Focus on the Wonder Years docx

Challenges Facing
the American Middle School
Jaana Juvonen
Vi-Nhuan Le
Tessa Kaganoff
Catherine Augustine
Louay Constant
Focus on the
Prepared for the
Edna McConnell Clark Foundation
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The research described in this report was conducted by RAND
Education for Edna McConnell Clark Foundation.
iii
Preface
Today in the United States there are nearly 9 million students in public middle
schools (typically, schools that include grades 6 through 8). Middle school youth are
especially vulnerable to multiple risks. For example, the process of social alienation
that ultimately leads students to drop out of high school often starts during the mid-
dle grades. Hence, the middle school years are critical in setting the trajectories for
subsequent life success.
How well are middle schools serving our young? The RAND Corporation set
out to assess the state of American middle schools and identify the schools’ major
challenges. The research team collected and synthesized literature that describes per-
tinent research conducted during the last 20 years. We reviewed the issues that have
received substantial attention, as well as those that have not been recognized or dis-
cussed. We supplemented the literature review with our own analyses of some of the
most recent national and international data.
This monograph describes our findings. To assess the effectiveness of middle
schools, we focus heavily on middle school students and student outcomes, such as
academic achievement. But we also review research on the other key players, includ-
ing teachers, principals, and parents. We provide context for our analyses by de-
scribing the historical changes that have shaped today’s middle schools and the key
organizational and instructional practices and multicomponent reforms that U.S.
middle schools have adopted in recent years. Finally, we summarize the main chal-
lenges identified and discuss future directions for middle-grade education.
This work should be of interest to a wide audience of those who are concerned
about and responsible for young teens, including education policymakers and ad-
ministrators at the national, state, district, and local levels; private advocacy and phil-
anthropic organizations; teachers; parents; and researchers. The monograph is not the
“how-to” guide that we all might wish for. Rather, our goal is to provide a broad

context for future decisionmaking. We hope that our review and analyses provoke
new ways of thinking and help point the way for those who must address the many
challenges facing America’s middle schools.
iv Focus on the Wonder Years: Challenges Facing the American Middle School
This research was carried out under the auspices of RAND Education. Any
opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations are those of the authors and do
not necessarily reflect the views of the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, which
funded this project.
v
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vii
Contents
Preface iii
The RAND Corporation Quality Assurance Process v

Figures xi
Tables xiii
Summary xv
Acknowledgements xxi
Abbreviations xxiii
CHAPTER ONE
Goals, Terms, Methods, and Organization 1
Purpose 1
Defining Our Terms 2
Methodology 2
The Literature Review 3
The Data Analyses 4
Scope 6
Organization 6
A Final Note 7
CHAPTER TWO
A Brief History of the U.S. Middle School 9
From an “Eight-Four” to a “Six-Six” Grade Configuration 9
The First Junior High Schools 10
The Junior High Becomes the Middle School 11
A Middle School Concept Emerges in the 1980s 12
The Transition as Culprit 13
Carnegie Report Elaborates on Mismatch Concept 14
Developmental Responsiveness in the 1990s 16
Role of Professional Organizations 17
Recent Debates and Research Findings 17
viii Focus on the Wonder Years: Challenges Facing the American Middle School
Challenges, Recommendations, and Exploratory Ideas 18
CHAPTER THREE
Core Practices of the Middle School Concept 20

Interdisciplinary Team Teaching 21
Flexible Scheduling 23
Advisory Programs 24
A More Recent Practice: Looping 25
Obstacles for Implementation 26
Challenges, Recommendations, and Exploratory Ideas 27
CHAPTER FOUR
Academic Achievement 28
Sources of Data and Limitations 29
Comparing U.S. Students with Their Peers in Other Countries 30
Performance of Middle Grade Students Over Time 34
Nationwide Trends 34
Trends Among Subgroups 35
Summary of Nationwide and Subgroup Trends 38
Achievement and the Accountability Movement 38
The No Child Left Behind Act 38
Percentages of Middle-Grade Students Reaching Proficiency 39
Understanding and Addressing Achievement Gaps 42
Challenges, Recommendations, and Exploratory Ideas 43
CHAPTER FIVE
Conditions for Student Learning 46
Social-Emotional Problems and School Functioning 47
Disengagement, Social Alienation, and Dropping Out 48
Classroom Context and School Climate 49
School Safety 50
Safety Concerns and School Functioning 52
School Responses to Promote Safety 53
International Comparisons of Conditions for Learning 53
Emotional and Physical Problems 56
School Climate 56

Social Isolation 56
Peer Culture 56
Teacher Support 57
Parental Involvement 57
Perceived School Pressure 58
Contents ix
Challenges, Recommendations, and Exploratory Ideas 60
CHAPTER SIX
Principals 64
Effective Leadership 65
Principals’ Perceptions of School Problems, Tasks, and Goals 66
Perceptions of Problems Schools Face 67
Time Allocation Across Tasks 68
Principals’ Goals 69
Challenges, Recommendations, and Exploratory Ideas 71
CHAPTER SEVEN
Promoting Teacher Competence Through Training 73
Preservice Training for Middle School Teachers 73
Lack of Subject-Matter Expertise 74
Lack of Training in Development of Young Teens 76
Professional Development for Middle School Teachers 78
Latest Models of Professional Development 79
SASS Analyses on Professional Development 79
Challenges, Recommendations, and Exploratory Ideas 81
CHAPTER EIGHT
Parental Involvement 84
The Many Forms of Parental Involvement 84
Parent Involvement and Student Achievement 86
Declining Parental Involvement 88
SASS Analysis of Parental Involvement in Elementary, Middle, and High Schools 92

Factors That Influence Parental Involvement 94
Schools’ Efforts to Get Parents Involved 95
Challenges, Recommendations, and Exploratory Ideas 96
CHAPTER NINE
Whole-School Reform Models 98
Different Ways of Knowing 100
Turning Points Transforming Middle Schools Model 101
Making Middle Grades Work 103
Middle Start Initiative 105
Talent Development Middle School Model 106
AIM at Middle Grades Results 108
Implementation and Sustainability Issues 109
Challenges, Recommendations, and Exploratory Ideas 111
x Focus on the Wonder Years: Challenges Facing the American Middle School
CHAPTER TEN
Conclusions and Recommendations 112
Summary of Findings 112
Separating the Middle Grades Is Scientifically Unsound 113
Progress on Academic Outcomes Is Positive but Uneven 113
Conditions for Learning in Middle Schools Are Suboptimal 114
The Vision of the Middle School Has Not Been Fully Implemented 114
Evaluation of Success Focuses Too Narrowly on Achievement 114
Middle School Teachers and Principals Lack Appropriate Training and Support 115
Parental Support Wanes in the Middle Years 116
New Reform Models Show Promise 116
Recommendations 116
Looking to the Future 118
APPENDIX A
Characteristics of U.S. Public Schools Serving Middle Grades 120
APPENDIX B

International and National Data Sets 125
APPENDIX C
Factor Analysis of Health Behavior in School-Aged Children 130
APPENDIX D
Research Recommendations 133
References 137
xi
Figures
1.1. Comparison of Different Middle School Grade Configurations Across
Locales 3
4.1. U.S. International Standing in Mathematics Achievement at 4th and 8th
Grades, 1995 and 1999 31
4.2. U.S. International Standing in Science Achievement at 4th and 8th Grades,
1995 and 1999 32
4.3. U.S. International Standing in Measures of Absolute Educational
Disadvantage 33
4.4. Average Scale Scores by Subject, 1971–1999 35
4.5. Average Scale Score Differences Between Males and Females by Subject,
1971–1999 36
4.6. Average Scale Score Differences Between Whites and Minorities by Subject,
1971–1999 37
5.1. Student-Reported Emotional and Physical Problems 57
5.2. Student-Reported School Climate 58
5.3. Student-Reported Social Isolation 59
5.4. Student-Reported Peer Culture 60
5.5. Student-Reported Teacher Support 61
5.6. Student-Reported Parental Involvement 62
5.7. Student Perceptions of School Pressure 63
8.1. Percentage of Public Schools That Reported Providing Information and
Percentage of Parents That Reported Receiving Information on How to

Help with Homework, by School Level in 1996 89
8.2. Percentage of Public Schools Reporting Most or All Parents Having
Attended and Percentage of Parents Reporting Having Attended Parent-
Teacher Conferences, by School Level in 1996 90
8.3. Percentage of Public Schools Reporting Most or All Parents Attending
Open House or Back-to-School Nights, and Percentage of Parents
Reporting Having Attended Such Events, by School Level in 1996 91

xiii
Tables
2.1. The Transition from Elementary School to Middle School 15
4.1. Percentages of Students Scoring at the Maximum Proficiency Level on
NELS:88 by Parental Education, Ethnicity, and Subject 42
6.1. How Principals Ranked the Problems Their Schools Face 67
6.2. Principals’ Monthly Time Allocation of Tasks 68
6.3. How Principals Ranked Their Weekly Allocation of Time 69
6.4. Principals’ Ratings of Goals as Among Their Top Three Goals 71
7.1. Percentage of Students Taught by a Teacher Without a Minor, Major, or
Certification in the Subject 76
7.2. Teacher Participation in Professional Development 80
7.3. Percentages of Elementary, Middle, and High School Teachers Engaging in
Professional Development in Past Year 82
7.4. Percentages of Elementary and Middle School Teachers Receiving Support in
Their First Year of Teaching 82
8.1. Parent, Principal, and Student Perceptions of Parental Involvement Based on
NELS:88 Data 86
8.2. Parents’ Familiarity with Middle-Grade Practices 92
8.3. Prevalence of Different Types of Parent Involvement by School Level 93
9.1. Different Ways of Knowing 101
9.2. Turning Points Transforming Middle Schools Model 102

9.3. Making Middle Grades Work 104
9.4. Middle Start Initiative 106
9.5. Talent Development Middle School Model 107
9.6. AIM at Middle Grades Results 109
A.1. Characteristics of U.S. Public Schools (Different Configurations) 121
A.2. Schools Not Coded for Locale 123
C.1. HBSC Sample Sizes by Nation and Age Group 130
C.2. Loadings for Seven Factors Retained 132

xv
Summary
During the middle school years, young teens undergo multiple physical, social-
emotional, and intellectual changes that shape who they are and how they function as
adults. The schools young teens attend play a critical role in shaping these futures.
Therefore, the state of the U.S. middle school is—or should be—of concern to all of
us. Unfortunately, the reputation of U.S. middle schools today leaves in doubt
whether these schools serve teens well. Middle schools have been called the Bermuda
Triangle of education and have been blamed for increases in behavior problems, teen
alienation, disengagement from school, and low achievement.
RAND undertook a comprehensive assessment of the American middle school
to separate the rhetoric from the reality. The passage of the federal No Child Left
Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), with its emphasis on test-based accountability and
sanctions for failing schools, makes such an assessment particularly timely and impor-
tant.
This monograph describes our findings. The focus is on U.S. public middle
schools—schools that serve as an intermediary phase between elementary school and
high school, typically consisting of grades 6 through 8. The monograph is designed
to
• identify the challenges middle schools face today
• describe and evaluate the effectiveness of current efforts to improve middle

schools
• highlight the many areas lacking rigorous research
• suggest new ways of thinking about the middle school and its functions
• help prioritize the challenges and make recommendations when possible.
The research team reviewed 20 years of relevant literature and analyzed existing
national and international data. We focused on eight areas:
• the historical context for middle schools
• the evidence supporting some key instructional and organizational practices
• academic achievement of middle school students
• conditions known to affect students and their academic performance
xvi Focus on the Wonder Years: Challenges Facing the American Middle School
• qualifications of middle school teachers
• challenges principals face
• declining parental involvement
• middle school reform efforts.
In each chapter, we review the latest research evidence to identify the major
challenges middle schools are facing and make general recommendations when ap-
propriate. We also explore ideas stemming from the broader field of education and
highlight the areas in which additional research might yield new solutions.
Findings
Lessons from History
Our historical review shows that many of today’s concerns about young teens and the
proper way to educate them are similar to the concerns that have been expressed for
the past 100 years. The issues and the solutions that were endorsed at any particular
time, including the concept of an intermediate school between elementary and high
school, often had more to do with labor market needs or the capacity of school
buildings than with educational or developmental considerations. There has also
been an ongoing debate about the proper role of the middle school, with tensions
between
• the need for middle schools to ease the transition from elementary school, with

an emphasis on the developmental needs of young teens, versus the need to fa-
cilitate the transition to high school, with an emphasis on academic rigor
• the need to increase educational attainment by providing schooling for all, ver-
sus the need to improve college preparation for high-achieving youth.
Research suggests that the onset of puberty is an especially poor reason for be-
ginning a new phase of schooling, inasmuch as multiple simultaneous changes (for
example, the onset of puberty and school transfer) are stressful for young adolescents
and sometimes have long-lasting negative effects. Furthermore, the few studies that
compared schools with different grade configurations suggest that young teens do
better in K–8 schools than in schools with configurations that require a transition to
an intermediary school. Recent studies also suggest that students do better in schools
that both foster personal support and emphasize academic rigor.
Core Middle School Practices
Middle school education has long been criticized as being unresponsive to adoles-
cents’ developmental needs. Interdisciplinary team teaching, flexible scheduling, and
Summary xvii
advisory programs have been suggested as ways to address adolescents’ distinctive
needs.
However, the effectiveness of these interventions—and all others—depends on
whether they fit with a school’s culture and leadership and how well they are imple-
mented. In spite of their good intentions, few middle schools have implemented
flexible scheduling. There is evidence that advisory programs and interdisciplinary
team teaching are frequently enacted at only superficial levels, often because they re-
quire fundamental shifts in the beliefs and operating modes of schools and teachers.
Thus, these strategies seem promising, but they are not easy to implement within
current structures.
Academic Achievement
Detractors of middle schools point to the relatively poor standing of middle school
students on international mathematics and science tests, to lagging test scores on
state assessments, and to low performance on national tests as evidence that middle

school education needs to be more challenging. In reality, the overall picture of mid-
dle school achievement is mixed.
International comparison studies show that the relative performance of U.S.
students in mathematics and science declines from elementary school to middle
school. National tests of achievement demonstrate that the majority of 8th graders
fail to reach proficiency in mathematics, reading, and science. This is particularly
true for African-Americans and Latinos, who continue to lag behind their white peers
even when their parents have attained similar levels of education.
However, there has been overall improvement in standardized test scores in
mathematics, science, and reading since the 1970s, and some score gaps between
whites and other groups have narrowed. These results suggest that the efforts made
thus far to improve achievement and to reduce performance gaps among different
groups of students are at least somewhat successful.
Conditions That Affect Learning
Conditions for learning refers to the factors that can enhance or diminish a student’s
ability to learn. Particularly relevant for young teens are motivational and social-
emotional indicators of well-being that are related to academic performance. Disen-
gagement and social alienation are not only related to low achievement but also pre-
dict dropping out, whereas concerns about safety predict emotional distress that can
compromise academic performance. Such findings underscore the need to examine a
variety of student outcomes, in addition to academic indicators, for middle school
students.
In our own analyses of international comparisons, based on the World Health
Organization’s (WHO’s) Health Behavior of School Age Children (HBSC) survey,
we compared different social-motivational indicators for U.S. middle school students
xviii Focus on the Wonder Years: Challenges Facing the American Middle School
to their same-age peers in 11 other countries. The comparisons show that U.S. stu-
dents have negative perceptions of their learning conditions. These students rank the
highest in terms of reported levels of emotional and physical problems and view the
climate of their schools and the peer culture more negatively than do students in

other countries.
Principals
Principals have potentially a great deal of influence on teachers’ working conditions
and on school climate and therefore also on the conditions that affect student learn-
ing. With data from the U.S. Department of Education Schools and Staffing Survey
(SASS) of principals (SASS, 2001), we examined whether principals are spending
time on the issues and activities deemed in the literature to be components of “good
leadership.”
While the literature identifies instructional leadership (that is, efforts to improve
teaching) as being key, principals spend time on necessary administrative tasks, such
as maintaining the physical security of their school, and on managing facilities, re-
sources, and procedures. There is a disconnect between the more lofty goals articu-
lated in the literature and the realities of the everyday tasks required of an effective
operations manager.
1
This disconnect is especially problematic in light of the find-
ings that suggest that the principal’s support of reform designs (and presumably the
time the principal is able to devote to providing support) is an important factor in
whether school reforms are implemented.
Promoting Teacher Competence
Many middle school advocates believe that improving the education of middle school
students hinges on improving the training of teachers. Much of the current policy
debate related to middle schools concerns the lack of subject-matter expertise among
teachers and a perceived need to have a separate middle school certification.
Only about one-quarter of middle school teachers are certified to teach at the
middle grades; the majority of the rest are certified to teach at the elementary level.
This means that teachers are likely to lack both subject-matter expertise and formal
training on the development of young adolescents. Although improvements in pro-
fessional development can potentially compensate for some of the inadequacies of
preservice training, research suggests that professional development is often frag-

mented and unsystematic—that it is brief and lacks focus and alignment with stan-
dards.
____________
1
This finding could in part be due to the survey not asking about the specific kinds of issues identified in the
literature.
Summary xix
Parental Involvement
Parental involvement takes many forms. Although it might be particularly effective
for parents to be involved in the education of their young teens when they transition
to middle school, parents tend to become less involved as children get older. Middle
schools contribute to the decline in parental involvement by offering fewer activities
and providing less support to parents than elementary schools do.
Whole-School Reforms
Most whole-school reforms targeted at the middle school level aim to improve stu-
dent achievement through a variety of means, most commonly by increasing the
competencies of teachers through professional development, by changing curriculum
and instruction, and by enhancing classroom or school climate. As part of the federal
government’s Comprehensive School Reform effort, the reform models we discuss in
this monograph show promise. Further research is needed not only to show whether
these models fit all schools but also to show whether these reforms and their positive
effects can be sustained over time.
Recommendations
We offer several recommendations to help meet the challenges identified above:
• Consider alternatives to the classic 6–8 grade middle school configuration that
would reduce multiple transitions for students and allow schools to better align
their goals across grades K–12.
• Offer interventions for the lowest-performing students, possibly including
summer programs, before the 6th grade and additional reading and math
courses, and tutorials after 6th grade to lessen the achievement gaps between

certain demographic groups.
• Adopt comprehensive disciplinary models that focus on preventing disciplinary
problems and changing the social norms or a peer culture that fosters antisocial
behavior, and provide principals with technical assistance to support the cultural
changes such models require.
• Make use of proven professional development models, to compensate for the
lack of preservice training in subject-matter expertise and classroom manage-
ment.
• Offer parents information about the academic and instructional goals and
methods used in middle grades and suggest activities to facilitate learning at
home.
xx Focus on the Wonder Years: Challenges Facing the American Middle School
• Establish a research program to learn how other countries successfully promote
student well-being and foster positive school climates in a manner that supports
academic achievement in schools that serve young teens.
In this monograph, we have attempted to integrate data and research on various
aspects of middle schools to paint a comprehensive picture of teaching and learning
in these schools. We have found that existing research is limited and that consider-
able information gaps exist. As we indicate throughout this monograph, additional
studies in several areas could help answer many important questions and provide ad-
ditional guidance to policymakers and practitioners.
xxi
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the many individuals whose assistance was instrumental in con-
ducting the reviews and analyses and in producing this monograph.
We are grateful to middle school researchers and advocates who shared their
ideas and their work with us. Steven Mertens, in particular, provided feedback on an
earlier draft of the monograph, and his thoughtful comments helped shape the final
product.
At RAND, Sue Bodilly and Sheila Kirby have provided ongoing support since

the earliest drafts. Laura Hamilton’s careful and critical review improved the final
version substantially. Shelley Wiseman worked closely with the authors, and her hard
work pulling all the chapters together was substantial. We are grateful for the admin-
istrative help we received and want to thank the staff of RAND’s Publications De-
partment.
At UCLA, several students helped with various aspects of the research and the
review process. We thank Christina Schofield, Melissa Witkow, Linda Issac, Nicole
Nigosian, Kristen Seward, and Emily Vandever. Most importantly, thank you to
Bernard Weiner for his thorough reviews and detailed feedback.
We appreciate the support that Mary Overpeck, Peter Scheidt, and Oddrun
Samdal provided us in obtaining the World Health Organization data on Health Be-
havior of School Age Children for our analysis.
Finally, we recognize the energy and commitment of the teachers, principals,
parents, and others who work with America’s middle school students and help them
have successful lives and fulfilling careers.

xxiii
Abbreviations
AED Academy for Education Development
AIM AIM at Middle Grades Results
ATLAS Authentic Teaching, Learning, and Assessment for All Students
CCD Common Core of Data (U.S. Department of Education)
CMSA Central Metropolitan Statistical Area
CSR Comprehensive School Reform Program
DWOK Different Ways of Knowing
GEAR UP Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs
HBSC Health Behavior of School Age Children
HS&B High School and Beyond (a NELS study)
MMGW Making Middle Grades Work
MSA Metropolitan Statistical Area

NAEP National Assessment of Educational Progress
NCES National Center for Education Statistics (U.S. Department of Educa-
tion)
NCLB No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
NCREL North Central Regional Educational Laboratory
NEA National Education Association
NELS National Education Longitudinal Study
NELS:88 National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988
NHES National Household Education Survey
NLSAH National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health
NMSA National Middle School Association
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
OMB Office of Management and Budget
xxiv Focus on the Wonder Years: Challenges Facing the American Middle School
PD professional development
PISA Programme International of Student Achievement
SASS Schools and Staffing Survey
SES socioeconomic status
SREB Southern Regional Education Board
STEP School Transitional Environment Project
TDMS Talent Development Middle School Model
TIMSS Third International Math and Science Study
TIMSS-R TIMSS Repeat
TIPS Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork
TPTMSM Turning Points Transforming Middle Schools Model
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
WHO World Health Organization
1
CHAPTER ONE
Goals, Terms, Methods, and Organization

The Wonder Years, the sitcom that appeared on American television from 1988 to
1993, describes the problems and dreams of a suburban boy coming of age in the late
1960s and early 1970s. The boy’s middle school years, as the show portrayed them,
were believably complicated but “wonderful” nonetheless. Would a show about the
experiences of young teens today paint the same picture? Can we rest easy knowing
that the American middle school serves this population of students well?
The reputation of the American middle school today challenges any notion of
“wonder years.” Even the mildest public criticism acknowledges that “there is no
denying that the 6th, 7th, and 8th graders present a unique set of challenges to stu-
dents and teachers, from emerging hormones to widespread aggressiveness and
regressing academic performances” (“Joel Klein’s First Day of School,” 2002). Critics
have also described middle schools as the “Bermuda triangle of public education”
(“Joel Klein’s First Day of School,” 2002) and middle school math and science as “an
intellectual wasteland” (Schmidt, 2000). Middle schools are often blamed for the
increase in behavioral problems among young teens and cited as the cause of teens’
alienation, disengagement from school, and low achievement.
Purpose
A team of researchers from RAND Education set out to examine whether middle
schools deserve their negative reputation. We collected and synthesized literature
describing pertinent research conducted during the past 20 years. We identified not
only critical issues indicated by the literature review but also issues that remain con-
troversial and those that have not received much attention. We supplemented this
review with our own analyses of the most recent and comprehensive national and
international data. In describing our findings, this monograph
• identifies the major challenges U.S. middle schools face today
• describes current efforts to improve middle schools and evaluates the effective-
ness of those efforts in light of existing research