Teaching English Pronunciation With The Textbook English 11 At Dong Hy High School.pdf

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
----------

HOÀNG THỊ THANH HOA

TEACHING ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION WITH THE TEXTBOOK
ENGLISH 11 AT DONG HY HIGH SCHOOL
(DẠY PHÁT ÂM TIẾNG ANH THEO SÁCH GIÁO KHOA TIẾNG ANH LỚP
11 Ở TRƯỜNG THPT ĐỒNG HỶ)

M.A. MINOR THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 601410
Supervisor: Dr. Dương Thu Mai

HÀ NỘI - 2012


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
----------

HOÀNG THỊ THANH HOA

TEACHING ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION WITH THE TEXTBOOK
ENGLISH 11 AT DONG HY HIGH SCHOOL
(DẠY PHÁT ÂM TIẾNG ANH THEO SÁCH GIÁO KHOA TIẾNG ANH LỚP

11 Ở TRƯỜNG THPT ĐỒNG HỶ)

M.A. MINOR THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 601410

HÀ NỘI - 2012


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION .......................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................ iv
LIST OF CHARTS AND TABLES ........................................................................... vii
PART I: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1
1. Rationale of the study .............................................................................................. 1
2. Aim and objectives of the study ............................................................................... 1
3. Scope of the study .................................................................................................... 2
4. Methods of the study................................................................................................ 2
5. Significance of the study .......................................................................................... 2
6. Design of the study .................................................................................................. 3
PART II: DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................ 4
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................... 4
1.1. Definition of pronunciation ................................................................................... 4
1.2. The importance of teaching pronunciation ............................................................ 4
1.3. English pronunciation teaching to foreign language learners ................................. 5

1.3.1. What to teach ..................................................................................................... 5
1.3.2. Approaches to teach ........................................................................................... 6
1.3.3. Methods to teach ................................................................................................ 7
1.3.4. Teaching techniques ........................................................................................... 8
1.3.5. Studies on the effects of different teaching methods ........................................... 9
1.4. The teaching of English consonants .................................................................... 13
1.4.1. General description and classification of English consonants. .......................... 13
1.4.2. Vietnamese consonants .................................................................................... 15
1.4.3. English vs Vietnamese consonants and the possible difficulties ....................... 16
1.5. Factors affecting the effects of pronunciation teaching ........................................ 18
1.5.1 The native language .......................................................................................... 18
1.5.2 The age factor ................................................................................................... 19


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1.5.3. Amount of exposure ......................................................................................... 19
1.5.4. Phonetic ability ................................................................................................ 19
1.5.5. Attitudes and personalities ............................................................................... 20
1.5.6. Motivation ....................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER 2: THE STUDY ...................................................................................... 21
2.1. An overview of the situation of teaching and learning English at Dong Hy
High School ............................................................................................................... 21
2.1.1. The educational environment ........................................................................... 21
2.1.2. Teachers........................................................................................................... 21
2.1.3. Learners ........................................................................................................... 22
2.1.4. The textbook .................................................................................................... 22
2.2. Research questions .............................................................................................. 23
2.3. Research methodology ........................................................................................ 24
2.3.1. The subjects of the study .................................................................................. 24

2.3.2. Methods and procedures................................................................................... 24
2.4. Data analysis process .......................................................................................... 24
2.5. Summary ............................................................................................................ 26
CHAPTER 3: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS.......................................... 27
3.1. The teachers and students‟ attitudes towards teaching and learning pronunciation ..... 27
3.1.1. Questionnaires ................................................................................................. 27
3.1.2. Interview .......................................................................................................... 29
3.1.3. Summary.......................................................................................................... 30
3.2. The techniques used in teaching pronunciation ................................................... 30
3.2.1. Questionnaires ................................................................................................. 30
3.2.2. Interview .......................................................................................................... 31
3.2.3. Class observation ............................................................................................. 31
3.2.4. Summary.......................................................................................................... 32
3.3. The levels of difficulties in teaching and learning pronunciation ......................... 33
3.3.1. Questionnaires ................................................................................................. 33
3.3.2. Interview .......................................................................................................... 34


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3.3.3. Summary.......................................................................................................... 34
3.4. The causes of the difficulties in teaching and learning pronunciation .................. 34
3.4.1. Questionnaires ................................................................................................. 34
3.4.2. Interview .......................................................................................................... 36
3.4.3. Summary.......................................................................................................... 36
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND IMPLICATIONS .................................................... 38
4.1. Findings .............................................................................................................. 38
4.2. Implications ........................................................................................................ 39
PART III: CONCLUSION......................................................................................... 42
1. Conclusions of the study ........................................................................................ 42

2. Limitations of the study ......................................................................................... 42
3. Suggestions for further study ................................................................................. 43
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 44
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1: QUESTIONAIRE FOR STUDENTS ....................................................I
APPENDIX 2: QUESTIONAIRE FOR TEACHERS ................................................ III
APPENDIX 3: INTERVIEW ...................................................................................... V
APPENDIX 4: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION SHEET ......................................... VI


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LIST OF CHARTS AND TABLES
Chart 1: Importance of pronunciation to students and teachers
Chart 2: Teachers and students‟ interest in pronunciation in class
Chart 3: Teachers and students‟ feeling towards the task of pronunciation in the
textbook English 11
Chart 4: The levels of difficulties in teaching and learning pronunciation
Chart 5: The causes of the difficulties in teaching and learning pronunciation
Chart 6: The causes of the difficulties in teaching and learning pronunciation with the
textbook English 11
Table 1: Consonants of English, (Kelly, 2000)
Table 2: Vietnamese consonants of Hanoi dialect
Table 3: Pronunciation matters mentioned in English 11
Table 4: The purpose of teaching and learning pronunciation
Table 5: Frequency of the techniques used in teaching pronunciation
Table 6: Pronunciation matters students and teachers find difficult to learn and teach


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PART I: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale of the study
Nowadays English has become one of the most popular languages in the world.
It is widely used in many fields such as business, science, education, technology,
medicine, etc. English is also considered as a main tool for global communication.
Correct pronunciation plays a very important part in using spoken English.
Mispronunciation may lead to misunderstanding and the process of the communication
may even be broken down. “A learner who consistently mispronounces a range of
phonemes can be extremely difficult for a speaker from another language community
to understand” (Kelly, 2000, p.11). However, many people learning English often do
not pay attention to their pronunciation. Even worse, some of them underestimate it.
They think that pronunciation is less important than grammar and vocabulary.
Teachers and students at Dong Hy High School are not exception. In this school,
teachers usually pay more attention to grammar, vocabulary and other skills than
pronunciation. There are a number of reasons for this. First, in the textbooks (English
10, 11, 12), pronunciation instruction accounts for very low proportion compared with
the other parts. Second, all important English exams at schools as well as the entrance
exam to universities are always in written form so most teachers and students have
little motivation to teach and to learn pronunciation. Third, it is more difficult for
students to get a mark from pronunciation than other parts .From the real teaching and
learning situation at Dong Hy High School, The researcher would like to carry out a
study to clarify some difficulties in teaching and learning pronunciation, the reasons
for them and suggest some solutions to the problems.
2. Aim and objectives of the study
This study is aimed at investigating the situation and difficulties in teaching and
learning pronunciation with the textbook English 11, the reasons for them and then at
suggesting the solutions to help teachers and students overcome these difficulties. In
order to achieve this aim, some objectives are posed for exploration as follows:
- To find out the attitudes of teachers and learners towards teaching and

learning pronunciation at Dong Hy High School.


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- To find out how pronunciation is taught at Dong Hy High School.
- To find out the difficulties and the causes of difficulties in teaching and
learning Pronunciation in Language focus periods - English 11.
3. Scope of the study
Pronunciation is a large area of language teaching and often causes learners and
teachers a lot of difficulties and there is a limited time; therefore, this research is aimed
at investigating only the difficulties in teaching and learning pronunciation with the
textbook English 11that teachers and students at Dong Hy High School have been
facing and finding out the causes of these difficulties. Besides, the study is also to
suggest some implications for the teaching of pronunciation matters designed in
English 11, English consonantal matters.
4. Methods of the study
Both qualitative and quantitative methods are used in this study. Besides, many
resources such as books, magazines, articles, newspapers and some sources on the
internet are reviewed by the researcher.
In order to gain the most reliable results, the quantitative data are collected
through a survey questionnaire for 6 teachers and 100 grade 11 students at Dong Hy
High School.
Along with the quantitative method, the qualitative data are obtained in
classroom observation and interviews with some students and teachers to collect
further information.
After that, the results obtained from questionnaires, interview and observation
are discussed then some useful pronunciation teaching techniques are recommended.
5. Significance of the study
The textbook English 11 was designed with the hope that students could have a

complete insight into English consonantal sounds. However, there has not been much
investigation into the fact that whether lessons of pronunciation are suitable and
comprehensible for students; or whether the teaching of pronunciation for students of
grade 11 is easy- undertaken. This research provides an insight into the difficulties that
are often met by teachers teaching English for grades 11 in Dong Hy High School. In


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addition, this research also points out some feasible solutions which are, hopefully,
beneficial for both teachers and students.
6. Design of the study
The study is divided into three parts:
The first part “Introduction” presents the rationale, the aim and objectives, the
scope, the methods, significance and the design of the study.
The second part “Development” consists of four chapters:
Chapter 1 provides a thorough literature review relevant to the study. It presents
the theoretical background: the concepts relating to pronunciation, importance of
teaching pronunciation, English pronunciation teaching to foreign language learners,
factors affecting pronunciation teaching. Teaching of English Consonants is also
mentioned in this chapter.
Chapter 2, chapter 3 constitutes the body of the study. Chapter 2 is the study
description with an overview on situation of teaching and learning English at Dong Hy
High School, research questions, and research methodology and data analysis process.
Chapter 3 presents the data analysis results and discussions.
Chapter 4 concludes the findings the researcher has found from the study and
proposes some solutions to the teaching of pronunciation for grade 11 at Dong Hy
High School.
The last part of the study “Conclusion” gives a brief description of the study
and states the limitations as well as the recommendations for further study.

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PART II: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1. Definition of pronunciation
The concept “Pronunciation” is defined in different ways.
- According to Ur (1996, p. 47) “The concept of “pronunciation” may be said to
include sounds of the language or phonology; stress and rhythm; intonation;
combination of sounds; linkage of sounds".
- According to Zawadzki (1994 ), “pronunciation refers to the production of
sounds that we use to make meaning. It includes attention to the particular sounds of a
language (segments), aspects of speech beyond the level of the individual sound, such
as intonation, phrasing, stress, timing, rhythm (suprasegmental aspects), how the
voiced is projected (voiced quality) and in its broadest definition, attention to gestures
and expressions that are closely related to the way we speak a language”
In this study, the researcher has no intention of pointing out which definition of
pronunciation is the most precise but only wishes to find an appropriate definition to
facilitate the understanding of pronunciation in language study. Therefore, the
definition of pronunciation proposed by Ur (1996) is adopted.
1.2. The importance of teaching pronunciation
Learning and using the correct pronunciation are important, so teaching
pronunciation is significant as well.
According to Hasimanoglu (2006), pronunciation teaching is a prominent factor
in foreign language teaching. And sounds play an important role in communication,
so foreign language teachers must attribute proper importance to teaching
pronunciation in their classes
Harmer (2007) notes that learners should utilize pronunciation good enough for
them to be comprehended. However, while learning pronunciation, learners could

encounter difficulties to hearing the sounds. According to Harmer, teachers could
solve these problems by showing learners to how sounds are produced via
demonstration and explanation. Furthermore, after solving this problem, students‟


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pronunciation could be improved because when learners hear sounds properly, they
could utter the sounds effectively.
In the process of teaching pronunciation, the role of the teacher is significant.
As Kenworthy (1987) states, people who are learning a foreign language pronunciation
sometimes may not be able to realize whether they” got it right‟, comprehend
correctly or not. Thus, mispronunciations and correct pronunciations should be given
by teachers.
Gilakajani (2012) concludes: “ English pronunciation instruction should be
viewed in the same light as the other aspects and skills of the English language such as
vocabulary, grammar, reading, writing since it is an important part of communication”.
Moreover, Harmer (2007) states that correct pronunciation is considered to be a
prerequisite to develop the speaking skill. It can be said that pronunciation is as
important as any other aspects of language like syntax and vocabulary and that is why
teaching pronunciation should occupy an important place in the study of any language.
1.3. English pronunciation teaching to foreign language learners
1.3.1. What to teach
English pronunciation teaching and learning has been the subjects that many
researchers are concern about. Because of that fact, there are various opinions towards
features of pronunciation that should be taught for language learners.
According to

Maniruzzaman (2007), “EFL pronunciation teaching should

cover both the segmental and the suprasegmental aspects as well as the training of the
speech organs, such as lips, teeth, alveolar ridge, palate, tongue, vocal folds, ears, etc.
The segmental aspects embody vowel and consonant sounds, preferably phonemes, as
well as syllables. The suprasegmental aspects are comprised of stress in words and
connected speech, rhythm, pitch, loudness, length, quality, tone and intonation that
play an essential and natural role in English speech production and perception”
Hewings (2004) states that the “top five” things which are important to be
taught and learnt are consonants, consonant clusters, vowel length, word stress, and
tonic words.


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According to Abercrombie (1956, cited in Brown, 1991), “the learners, instead
of being taken systematically through each English vowel, and each consonant, and
later if there is time, through the complexities of intonation and rhythm would have
presented to him certain carefully chosen features on which to concentrate, the rest of
his pronunciation being left to be no more than of general supervision”.
The above ideas have co-existed in the development of English teaching as a
second language. It seems contradictory. However, Dalton and Seidlhofer (1994)
states that “pedagogic competence does not necessarily follow from linguistic
competence, since it involves the abilities to identify specific aspects of language, to
select and combine them for presentation and practice in ways which are effective for
learning.” That means the problem of what pronunciation features are appropriate or
suitable is totally dependent on the purpose of learning and teaching.
1.3.2. Approaches to teach pronunciation
Pronunciation can be approached in many ways. The researcher, however, only
has an ambition to mention the ideas that Vietnamese teachers and students are
applying when teaching and learning English pronunciation at schools. The ideas come
from two books, namely Pronunciation (1994) by Dalton and Seidlhofer, and How to
teach pronunciation (2000) by Kelly.

- According to Dalton and Seidlhofer (1994), approaches to teaching
pronunciation can be divided into two directions to deal with what the learner
considers as precedence, separate segment of sound or the larger prosodic unit, which
after all depends on the purpose of his/ her language learning.
Bottom- up approach: Learners begin with the articulation of individual sounds
or phonemes and works up towards stress, rhythm, tone and intonation.
Top-down approach: Learners start with patterns of intonation and brings
separate sounds or phonemes into sharper focus as and when required
In choosing either of these two directions, the teacher must keep in mind that
certain aspects of pronunciation need to be overtly taught to provide the conditions
whereby other aspects are covertly learnt.
- According to Kelly (2000), pronunciation lessons can be classified into three
main types:


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Integrated lessons: In this type, pronunciation forms an essential part of the
language analysis, the planning process, the language presentation and practice within
the lesson.
Remedial lessons or creative lessons: This type is different from the first
type, remedial or creative lessons are where pronunciation difficulty which arises in
class is dealt with there and then in order to facilitate the successful achievement of
classroom tasks.
Practice lessons: In this type, a particular feature of pronunciation is isolated
and practiced for its own sake, forming the main focus of a lesson period.
From the types of lessons described above, we can conclude that pronunciation
lessons, differently from the way Dalton and Seidlhofer (1994) approached, should be
regarded as an integral part to language analysis and lesson planning. Therefore, a
lesson which focuses on particular language structures or lexis needs to include

features of pronunciation so as to provide students “the full picture, and hence a better
chance of being able to communicate successfully”.
1.3.3. Methods to teach pronunciation
Three methods which are called direct method, naturalistic method,
audiolingual (American) and Oral Approach (Britain )has been mentioned in Teaching
pronunciation: a reference for teachers of English to speakers of other languages
(1996) by Murcia, Brinton, and Goodwi
1.3.3.1. Direct method
In direct method, pronunciation is taught through intuition and imitation students imitate a model - teacher or a record, and do their best to approximate the
model through imitation and repetition.
1.3.3.2. Naturalistic method
This method includes comprehension methods which devote a period of
learning solely to listening before any speaking is allowed in order to give learners the
opportunities to internalize the target sound system. When learners speak the language
later on, their pronunciation is supposedly quite good despite their never having
received explicit pronunciation instruction. Total Physical Response (1977) by Asher‟s


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and Natural Approach (1983) by Krashen and Terrell‟s are two books which describe
clearly this method.
1.3.3.3. Audiolingual (American) and Oral Approach (Britain)
According to linguists who are with these methods, pronunciation is very
important and is taught from the very start. Teacher models the sound, and then
students imitate and repeat; however, the teacher also makes use of information from
phonetics, such as visual transcription system (modified IPA or other systems) or
charts that demonstrate the articulation of sound.
1.3.4. Teaching techniques
The three methods, Direct method, Naturalistic method, Audiolingual
(American) and Oral Approach (Britain) mentioned above can be applied through

teaching activities/ techniques like drilling (chaining, and substitution drilling),
minimal pairs, using homophones and homographs, taping students‟ English, listening
comprehension exercises and reading exercises
1.3.4.1. Drilling: Drilling simply involves the teacher saying a word or
structure and getting the class to repeat it.
1.3.4.2. Minimal pairs: This technique can be used as a way of focusing on
sounds which have been causing difficulties for students (e.g. „paper‟ / peipə/
versus.„pepper‟ / pepə/; or „soap‟ / səup/ versus „soup‟ /su:p/)
1.3.4.3. Using homographs and homophones: Using homographs and
homophones can provide useful opportunities for students to practice words which
have the same spelling but with different pronunciation (e.g. „wind‟ /wind/ as in
weather versus „wind‟ /waind/ as in what you do to a clock) or on the contrary have
the same pronunciation but different spellings („write‟ /rait/ versus „right‟ /rait/ or
„there‟ / ðeə/ versus „their‟ / ðeə/ and „they‟re‟ / ðeə/).
1.3.4.4. Taping students’ English: Tapes can be made while students are
engaged in language practice activities and used for all manner of language
difficulties, but especially those concerned with pronunciation
1.3.4.5. Listening comprehension: Listening comprehension plays a key role in
helping students to notice the existence of a pronunciation feature because, after all,


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classroom activities aim to help students reproduce as far as possible the authenticity
of day- to- day communication.
1.3.4.6. Reading exercises: Reading aloud offers opportunities for the study of
the links between pronunciation and spelling, of stress and intonation, and of the
linking of sounds between words in connected speech.
1.3.5. Studies on the effects of different teaching methods
As we know, all students do not learn in the same way. In addition, it is

common for a class of students to be at a variety of levels in any particular subject.
Moreover, every teaching method has its advantages and disadvantages. Therefore,
teachers need to use different teaching methods in order to reach all students
effectively and “the effects of different teaching methods” has become the subject
discussed in many studies.
- Diep (2010) states that “a teaching method which may be effective at one
point of time in history may still be ineffective at the other point. Moreover, one
method is replaced by another it does not mean that the former is worse than the latter
and will be thrown into the wastebasket of history. It only means that the replaced
method fails to correspond to a certain need at a certain time in history. As a result, the
history of foreign language teaching methods is not the history of replacement of one
method by another. Rather, it would be the history of adding one new method to the
treasury of existing methods”. She also discussed three popular teaching methods in
Viet Nam: Grammar-Translation Method, The Audio-Lingual Method, and
Communicative Languge Teaching and points out their advantages and disadvantages.
Grammar-Translation Method
- Advantages:
+ This method can be argued as the easiest method for the teacher to teach since
it does require neither a high level of proficiency nor an imaginative approach to
techniques;
+ The atmosphere of the classroom seems stress-free because the mother tongue
is used all the time;
+ The teaching of grammar rules and translation puts the learner into a problem
solving process;


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+ Other advantages are freedom from limitation of one‟s own local and
contemporary culture, direct contact with the words and ideas of great thinkers
- Disadvantages:

The Grammar - Translation Method obviously focuses on the form rather than
the use of the target language. Students who are in this way do not have a chance to
practice their speaking and listening. Students who learn rules of grammar and
vocabulary without much feeling of progress in the mastery of the target language can
lead to the lack of motivation in learning a language for their having little opportunity
to express themselves through it. The method creates frustration for students, for
whom foreign language learning is a tedious experience for memorization of new
words and grammatical rules, while it makes few demands on teachers (Richard &
Rogers, 1986, p. 4)
The Audio-Lingual Method
- Advantages:
In the Audio - Lingualism, teaching was organized in favor of the mechanistic
aspects of language use, thus, making the process of learning less challenging
intellectually and, as a result, accessible to majority of people. The successful point of
this method is to develop students‟ listening comprehension and fluency in speaking in
the target language. Students are encouraged by the sense of being able to use what
they have learnt in the early days of their study. In addition, the study is reinforced by
repetition, so the students have good repetition and this suitable for learners of
different abilities.
- Disadvantages:
The theoretical base held by Audio-Lingualism was found to be ill-founded
both in terms of language theory and learning theory. Theoretically, language is not a
habit structure. Ordinary linguistic behaviors characteristically involve innovation,
formation of new sentences and patterns in accordance with rules of great abstractness
and intricacy. Accordingly, to know a language means to be able to comprehend and
produce sentences and utterances never heard or produced before. Practically, the
products of Audio-Lingualism were found to be “well-trained parrots”, by which they


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were unable to function communicatively in real world situations. In addition, the
atmosphere of the Audio-Lingual classroom was found to be „tedious‟ and „boring‟
because of too much memorization, drilling and repetition.
Communicative Language Teaching
- Advantages:
+ CLT is more likely to produce the four skills of competence;
+ Learners of CLT are offered the opportunities to use the language for their
own purpose, to take part in communication;
+ CLT is more motivating; therefore, students are likely to put more effort into
learning.
+ As CLT intends to teach what is relevant and necessary only, it is less
wasteful of time and effort than approaches which attempt to teach the whole
language.
+ In the long term, the learners of CLT are equipped with appropriate skills for
tackling the language in a real world
- Disadvantages:
+ It makes greater demands upon the professional training and linguistic and
professional
+ It is more difficult to evaluate than the other approaches referred to.
+ Because it appears to go against traditional practice, it tends to meet with
opposition especially from older teachers and learners.
- According to Kizlik (2012), it is difficult to select an instructional method that
best fits one's particular teaching style and the lesson-situation and there is no one
"right" method for teaching a particular lesson because any teaching method a teacher
uses has advantages, disadvantages, and requires some preliminary preparation.
Advantages and disadvantages of some teaching methods such as direct teaching,
cooperate learning , brainstorming, lecture, lecture discussion,

multimedia, role

playing, games, discussion, small group discussion, case studies, worksheets and
surveys, computer simulations, independent study, guest speakers are also pointed out
to illustrate this. For example, using multimedia brings about advantages:


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+ Using multimedia is an entertaining way of introducing content and
raising issues.
+ It helps internet content easily updated.
+ It usually keeps group's attention.
+ It may cost effective way to obtain and disseminate content.
+ It may provide opportunities for independent student investigation in a wide
range of topics.
However, it also causes some problems:
+ Using multimedia can raise too many issues to have a focused discussion.
+ Distractions happen all too easily.
+ Students working independently can easily lose focus of lesson topic.
+ It is most effective when followed by discussion.
+ Discussion may not have full participation
- Harris (2003) suggests that teachers should use different teaching methods in
order to make students‟ learning effective. A variety of teaching strategies, a good
knowledge of student levels, and an implementation of the best strategies for particular
students can help teachers to know which teaching methods will be most effective for
their class. There are many, many teaching methods, but direct instruction, inquirybased learning, cooperative learning, teaching information processing strategies are the
most common.
Direct instruction is the most common form of instruction. It is considered the
simplest, and you can cover large amounts of material in a short period of time.
However, this is not the most effective teaching method to reach all students,

especially younger ones, who often need a more engaging, hands-on strategy in order
to learn effectively. In addition, it is hard for teachers to tailor instruction to students at
different levels.
Inquiry-based learning is a teaching method which can be used for virtually all
subjects. Besides,This teaching method is extremely student-centered and studentdirected, and can be modified for students at any level, reaching them where they are.


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However, using inquiry-based learning takes a lot of time, energy, and planning, but it
is often very effective. Cooperative learning is a teaching method considered highly
effective when done correctly. With cooperative learning, students are put in small
groups to work together. They are usually not grouped by ability, but put in a group
with children at a variety of levels. The students are then given tasks to accomplish
together. Teachers may need to monitor these groups carefully, to make sure they are
staying on task and that all students are participating. This form of instruction also
lends itself well to differentiation, because the teacher can assign specific tasks to
children at different ability levels.
Teaching information processing strategies is often advisable to have students
really understand the teaching methods and not just memorize facts, there are some
cases when facts need to be memorized. Facts and concepts may also need to be
grouped or organized in order to facilitate better understanding. Teachers can use
various teaching methods to help students with memorization, or they can use graphic
organizers, mind maps, story webs, or other ways to represent information visually
1.4. The teaching of English consonants
1.4.1. General description and classification of English consonants.
1.4.1.1. General description of English consonants
In the book “Sound Founds - Learning and Teaching Pronunciation” by
Underhill (2004), consonant sounds are defined in two different ways. The first way is
in terms of sound‟s articulation, which defines “Consonant sounds are made by

restricting or blocking the air flow in some physical way, and this restriction, or the
release of the restriction, is what gives the consonant its characteristic sound”.
Meanwhile, the second definition is phonemic or functional, which states
“Consonants, either singly or in clusters, mark the beginnings and ends of syllables”.
According to Kelly (2000), consonants can also be described in three ways
namely the manner of articulation, the place of articulation and the degree of
vocal cord vibration. The manner of articulation refers to the interaction between
the various articulators and the air stream. For example, with plosive sounds, the


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articulators act in such a way that the air is temporarily trapped, and then
suddenly released. The manners of articulation are plosive, affricate, fricative,
nasal, lateral, and approximant.
Describing the consonant sounds in terms of the place of articulation gives
more information about what the various articulators actually do. According to place
of articulation, consonants are classified into bilabial, labio-dental, dental, alveolar,
palato-alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.
According to the degree of vocal cord vibration voicing is also one the main
categories that consonants have to base on when being described. The vocal folds may
be held against each other at just the right tension so that the air flowing past them
from the lungs will cause them to vibrate against each other. This process is called
voicing. Sounds that are made with vocal fold vibration are said to be voiced.
Sounds made without vocal fold vibration are said to be voiceless. There are
several pairs of sounds in English which differ only in voicing that is, the two sounds
have identical places and manners of articulation, but one has vocal fold vibration and
the other doesn't, for example, /s, z/ or /θ, ð/
Describing the force of articulation, the terms fortis or strong and lenis or weak
are often used. In spoken English, fortis happens to equate with unvoiced sounds,

which require a more forcefully expelled airstreams than lenis sounds which in English
happen to be voiced. As far as English consonants are concerned, the distinction is
most useful when it comes to distinguishing between sounds that are articulated in
essentially the same way, one using the voice, the other not. An example pair is /p/
(unvoiced, and fortis), and /b/ (voiced, and lenis), (Kelly, 2000)
1.4.1.2. Classification of English consonants
English has about 24 distinctive (phonemic) consonant sounds divided
according to three different categories: voicing, place and manner of articulation.
The summary of English consonants is shown in Table 1 below.