaluation:
• RATINGS of overall desirability, one for each of three main applications: new construction, retrofit, and O&M
• SUMMARY, which is a brief statement of the key issues
• SELECTION SCORECARD, which provides scores for the most important factors that determine the desirability of the Measure.
These evaluation tools allow you to quickly find the Measure or Measures that are best for your particular application. Often, there are several
methods to attack a particular cause of energy waste. A separate Measure will describe each method. The evaluation tools let you make a side-by-
side comparison of alternatives.
Page 2How to Use the Energy Efficiency Manual in Knovel
08/31/2006 11:07:27 AM
The meanings of the Ratings and Selection Scorecard scores are given here:

Column Header Description
Section The major category or subject area to which the energy efficiency
measure applies.
Subsection Process or specific type of system for which the measure is
relevant.
Measure Number A hyperlink to the location of this Measure within the text of the
Manual
.
Measure The actual text or instructions of the Measure.
New Facilities Rating the
Ratings
suggest the priority that this Measure deserves in

your overall energy conservation program, in typical situations.

A
Do it wherever it applies. It costs little, and it has no significant
disadvantages.
B
Do it in most cases. Modest cost. Pays back quickly. Does not need
special skill or increased staffing.
C
It is very expensive. Or, the payback period is relatively long. Or,
operation may require substantial effort, special skill, or continuing
management attention.
D
Expensive, and provides only little benefit. Or, exceptionally risky because
it is difficult to accomplish correctly, or difficult to maintain, or unproven,
or unpredictable.
Retrofit Rating the
Ratings
suggest the priority that this Measure deserves in
your overall energy conservation program, in typical situations.
A
Do it wherever it applies. Simple and quick. Costs little in
comparison with its benefits. The risks can be managed
easily by the present staff.
B
Do it in most facilities where it applies. Pays back quickly.
Easy to accomplish. Requires a modest amount of money,
effort, and/or training. May have pitfalls that require special
attention.
C

Expensive or difficult. Or, the saving is small in relation to the money,
effort, skill, or management attention required. The risks are clear and
manageable.
D
Expensive, and provides only little benefit. Or, exceptionally risky because
it is difficult to accomplish correctly, or difficult to maintain, or unproven,
or unpredictable.
O&M (Operation and Maintenance) Rating the
Ratings
suggest the priority that this Measure deserves in
your overall energy conservation program, in typical situations.
Page 3How to Use the Energy Efficiency Manual in Knovel
08/31/2006 11:07:27 AM
A
Simple, quick, and foolproof. Or, it must be done to prevent damage or
major efficiency loss.
B
Will be done in a well-managed facility. Pays back quickly. Fairly easy to
accomplish. Not too risky. Requires a modest amount of money, effort,
and/or training. Or, it is a less critical maintenance activity.
C
Requires substantial money, effort, special skill, and/or management
attention. Or, the benefit is small.
D
The benefit is small in relation to cost. Or, it is exceptionally difficult to
accomplish. Or, it has potential for serious adverse side effects.
Summary
(hidden)
Highlights aspects of the Measure that place it in perspective
within the overall efficiency program

Page 4How to Use the Energy Efficiency Manual in Knovel
08/31/2006 11:07:27 AM
the
Selection Scorecard
rates the financial and human factors that are most important for deciding whether to exploit the Measure in your
application. The scores are for typical commercial applications. Shaded symbols indicate a range of scores.
Savings Potential
is expressed as a percentage of the facility's total utility cost.

$$
$$
4 over 5%
$$
$
30.5%to5%
$$
2 0.1% to 0.5%
$
1 less than 0.1%

Rate of Return
Rate of Return, New Facilities
Rate of Return, Retrofit
Rate of Return, O&M

(hidden)
estimates the percent of the initial cost that is saved each year.

%%%%

4 over 100%
%%%
3 30% to 100%
%%
2 10% to 30%
%
1 less than 10%
Reliability
Reliability of Equipment
(hidden)
Reliability of Procedure
(hidden)
indicates the likelihood that the Measure will remain effective
throughout its promised service life.

4
FOOLPROOF.
Equipment or materials will last as
long as the facility. Maintenance requirements will
not cause the Measure to be abandoned. If a
procedure, it is easy to administer. Or, it is a
simple, one-time effort.
3
RELIABLE
. Equipment has long service life, is not
very vulnerable to damage, negligence, or poor
operating practice. May fail visibly at long
intervals. If a procedure, it is fairly easy to maintain
and requires only modest skill.
2

FAILURE PRONE.
Equipment needs skilled
maintenance, or it is vulnerable to damage or poor
operating practice. Fails invisibly. If a procedure, it
is easily forgotten or requires continuing
supervision.
1
VERY RISKY.
Equipment has poor or unknown
reliability. Or, it needs frequent maintenance. If a
procedure, it is difficult to learn or it may easily
cause damage.
Ease of Retrofit
Ease of Initiation

(hidden)
indicates how easy it is for people involved to accomplish the Measure
properly.

4
EASY.
Only minimal effort and no extra skill
are required. No tricky factors.
3
ROUTINE
. Not much effort or skill required.
May need to learn a new procedure.
2
DIFFICULT.
Needs major staff effort. Or,

hard to find reliable contractors. May be tricky.
1
VERY CHALLENGING.
Can be unpleasant,
likely to be resisted. Or, installation is difficult
and expensive. Or, requires major
experimentation.
Knovel's "Interactive Index of the Measures"
Knovel's powerful "Interactive Index to the Measures" lets you easily scan all the Measures that appear in a topic search. Furthermore, you can use
the Interactive Index to rank the Measures according to any of the Energy Efficiency Manual's evaluation tools that you select.
The Interactive Index is a table. Its headings are the EEM's evaluation tools, along with the Sections and Subsections in which the Measures occur
are located. The table includes the Measures that result from a topic search, so it changes depending on the keywords that you use in your search.
Here is the most common way to access the Interactive Index:
1. Conduct a topic search on the EEM Table of Contents page using relevant keywords. This will yield the complete Knovel search results.
2. Click "Interactive Index to the Measures." This produces the Interactive Index, listing all the Measures in which your search topic appears.
For example, if you are designing the lighting for an office building, you might want to make a Knovel search using the keywords "lighting" AND
"fixtures". When you do, the Interactive Index will display the relevant Measures in this way
(showing top 4):

Page 5How to Use the Energy Efficiency Manual in Knovel
08/31/2006 11:07:27 AM
no
.
Syste
m
Process
Meas
ure
Numb
er

Measure
New
Facilit
ies
Rating
Retro
fit
Ratin
g
O&
M
Rati
ng
Savin
gs
Potent
ial
Rate
of
Retu
rn
Rate
of
Retur
n,
New
Facilit
ies
Rate
of

Retur
n,
Retro
fit
Reliabi
lity
Ease
of
Retro
fit
no
.
gfedc
33
9
Artific
ial
Lighti
ng
Lamps
and
Fixtures,
Incandes
cent
9.1.1
Eliminat
e
excessive
lighting
by

reducing
the total
lamp
wattage
in each
activity
area.
B1-34 2 2
33
9
gfedc
gfedc
34
0
Artific
ial
Lighti
ng
Lamps
and
Fixtures,
Incandes
cent
9.1.2.
1
Substitut
e screw-
in
fluoresce
nt lamps

for
incandes
cent
lamps.
B 1-4 2-3 1-3 3
34
0
gfedc
gfedc
34
1
Artific
ial
Lighti
ng
Lamps
and
Fixtures,
Incandes
cent
9.1.2.
2
Substitut
e
tungsten
halogen
lamps for
conventi
onal
incandes

cent
lamps.
C 1-22-3 3 3
34
1
gfedc
Page 6How to Use the Energy Efficiency Manual in Knovel
08/31/2006 11:07:27 AM
gfedc
34
2
Artific
ial
Lighti
ng
Lamps
and
Fixtures,
Incandes
cent
9.1.3 Substitut
e lamps
that
minimize
light
trapping
and/or
improve
light
distributi

on.
B1-32-4 3 3 34
2
gfedc
no
.
Syste
m
Process
Meas
ure
Numb
er
Measure
New
Facilit
ies
Rating
Retro
fit
Ratin
g
O&
M
Rati
ng
Savin
gs
Potent
ial

Rate
of
Retu
rn
Rate
of
Retur
n,
New
Facilit
ies
Rate
of
Retur
n,
Retro
fit
Reliabi
lity
Ease
of
Retro
fit
no
.
Using the Interactive Index to Rank Measures
By using the data manipulation features of the Interactive Index, you can create a list that ranks the Measures according to any of the EEM's
evaluation criteria.
For example, continuing with the Interactive Index table that you created in the previous example, you might want to focus on all the Measures that
have a Rating of "B" for new construction. Click the "Filter Data in Table" icon at the top of the table. Select column New Facilities Rating, and

enter 'B' as the value. This will produce the following table, (showing top 4):
no
.
Syste
m
Process
Measu
re
Numb
er
Measure
New
Faciliti
es
Rating
Retrof
it
Ratin
g
O&
M
Ratin
g
Saving
s
Potenti
al
Rate
of
Retur

n
Rate of
Return,
New
Faciliti
es
Rate
of
Retur
n,
Retrof
it
Reliabili
ty
Ease
of
Retrof
it
no
.
gfedc
26
Boile
r
Plant
Burner
and Fan
Systems
1.4.7
Install

variable-
output fan
drives on
large
forced-
draft and
induced-
draft fans.
B C 1-2 2-3 1-2 3 2-3 26
gfedc
Page 7How to Use the Energy Efficiency Manual in Knovel
08/31/2006 11:07:27 AM
gfedc
38
Boile
r
Plant
Combusti
on Gas
Heat
Transfer
And Heat
Recovery
1.7.1.1
Install a
conventio
nal (non-
condensin
g)
economize

r.
BC 32 4 1-338
gfedc
gfedc
39
Boile
r
Plant
Combusti
on Gas
Heat
Transfer
And Heat
Recovery
1.7.1.2
Install a
heat
recovery
air
preheater.
BD 2-3 2 1-23 139
gfedc
gfedc
41
Boile
r
Plant
Combusti
on Gas
Heat

Transfer
And Heat
Recovery
1.7.1.4
Install a
water
spray heat
recovery
unit.
B C 2-3 2-4 1-3 2-4 1-2 41
gfedc
no
.
Syste
m
Process
Measu
re
Numb
er
Measure
New
Faciliti
es
Rating
Retrof
it
Ratin
g
O&

M
Ratin
g
Saving
s
Potenti
al
Rate
of
Retur
n
Rate of
Return,
New
Faciliti
es
Rate
of
Retur
n,
Retrof
it
Reliabili
ty
Ease
of
Retrof
it
no
.

In this way, you have quickly extracted the specific information you want from the vast store of information in the Energy Efficiency Manual.
The "Reference Notes" of the Energy Efficiency Manual
The REFERENCE NOTES are the second major part of the Energy Efficiency Manual. Each Reference Note is a self-contained explanation of an
important topic in energy efficiency and cost savings.
Many of the Measures in the Energy Efficiency Manual refer to Reference Notes for additional detail or supporting information. Knovel hyperlinks
to each Reference Note wherever it is mentioned in the text, just as it does for all of the Measures.
You can also access the Reference Notes from the Knovel Table of Contents page for the Energy Efficiency Manual, just as you can for the
Measures. The Reference Notes comprise Section 11, where they are arranged in Groups. Click the "+" symbol in front of each Group to access the
Reference Notes contained in that Group.

Energy Efficiency Manual
Copyright © 1999 Energy Institute Press

v
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
Contents
Keys to the Measures, Ratings, and Selection Scorecard
3
How to Use the Energy Efficiency Manual
5
A Personal Note: The Right Way to Do Energy Conservation 7
Expression of Gratitude 13
Section 1: Boiler Plant 17
1.1 Equipment Scheduling and Operating Practices 19
1.1.1 Minimize the Duration of Boiler Plant Operation 20
1.1.1.1 For Applications with Regular Schedules, Install Clock Controls to Start and
Stop Boilers 22
1.1.1.2 In Applications That Require a Warm-Up Period, Control Boiler Operation Using an
Optimum-Start Controller 23
1.1.1.3 If the Boiler Plant Is Used Only for Comfort Heating, Limit the Operation of the Boiler

Plant Based on the Outside Air Temperature 25
1.1.1.4 In Applications Where Automatic Starting and Stopping of Boilers Is Not Desirable,
Use Automatic Controls to Signal the Starting and Shutdown Sequence to
Operators 27
1.1.2 With Multi-Fuel Boilers, Select the Most Economical Fuel on a Moment-to-Moment Basis 28
1.1.2.1 Install Automatic Fuel Changeover 30
1.1.3 Operate Boiler Auxiliary Equipment Consistent with Boiler Operation and Load 31
1.1.3.1 Interlock Auxiliary Equipment with the Boilers It Serves 33
1.1.3.2 Install Power Switching That Prevents Unnecessary Operation of Spare Pumps 34
1.1.4 Distribute the Heating Load Among Boilers in the Manner That Minimizes Total Plant
Operating Cost 34
1.1.4.1 Install an Automatic Boiler Scheduling Controller 38
1.1.5 In Steam Systems, Keep Steam Pressure at the Minimum That Satisfies Equipment and
Distribution Requirements 40
1.2 Boiler Plant Efficiency Measurement 43
1.2.1 Test Boiler Efficiency on a Continuing Basis 44
1.2.2 Install Efficiency Instrumentation Appropriate for the Boiler Plant 54
1.2.3 Calibrate Boiler Plant Instruments at Appropriate Intervals 57
1.2.4 Keep Operators Proficient in Using Instrumentation to Maximize Boiler Plant Efficiency 58
1.3 Air-Fuel Ratio 59
1.3.1 Optimize the Air-Fuel Ratio 60
1.3.2 Install Automatic Air-Fuel Mixture Controls 65
1.3.3 Adjust and Repair Air-Fuel Ratio Controls 69
vi Contents


This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
1.4 Burner and Fan Systems 71
1.4.1 Clean, Adjust, and Repair Burner Assemblies at Appropriate Intervals 72
1.4.2 Eliminate Air Leaks in Air Casings, Blower Housings, and Connecting Ducts 74

1.4.3 In Boilers That Are Fired at Inefficiently High Output, Reduce the Maximum Firing Rate 75
1.4.4 Install Burner Systems That Provide the Best Efficiency and Other Features 78
1.4.5 Replace the Motors in Burners and Fans with Models Having the Highest Economical
Efficiency 89
1.4.6 Replace Continuous Pilot Flames with Electrical Ignition 89
1.4.7 Install Variable-Output Fan Drives on Large Forced-Draft and Induced-Draft Fans 90
1.5 Draft Control 93
1.5.1 Adjust Draft for Maximum Efficiency 94
1.5.2 Correct Defects in Flue Systems and Boiler Room Ventilation That Cause Draft Problems 99
1.5.3 Minimize Standby Losses 102
1.5.3.1 Control All Fans in the Combustion Air Path to Stop, and All Dampers to Close,
When the Burner Is Not Firing 103
1.5.3.2 Install an Automatic Flue Damper 104
1.5.3.3 Install a Burner Assembly or Boiler That Minimizes Standby Losses 106
1.5.3.4 With Cycling Burners, Adjust the Controls to Minimize the Frequency of
Firing Cycles 106
1.6 Firesides and Watersides 109
1.6.1 Clean Firesides at Appropriate Intervals 110
1.6.2 Install Soot Blowers in Boilers That Burn Sooting Fuels 112
1.6.3 Optimize Soot Blower Operation 115
1.6.4 Clean Watersides at Appropriate Intervals 116
1.6.5 Avoid Leaving Waterside Deposits When Deactivating Boilers 118
1.7 Combustion Gas Heat Transfer and Heat Recovery 119
1.7.1 Install a Flue Gas Heat Exchanger to Recover Additional Heat 120
1.7.1.1 Install a Conventional (Non-Condensing) Economizer 121
1.7.1.2 Install a Heat Recovery Air Preheater 126
1.7.1.3 Install a Condensing Economizer 129
1.7.1.4 Install a Water Spray Heat Recovery Unit 131
1.7.2 In Firetube Boilers, Install Turbulators 133
1.8 Condensate, Feedwater, and Water Treatment 137

1.8.1 Test and Treat Boiler Water on a Continuing Basis 142
1.8.1.1 Hire a Qualified Consultant and Contractor to Perform Water Treatment 150
1.8.1.2 Install Automatic Water Treatment Equipment 152
1.8.2 Control Top and Bottom Blowdown to Maintain Required Water Quality and Minimize Waste
of Boiler Water 153
1.8.2.1 Install Automatic Blowdown Control 157
1.8.3 Install Blowdown Heat Recovery 158
1.8.4 Maximize Condensate Return 163
1.8.4.1 Recover the Heat from Condensate That Must Be Discarded 166
Contents vii


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1.8.4.2 Recover the Energy of Hightemperature Condensate That Would Be Lost by
Flashing 167
1.8.5 Keep Vacuum Condensate Systems Operating Properly 169
1.8.6 Replace Pump Motors with Models Having the Highest Economical Efficiency 171
1.9 Fuel Oil Systems 173
1.9.1 Adjust Fuel Oil Temperature to Provide the Optimum Viscosity for Burner Efficiency 174
1.9.1.1 Install Automatic Fuel Oil Viscosity Control Equipment 176
1.9.2 Use the Most Economical Heat Source for Fuel Oil Heating 177
1.9.3 Use Fuel Oil Additives to Improve Combustion Efficiency and/or Improve Other Fuel Oil
Properties 178
1.9.4 Replace Pump Motors with Models Having the Highest Economical Efficiency 180
1.10 Steam and Water Leakage 181
1.10.1 Monitor Boiler System Water Loss 182
1.10.2 Locate and Repair Steam and Water Leaks at Appropriate Intervals 183
1.10.3 Use the Most Efficient Type of Steam Trap for Each Application 187
1.10.4 Test and Repair Steam Traps on a Continuing Basis 198
1.10.4.1 Install Accessory Devices to Assist in Steam Trap Diagnosis 203

1.10.4.2 Hire Specialists to Perform Periodic Steam Trap Inspections 207
1.10.5 Recover Heat and Water from Steam Vents 208
1.11 Conduction and Radiation Losses 211
1.11.1 Locate and Repair Defective Insulation on All Heating Plant Equipment and Piping 212
1.11.2 Minimize Cooling or Ventilation of Pipe Tunnels and Other Unoccupied Spaces Surrounding
Hot Distribution Equipment 216
1.11.3 Route Combustion Air to the Boiler by a Path That Recovers Heat From the Boiler Room 218
1.12 System Design for Efficient Low-Load Heating 225
1.12.1 In Facilities That Operate for Extended Periods with Low Heating Loads, Install a Small,
Efficient Lead Boiler 226
1.12.2 Install Localized Heating Units to Allow Shutting Down the Central Plant During Periods of
Low Load 230
1.12.3 If It Is Desirable to Reduce the Boiler Operating Pressure, Eliminate High-Pressure Steam
Users or Provide Separate High-Pressure Steam Boilers 232
1.12.4 If a Facility Has Several Boiler Plants, Provide Cross Connections That Allow Shutting Down
the Least Efficient Boilers 233
Section 2: Chiller Plant 237
2.1 Equipment Scheduling and Operating Practices 239
2.1.1 Distribute the Cooling Load Among Chillers in the Manner That Minimizes
Total Plant 240
2.1.1.1 Install an Automatic Chiller Scheduling Controller 243
2.1.2 Use Automatic Controls to Shut Down the Entire Chiller Plant When There Is No
Cooling Load 245
2.1.2.1 Control Chiller Plant Operation by Sensing the End-User Cooling Load 246
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2.1.2.2 Limit the Operation of the Chiller Plant Based on the Temperature or Enthalpy of the
Outside Air 247

2.1.2.3 In Applications with Regular Schedules, Use Time Controls 249
2.1.2.4 In Applications Where Pre-Cooling Is Required, Use Optimum-Start Controllers 249
2.1.2.5 In Applications Where Automatic Starting of Chillers Is Undesirable, Use Automatic
Controls to Alert Personnel to Start Them Manually 250
2.1.3 Turn off and Isolate Heat Rejection Equipment When the Corresponding Chiller Turns off 250
2.1.4 In Plants with Multiple Water Chillers, Minimize the Operation of Chilled Water Pumps and
Isolate Idle Evaporators 253
2.1.5 Install Power Switching That Prevents Unnecessary Operation of Spare Pumps 260
2.1.6 Turn off Compressor Sump/Crankcase Heaters During Extended Shutdown Intervals 261
2.2 Optimum Operating Temperatures 263
2.2.1 Keep the Chilled Water Supply Temperature as High as Possible 264
2.2.1.1 Reset Chilled Water Temperature Manually 265
2.2.1.2 Install an Automatic Chilled Water Temperature Controller 266
2.2.2 Optimize the Condensing Temperature 267
2.2.2.1 Adjust the Condenser Temperature Manually 270
2.2.2.2 Install Automatic Condenser Temperature Reset Controls 272
2.3 Condenser and Evaporator Heat Transfer Efficiency 275
2.3.1 In Systems with Open-Loop Cooling Towers, Clean Condenser Tube Watersides Regularly 276
2.3.1.1 Install Automatic Condenser Tube Cleaners 277
2.3.2 With Water Chillers, Clean Evaporator Tube Watersides at Appropriate Intervals 279
2.3.3 With Wet Condenser Cooling Systems, Test and Treat Cooling Water on a
Continuing Basis 280
2.3.3.1 Hire a Qualified Consultant and Contractor to Perform Water Treatment 282
2.3.3.2 Install and Maintain Automatic Chemical Feeders 282
2.3.4 With Wet Cooling Systems, Adjust the Bleed Rate to Maintain Proper Water Conditions with
Minimum Water Consumption 283
2.3.4.1 Install and Maintain an Automatic Bleed Control 285
2.3.5 In Chilled Water Systems, Install Turbulators in the Evaporator Tubes 286
2.4 Heat Rejection Equipment 289
2.4.1 Modulate Fan Output in Heat Rejection Units to Follow the Cooling Load 291

2.4.1.1 Install Variable-Frequency Fan Drives 295
2.4.1.2 Install Variable-Pitch Propeller Fans 297
2.4.1.3 Install Dual or Multi-Speed Motors 299
2.4.2 In Multiple-Cell Cooling Units, Sequence the Fans Efficiently 301
2.4.3 Clean Heat Rejection Units at Appropriate Intervals 302
2.4.3.1 Install and Screen Heat Rejection Units to Minimize Debris Accumulation 305
2.4.4 In Gravity-Flow Cooling Towers, Ensure Proper Water Distribution 307
2.4.5 Keep Heat Rejection Unit Housings and Fittings Intact 308
2.4.6 Avoid Recirculation of Air Through the Same or Adjacent Heat Rejection Units 310
2.4.7 Install Fan and Pump Motors Having the Highest Economical Efficiency 315