Asean Biodiversity: Biodiversity and Climate Change pdf

A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 1
ASEAN CENTRE
BIODIVERSITY
FOR
www.aseanbiodiversity.org
Conserve Biodiversity, Save Humanity!
ASEAN’s Rich Biodiversity
Despite occupying only three percent of the earth’s surface,
the ASEAN region hosts 20 percent of all known species
that live deep in the region’s mountains, jungles, rivers,
lakes and seas. The region includes three mega-diverse
states (Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines); several
bio-geographical units (e.g., Malesia, Wallacea, Sundaland,
Indo-Burma and the Central Indo-Pacific); and numerous
centers of concentration of restricted-range bird, plant and
insect species. ASEAN has one-third, translating to 284,000
square kilometers, of all coral reefs, which are among the
most diverse in the world. Common land and water borders
have allowed the ASEAN states to share many species that
are biologically diverse from the rest of the world. All these
make the ASEAN region significant to global diversity.
The Threat
The region’s rich biodiversity is heavily under threat. Out of
64,800 known species, two percent or 1,312 are endangered.
Seven of the world’s 25 recognized biodiversity hotspots are
in the ASEAN region. If the rate of deforestation continues,
the region will lose up to three-fourths of its forests, and up
to 42 percent of its biodiversity by 2100. Eighty percent of
coral reefs are at risk due to destructive fishing practices and
coral bleaching.
Forest conversion, forest fires, shifting cultivation, large-scale

mining, wildlife hunting and trading, population growth and
poverty, climate change, and lack of conservation resources
greatly contribute to biodiversity loss. Biodiversity loss could
trigger enormous effects on food security, health, shelter,
medicine, and aesthetic and other life sustaining resources.
Without a concerted effort to protect and conserve biodiver-
sity, the ASEAN region’s 567 million people and the entire
human race would be in danger.
ASEAN’s Response:
ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity
As an intergovernmental regional centre of excellence, the
ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB) facilitates cooperation
and coordination among the members states of ASEAN, and
with relevant national governments, regional and international
organizations, on the conservation and sustainable use of bio-
logical diversity guided by fair and equitable sharing of benefits
arising from the use of such biodiversity in the ASEAN region.
ACB aims to contribute to the reduction of the current rate of
loss of biological diversity by enhancing regional cooperation,
capacitating stakeholders, promoting awareness for biodiver-
sity conservation, and maintaining the regional biodiversity
database. To contribute to the achievement of socially respon-
sible access, equitable sharing, utilization and conservation
of natural ecosystems and the biodiversity they contain, ACB
builds strategic networks and partnerships geared to mobilize
resources towards optimally augmenting effective programmes
on biodiversity conservation.
Contact Us
ACB Headquarters
3F ERDB Bldg., Forestry Campus

College, Laguna 4031,Philippines
Tel/Phone: +6349 536-2865, +6349 536-1044
Website: www.aseanbiodiversity.org
General Inquiry:
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 3
Inside
Vol. 7, No. 2 n April - June 2008
Message
‘We must kick the carbon habit’ 5
Global Conservation News 6
Special Reports
Climate and Biodiversity 10
The twin planetary environmental challenges
of the 21st Century
By Dr. Ahmed Djoghlaf
European Union Policies on Climate Change 18
By Juan Echanove
Linkages Between Biodiversity
and Climate Change in Vietnam 22
By Prof. D. Sc. Truong Quang Hoc
More Perfect Storms 28
Climate Change + biodiversity loss = disaster in Asia
By Sahlee Bugna-Barrer
Profiles
Malaysia
Gunung Ledang Johor National Park 30
Tanjung Piai Johor National Park 35
Vietnam
Chu Mom Ray National Park 39
4 A P R I L - J U N E 2 0 0 8 n w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g

Letters, articles, suggestions and photos
are welcome and should be addressed to:
The Editor-in-Chief
ASEAN Biodiversity
ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity
College, Laguna
E-mail:
Editor- in-Chief
Monina T. Uriarte
Managing Editor
Bridget P. Botengan
Creative Artist
Nanie S. Gonzales
Writer-Researcher
Sahlee Bugna-Barrer
EDITORIAL BOARD
Rodrigo U. Fuentes
Executive Director
Clarissa C. Arida
Director, Programme Development
and Implementation
Ma. Consuelo D. Garcia
Director, Biodiversity Information
Management
Gregorius Wisnu Rosariastoko
Director, Networking, Partnership
and Resource Mobilization
Rolando A. Inciong
Head, Public Affairs
ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB)

Headquarters:
3F ERDB Bldg. Forestry Campus
University of the Philippines-Los Baños
College, Laguna, Philippines
Telefax: +63-49.536-2865
E-mail:
Website: www.aseanbiodiversity.org
ACB Annex:
Ninoy Aquino Parks and Wildlife Center
North Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City 1156
Philippines
Printed by:
Dolmar Press, Inc.
No. of Copies: 2,000
Disclaimer: Views or opinions expressed
herein do not necessarily represent any
ofcial view of the European Union nor the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) Secretariat. The authors are
responsible for any data or information
presented in their articles.
asean
BIODIVERSITY
Conserve Biodiversity, Save Humanity
Bookmarks
Urban Biodiversity Conservation Tops
Agenda of SEA Environment Ofcials 43
ACB National Contact Points Hold First Meeting 44
ASEAN States Strengthen Transboundary
Collaboration to Protect Truong Son Range 44

ASEAN Develops Long-Term Plan to Save Biodiversity 45
EU Engages RP Media to Help Heighten
Awareness on Climate Change 46
ACB Steps Up Biodiversity Information
Management in ASEAN 47
ACB to Develop Biodiversity Management Courses 48
French Embassy and ACB Discuss
Possible Research Collaboration 49
Youth and Teachers Ride the Green Wave! 50
Top UN CBD executive discusses strategic partnership
with ACB and various sectors to help protect the
Earth’s biodiversity 51
ASEAN Member States Discuss
Safety in Biotechnology 55
Surfing the Web of Life 55
Policy Brief
Gap Analysis of Protected Areas
Coverage in the ASEAN Countries 57
Certication Programmes for Ecotourism
Development and Biodiversity Conservation 58
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 5
A
DDICTION is a terrible thing. It consumes and
controls us, makes us deny important truths and
blinds us to the consequences of our actions. Our
world is in the grip of a dangerous carbon habit.
Coal and oil paved the way for the developed world’s
industrial progress. Fast-developing countries are now taking
the same path in search of equal living standards. Meanwhile,
in the least developed countries, even less sustainable energy

sources, such as charcoal, remain the only available option for
the poor.
Our dependence on carbon-based energy has caused a sig-
nificant build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Last
year, the Nobel Peace Prize-winning Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change put the final nail in the coffin of global
warming skeptics. We know that climate change is happen-
ing, and we know that carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
gases that we emit are the cause.
We don’t just burn carbon in the form of fossil fuels.
Throughout the tropics, valuable forests are being felled for
timber and making paper, for pasture and arable land and,
increasingly, for plantations to supply a growing demand for
biofuels. This further manifestation of our carbon habit not
only releases vast amounts of CO
2
; it also destroys a valuable
resource for absorbing atmospheric carbon, further contribut-
ing to climate change.
The environmental, economic and political implications
of global warming are profound. Ecosystems – from moun-
tain to ocean, from the Poles to the tropics – are undergoing
rapid change. Low-lying cities face inundation, fertile lands
are turning to desert, and weather patterns are becoming ever
more unpredictable.
The cost will be borne by all. The poor will be hardest
hit by weather-related disasters and by soaring price infla-
tion for staple foods, but even the richest nations face the
prospect of economic recession and a world in conflict over
diminishing resources. Mitigating climate change, eradicat-

ing poverty and promoting economic and political stability
all demand the same solution: we must kick the carbon
habit. This is the theme for World Environment Day 2008.
“Kick the Habit: Towards a Low Carbon Economy”, recog-
nizes the damaging extent of our addiction, and it shows the
way forward.
Often we need a crisis to wake us to reality. With the cli-
mate crisis upon us, businesses and governments are realizing
that, far from costing the Earth, addressing global warming
can actually save money and invigorate economies. While
the estimated costs of climate change are incalculable, the
price tag for fighting it may be less than any of us may have
thought. Some estimates put the cost at less than one per
cent of global gross domestic product – a cheap price indeed
for waging a global war.
Even better news is that technologies already exist or are
under development to make our consumption of carbon-
based fuels cleaner and more efficient and to harness the
renewable power of sun, wind and waves. The private sector,
in particular, is competing to capitalize on what they recog-
nize as a massive business opportunity.
Around the world, nations, cities, organizations and
businesses are looking afresh at green options. At the United
Nations, I have instructed that the plan for renovating our
New York headquarters should follows strict environmental
guidelines. I have also asked the chief executives of all UN
programmes, funds and specialized agencies to move swiftly
towards carbon neutrality.
Earlier this year, the UN Environment Programme
launched a climate neutral network – CN Net – to energize

this growing trend. Its inaugural members, which include
countries, cities and companies, are pioneers in a movement
that I believe will increasingly define environmental, eco-
nomic and political discourse and decision making over the
coming decades.
The message of World Environment Day 2008 is that we
are all part of the solution. Whether you are an individual,
an organization, a business or a government, there are many
steps you can take to reduce your carbon footprint. It is mes-
sage we all must take to heart.
‘We must kick the carbon habit’
Message delivered by Mr. Ban Ki-Moon, Secretary-General of the United Nations,
for World Environment Day 2008
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GLOBAL CONSERVATION NEWS
Mining project endan-
gers pristine forest
June 30 – Residents in
Kaeng Krachan district
have protested a move by
the government to approve
a new mining project near
the Kaeng Krachan forest,
a proposed World Heritage
site. The mining firm wants
to dig for dolomite depos-
its near the Kaeng Krachan
National Park. The pristine
tropical forest, which covers
the Kaeng Krachan National

Park and a wildlife sanctuary
in Ratchaburi, Phetchaburi
and Prachuap Khiri Khan, has
been declared a heritage site
for Southeast Asia. Dolomite,
which contains magnesium,
is used for soil adjustment in
farming or in drug produc-
tion. – Bangkok Post
Looming tropical
disaster needs
urgent action
June 25 – A major review
published in the Ecological
Society of America’s journal,
Frontiers in Ecology and the
Environment, shows that
the world is losing the battle
over tropical habitat loss
with potentially disastrous
implications for biodiver-
sity and human well-be-
ing. Research shows that
up to 15 million hectares
of tropical rainforest are
being lost every year and
species are being lost at a
rate of up to 10,000 times
higher than what would
happen randomly without

humans present. Majority
of the world’s population
live in the tropics and what
is at stake is the survival of
species that pollinate most
of the world’s food crops,
purify our water systems,
attenuate severe flood risk,
sequester carbon and modify
climate. The review “
Tropic
turmoil: a biodiversity tragedy
in progress”’ can be found at
www.frontiersinecology.org.
– University of Adelaide
Viet Nam launches
programme to combat
desertication
June 12 – Thousands of
hectares of land and about
20 million people are being
threatened with desertification
in Viet Nam according to the
Deputy Minister of Agri
-
culture and Rural Develop
-
ment. According to a survey
conducted by the Food and
Agriculture Organisation and

the UNESCO, the country
has 462,000 hectares of sand
along its coasts, more than
419,000 hectares of which
is concentrated in 10 central
coastal provinces. In the past
40 years, about 10 to 20
hectares of agricultural land
was annually encroached by
sand. To fight desertification,
the government launched a
national action programme,
funded by the World Bank,
the Global Environment Fund
and the Tropical Forest Fund.
The country has already
invested about VND1 trillion
($55.6 million) in growing
200,000 hectares of forest per
year. As a result, forest cover-
age increased from 28.3% in
1995 to 38% in 2007. – Viet
Nam News Service
Saving Cambodia’s
Great Lake
May 29 – Tonle Sap is the
largest freshwater lake in
Southeast Asia and is known
to Cambodians as the Great
Lake. It is an area of extraor

-
dinarily rich biodiversity and
a key breeding ground for
fish, which migrate upstream
from the Mekong to spawn in
seasonally-flooded forest areas.
However, it faces threats from
over exploitation and illegal
fishing methods, destruction
of key wildlife habitats, pollu-
tion, and deforestation. The
Asian Development Bank-
financed Tonle Sap Environ
-
mental Management Project
(TSEMP) has been leading
efforts to address environmen-
tal concerns regarding the lake.
TSEMP is helping villages
create community fisheries to
protect and preserve their own
resources, develop alternative
livelihoods to reduce stress on
the environment, and promote
ecotourism so that visitors may
enjoy the various species that
live in the lake. – BBC
UN set for IPCC-type
panel on biodiversity
May 29 – A scheme to set

up an independent authority
on species loss on the lines of
the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC)
was approved in principle by
a committee vote at the UN
Convention on Biodiversity in
Bonn. Biodiversity advocates
have struggled for decades to
sound alarms about the accel-
erating rate of species extinc-
tion, and its potentially dire
consequences for mankind.
Calls to action however have
been largely ignored. The
IPCC report played a major
role in raising awareness on
climate change and is a very
strong model that could be
emulated for any assessment
on biodiversity. An authorita-
tive panel would lend scientific
credibility and underscore the
urgency of biodiversity issues.
– Agence France-Presse
Ecosystem destruction
costing hundreds
of billions a year
May 30 – The new Economics
of Ecosystems and Biodi-

versity, a review of the costs
and benefits of forests, rivers
and marine life, state that the
steeply accelerating decline of
the natural world is already
costing hundreds of billions
of dollars a year. The report
warns of severe consequences
to all economies if forests
continue to be felled, seas
overfished and if land is turned
to intensive farming. The
report says that the world has
lost 40% of its forests in 300
Kaeng Krachan forest
www.nature-thailand.com
Tonle Sap river www.tsbr-ed.org
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 7
years, and half its wetlands
in just 50 years. More than
one third of mangroves have
disappeared in just 20 years
and there is increasing soil loss,
as well as severe erosion, and
growing water scarcity. Details
on how to estimate the costs
associated with this environ-
mental degradation will come
in the final report, due by
2010. – Guardian

Our dying planet
May 17
– The Living
Planet Index,
produced
by WWF,
the London
Zoological
Society and
the Global Footprint Network
tracks 4,000 species including
nearly 241 fish, 83 amphibian,
40 reptile, 811 bird and 302
mammal species. The report
reveals that almost a third of
the world’s wildlife has been
lost in the past 35 years. The
number of animals per species
fell by an average of 27%
between 1970 and 2005 - with
land animals down 25 percent,
marine, 28 percent, and fresh-
water, 29 percent. The main
threats to species are pollution,
habitat destruction, over-ex-
ploitation, invasive species and
climate change. The expan
-
sion of humankind, however,
posed the biggest threat. The

global population is up to
6.5 billion from 4 billion and
people are using 25% more
resources than can be replaced.
– Mirror
191 nations convene
for global biodiversity
conference
May 18 - The ninth confer-
ence of the U.N. Convention
on Biological Diversity was
held in Bonn, Germany and
aimed to ensure the survival of
global biodiversity amid grow-
ing global threats. Officials
also reviewed the goals set in
2002 at the U.N. Earth Sum
-
mit, which called for slowing
the loss of biological diversity
by 2010. The conference also
hoped to address the need to
renew agricultural diversity of
crops and livestock to address
food security concerns. – As-
sociated Press
Global warming has
changed behavior
of plants and animals
May 15 – Scientists from the

National Aeronautics and
Space Administration say there
are now more than 27,000
examples of how nature has
responded to warmer tempera-
tures around the world since
the early 1970s. They range
from earlier springs in Britain
and the movement north of
insects and birds in Europe
to avoid warmer weather, to
changes in the hunting behav-
ior of polar bears at the North
Pole because of melting ice.
Only life in the Antarctic ap
-
pears to be largely unaffected
by the warmer climate. Re-
searchers say the study, which
covered nearly 30,000 pieces
of research and is published
in the science journal Nature,
is the first global picture that
demonstrates the effect of hu-
man-induced climate change.
– Daily Mail
Cyclone Nargis and its
impact on biodiversity
May 14 – Environmental-
ists are concerned about

the status of biodiversity in
Myanmar in the aftermath of
Cyclone Nargis. The Wildlife
Conservation Society says
that Myanmar is probably
the most biodiverse country
in Southeast Asia, and large
areas of habitats still remain
to be explored. Conserva
-
tionists warn that the human
needs resulting from the
disaster could have a devas-
tating impact on forests and
wildlife as hunting, non-for-
est product extraction, and
logging are likely to increase.
Critically endangered animals
in Myanmar include endemic
species of rhinos and bats, as
well as Asian elephants, red
pandas, capped leaf monkeys,
and the world’s largest tiger re-
serve. Populations of so-called
estuarine Irrawaddy dolphins,
saltwater crocodiles and nest-
ing Olive Ridley sea turtles are
also vulnerable. The fates of
rare spoon-billed sandpipers,
which are down to only 200-

300 pairs, are also unknown.
– National Geographic News
Palm oil wiping out
key orangutan habitat
in Indonesia
May 10 – The Centre for
Orangutan Protection in
Indonesia warned that one of
the biggest populations of wild
orangutans on Borneo will be
extinct in three years if drastic
measures are not done to stop
the expansion of palm oil
plantations. More than 30,000
wild orangutans live in the
forests of Indonesia’s Central
Kalimantan province, or more
than half the entire orangutan
population of Borneo Island,
which is shared between In
-
donesia, Malaysia and Brunei.
Experts believe the overall
extinction rate of Borneo
orangutans is 9 percent per
year, but in Central Kali
-
mantan they are disappearing
even faster due to unchecked
expansion of palm oil planta-

tions. Orangutans are found
only on Borneo and Sumatra
and are listed as endangered
by the World Conservation
Union. It says numbers of the
ape have fallen by well over 50
percent in the past 60 years as
a result of habitat loss, poach-
ing and the pet trade. – Agence
France-Presse
Philippines launches
food security programme
April 29 – The Philippines
will have to continue import-
ing rice until 2011 after years
of under-investment in farm-
ing and failure to modernize
the agricultural industry. The
Philippines imports 10 percent
of its annual rice requirement,
and last produced enough rice
for domestic consumption
in 1994. President Gloria
Macapagal Arroyo recently
unveiled a $1.05 billion master
plan for food security that
involves more funding for
fertilizer, seeds, irrigation and
better roads and post-harvest
facilities. – Reuters

GLOBAL CONSERVATION NEWS
A boy inspects imported rice in Quezon City, Metro Manila.
Orangutan
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Funds generated
to preserve Asia’s
Coral Triangle
April 29 – The Asian Devel-
opment Bank (ADB) said the
Global Environment Facil-
ity (GEF) and the ADB will
jointly support the preserva-
tion of Asia’s Coral Triangle,
with the GEF committing
$63 million to fund conserva-
tion of this area known as “the
Amazon of the seas”. Under
ADB’s leadership, the GEF
contribution will catalyze at
least $425 million of co-fi-
nancing for the Coral Triangle
Initiative to introduce sustain
-
able fisheries management
and conserve coral ecosystems
while reducing poverty. The
Coral Triangle, which crosses
Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua
New Guinea, Philippines,
Solomon Islands and Timor-

Leste, has the highest marine
biodiversity in the world.
– Thomson Financial News
Human health depends
on biodiversity
April 28 – A new book called
“Sustaining Life” provides a
comprehensive view on the
impact of species extinctions
and biodiversity loss on a new
generation of antibiotics and
medical treatments. The natu
-
ral world holds secrets to the
development of new kinds of
safer and more powerful pain-
killers, anti-cancer medicines
and possibly ways of re-grow-
ing lost tissues and organs.
Experts warn that we may lose
many of the land and marine-
based life forms of economic
and medical interest before we
can learn their secrets, or, in
some cases, before we know
they exist. The book demon
-
strates that although extinc-
tion is alarming in its own
right, many species can help

save human lives. Sustaining
Life provides more justifica-
tion for action to conserve
species, and offers dozens of
dramatic examples of both
the why and how citizens can
act in ways that will conserve
species that enrich our lives.
– IUCN
Sri Lanka launches
mangrove protection
programme
April 28 – Sri Lanka
launched the Mangroves for
the Future (MFF) initiative
with the International Union
for Conservation of Nature
and the United Nations
Development Programme to
conserve coastal mangroves
that were affected by the
2004 Indian tsunami. The
waves of the tsunami killed
31,000, displaced a million,
and flooded coastal regions.
The mangroves that were
along the coast in some parts
of the island took the brunt
of the wave, reducing the
damage to inland structures

and vegetation. Mangroves
play an important role in the
lives of coast dwellers as it is
a breeding ground for fish,
prawns and shrimp. Man-
groves also promote nature
tourism, which helps local
communities get additional
employment and income.
– lanka business online
Researchers nd rare
giant turtle in Viet Nam
April 17 – After three years
of searching, biologists have
identified a soft-shell giant
turtle of cultural significance
in northern Viet Nam that was
believed to be extinct in the
wild. The turtle, identified
as Rafetus swinhoei and is the
only known living specimen
of its kind, was found in a lake
west of Hanoi. The search
was funded by the Cleveland
Metroparks Zoo in the United
States through its Asian Turtle
Program. R. swinhoei is one of
the most critically endangered
species of turtle in the world
and has a legendary status

among the people of Viet
Nam, where its appearance
is believed to be a portent of
an extraordinary event. Only
three other specimens of the
turtle are known to scientists,
two at zoos in China and one
in the storied Hoan Kiem
Lake (The Lake of the Re
-
turned Sword) in the centre of
Hanoi. The turtles can weigh
up to 136 kg (300 pounds)
and live more than 100 years.
They have become virtually
extinct because of hunters who
killed them for food, loss of
nesting habitats and pollution.
– Reuters
Rice terraces should
be protected as critical
watershed
April 16 – Philippine Govern-
ment officials are promoting
the Banaue Rice Terraces as a
tourist and economic develop-
ment zone but local officials
said the world’s “Eighth Won-
der” needed to be promoted
as a critical environment area.

Though considered as one
of the Philippines’ premier
tourist destinations, the rice
terraces must be viewed as part
of a watershed that need to
be nurtured and protected in
light of the threats of cli-
GLOBAL CONSERVATION NEWS
www.coraltriangle.org
Centuries old rice terraces in Banaue, Ifugao, Philippines. Photo courtesy of Melvin Gascon, Inquirer Northern Luzon.
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 9
mate change. Activities that
threaten the life of the terraces
must be disallowed since it
will affect the environment
and culture of the people of
the Ifugao province. There is
no rice shortage in Ifugao, and
the rice terraces alone could
sustain the province’s need
for two months. – Philippine
Daily Inquirer
Change in farming
can feed world
April 16 – Sixty countries
backed the International
Assessment of Agricultural
Science and Technology for
Development [IAASTD] that
states that the world produces

enough food for everyone, yet
more than 800 million people
go hungry. The report called
for radical changes in world
ricultural science has decreased
yet there is an urgent need to
develop sustainable ways to
produce food. Governments
must focus on agriculture
that is less dependent on
fossil fuels, favors the use of
locally available resources and
explores the use of natural
processes such as crop rotation
and use of organic fertilizers.
– guardian.co.uk
Malaysia rejects coal
project in Borneo
rainforest
April 14 – Malaysia has
rejected a $408 million
coal-fired power plant near a
protected rainforest in Sabah,
on the island of Borneo. The
Sabah Cabinet has decided
that they would rather not
risk the welfare and health of
the community in the area
and any adverse impact on the
environment. The govern

-
ment also announced the need
to look for more environ-
mentally friendly sources of
energy. The project could
have adversely affected Sabah’s
nature-based tourism industry.
The government of Sabah is
putting increased emphasis on
the state’s natural attractions
including world-class diving,
biodiverse tropical rainforests
that house the orangutan and
other endangered species, and
Mt. Kinabalu, Southeast Asia’s
highest peak. – mongabay.com
Philippines will suffer from
greater incidence of diseases
like dengue and lower levels
of fresh water due to global
warming. – AFP
Frog with no lungs
found in Indonesia
April 10 – Researchers have
discovered a frog in a remote
part of Indonesia that has no
lungs and breathes through
its skin, a discovery that could
provide insight into what
drives evolution in certain spe-

cies. David Bickford, an evo
-
lutionary biologist at the Na
-
tional University of Singapore,
Google Earth to highlight
endangered species
April 11 – Google has
launched the Google Earth
Outreach programme that uses
Google Earth and Maps to
enable conservationists to raise
awareness of their activities
with endangered species across
the globe. The programme
will allow organizations
to highlight their work by
plotting points that can be
accessed to provide written,
audio and video information
in what is known as a “layer”.
These can then be seen by
millions of users. Organiza
-
tions working with the Google
Earth Outreach Programme
include Wildscreen, a charity
that raises awareness of the
world’s biodiversity. Wild-
screen is currently working

with the ARKive project, a
collection of thousands of
films and photographs of
endangered species, to create
“layers” that highlight critically
endangered species. – tele-
graph.co.uk
GLOBAL CONSERVATION NEWS
farming to avert increas-
ing regional food shortages,
escalating prices and growing
environmental problems. The
report - the first significant at-
tempt to involve governments,
NGOs and industries from
rich and poor countries - took
400 scientists four years to
complete. The present system
of food production and the
way food is traded around the
world has led to a highly un-
equal distribution of benefits
and serious adverse ecological
effects and is now contribut-
ing to climate change. Science
and technology should be
targeted towards raising yields
but also protecting soils, water
and forests. Investment in ag
-

Philippine schoolchildren in an environmental parade
The Philippines includes
climate change in school
curriculum
April 9 – The Philippine
government has directed the
Department of Education,
other state agencies and the
private sector to prepare lesson
guides on global environmen-
tal issues for public school
teachers in elementary and
secondary schools. Education
Secretary Jesli Lapus empha-
sized the importance of “inter-
governmental cooperation” in
reducing the effects of climate
change. Experts have said the
said that the aquatic frog,
Barbourula kalimantanensis, is
the first frog known to science
without lungs and joins a
short list of amphibians with
this unusual trait, including a
few species of salamanders and
a worm-like creature known as
a caecilian. The frog is known
to be “evolutionarily unique”,
and scientists surmised that
the frog had evolved to adapt

to its difficult surroundings, in
which it has to navigate cold,
rapidly moving streams that
are rich in oxygen. – Associated
Press
Rice is a staple crop that is
under pressure across the
developing world. Photo courtesy of
Romeo Gacad/AFP/Getty Images
Danum Valley. Photo by Rhett A. Butler
Indonesia’s lung-less frog.
Photo courtesy of the Associated Press
10 A P R I L - J U N E 2 0 0 8 n w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g
CLIMATE AND BIODIVERSITY
The twin planetary environmental challenges of the 21st Century
By Dr. AHMED DJOGHLAF
SPECIAL REPORTS
hen visiting Manila, the Philippines last June, I
witnessed the devastating damage of the Tropical
Storm Fengshen that killed more than 1,300 people.
In Hong Kong, Tropical Storm Frank forced schools
and the stock exchange to close owing to the huge
waves in Victoria Harbour. A couple of weeks before,
Tropical Cyclone Nargis devastated Myanmar and
brought back memories of the horror of the 2004
tsunami, as well as Hurricane Katrina. Last year
alone, the United Nations broke a record when it
launched 13 appeals for humanitarian assistance.
Twelve of these were for climate-related disasters.
W

10 A P R I L - J U N E 2 0 0 8 n w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 11
CLIMATE AND BIODIVERSITY
Hardly a week goes by without cli-
mate change making the headlines. The
Human Development Report issued by
the United Nations Development Pro-
gramme (UNDP) in December 2007
contains a catalogue of so-called “cli-
mate shocks” that have hit the world. For
example:
• Europe had its most intense heat
wave for 50 years and Spain suf-
fered its worst drought in more
than a century.
• The severe drought that affected
Australia was the worst in more
than a century.
• Japan had its greatest number of
tropical cyclones in a single year.
• Monsoons displaced 14 million
people in India, seven million
in Bangladesh and three mil-
lion in China, which has seen
the heaviest rainfall and second
The twin planetary environmental challenges of the 21st Century
highest death toll since records
began.
• Tropical cyclones blasted Indo-
nesia, the Philippines and Viet

Nam. As a result, 66 million
people were made homeless in
Southeast Asia.
• Hurricanes devastated the Ca-
ribbean and Central America,
killing more than 1,600 Mayan
people in Guatemala.
• Droughts and flooding have
affected 22 African countries,
driving 14 millions out of their
home.
The number of natural disasters
linked to the climate has increased four-
fold since 1960. Eleven out of the past
12 years have been the hottest since me-
teorological data were first recorded in
1850. A study by the United States Na-
tional Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
The number of natural
disasters linked to the
climate has increased
fourfold since 1960.
Eleven out of the past
12 years have been
the hottest since
meteorological data
were rst recorded
in 1850.
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 11
12 A P R I L - J U N E 2 0 0 8 n w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g

tration (NASA) has shown that, during
the last 30 years, world temperatures
have been the highest in 12,000 years.
While it is true that natural disas-
ters have always been part of life on
Earth, the frequency, gravity and im-
pact of these natural phenomena and,
in particular, those relating to climate
have, over the last few years, attained
such proportions that the concept of
peace and international security has to
be viewed afresh from a different angle.
Indeed, the issue of environmental pro-
tection has become part and parcel of
world peace and security.
The Fourth Assessment Report of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Cli
-
mate Change, prepared by 2,500 ex-
perts from 130 countries, is unequivo-
cal: current atmospheric concentrations
of greenhouse gases are greater than at
any time in the last 650,000 years. Cli-
mate change is real, and human activ-
ity is its main driving force. The report
specifies that even if greenhouse-gas
concentrations were to stabilize now,
anthropogenic global warming and
sea-level rise would continue for cen-
turies due to the complexity of the

world’s climate and the interconnectiv-
ity of ecosystems. Such conclusions re-
quire urgent and unprecedented efforts
and interventions. The cost of inaction
has been evaluated by the Stern Review
Report on the Economics of Climate
Change at more than 5,000 billion
dollars. Thanks to the leadership of
Germany, a Stern-like report on the
cost of inaction for the loss of biodi-
versity is being prepared.
Climate change: A real and
global challenge
C
limate change is real, and rep-
resents a global challenge not
only for humankind, but for
every form of life on Earth. It is for this
reason that Mrs. Gro Harlem Brundt-
land, in addressing the United Nations
General Assembly in May 2007, follow-
ing her appointment as Special Envoy
of the Secretary-General on Climate
Change stated, “It is irresponsible, reck-
less and deeply immoral to question the
seriousness of the situation. The time for
diagnosis is over and the time for action
is now.” She stressed the importance of
2007 as a year when the wheels have to
be set in motion.

Mrs. Brundtland’s call for action has
been heard and 2007 will be remem-
bered as the year of renewed commit-
ment by the international community
at the highest level to address the cli-
mate-change crisis. Upon his appoint-
ment as Secretary General of the United
Nations, Mr. Ban Ki-Moon decided to
make climate change as one of its high-
est priorities. He designated three spe-
cial envoys on climate change. In April
2007, and for the first time in its histo-
ry, the United Nations Security Council
devoted a special meeting to address the
issue of climate change and security. In
July, the General Assembly convened—
also for the first time—a high level dia-
logue on climate change. In September,
a Summit of the General Assembly on
climate change was convened with the
participation of more than 70 Heads of
State and government. In December,
the 14,000 participants attending the
climate conference in Bali agreed on a
road map for the post-Kyoto commit-
ment. Six Heads of State and govern-
ment took part at this historic event.
Two days earlier, in Oslo, the No-
bel Peace Prize was awarded to Mr. Al
Gore, the former Vice-President of the

United States of America, and to the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC). In so doing, the presti-
gious Norwegian Nobel Committee has
While it is true that natural disasters have always
been part of life on Earth, the frequency, gravity
and impact of these natural phenomena and,
in particular, those relating to climate have,
over the last few years, attained such proportions
that the concept of peace and international security
has to be viewed afresh from a different angle.
SPECIAL REPORTS
12 A P R I L - J U N E 2 0 0 8 n w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 13
recognized, for the second time in its
history, the environmental dimension
of the concept of peace and security.
The security implications of envi-
ronmental degradation were recognized
by the Committee in 2004, when, for
the first time in history, it awarded the
Nobel Peace Prize to an environmental-
ist, namely Professor Wangari Maathai.
On that historic occasion, Mr. Ole
Danbolt Mjøs, the chairman of this
prestigious institution, noted: “This
year, the Norwegian Nobel Committee has
evidently broadened its definition of peace
still further. Environmental protection has
become yet another path to peace.”

In accepting the Nobel Peace Prize,
Prof. Maathai stated: “There can be no
peace without equitable development and
there can be no development without sus-
tainable management of the environment
in a democratic and peaceful space. I hope
that this prize will help many people see
the link between peace, development and
environment.”
Indeed, sustainable development is
the new name for peace and security.
Nobel Laureate Wangari Maathai has
tirelessly worked to highlight the link
between peace and the environment. As
Foreign Minister Frank-Walter Stein-
meier of Germany recently stated, “In a
few decades, the relationship between the
environment, resources and conflict may
seem almost as obvious as the connection
we see today between human rights, de-
mocracy and peace. There is a ‘cold war’
at the North Pole that we have to prevent.
Climate change is a threat to worldwide
peace and security.”
According to the Fourth Assessment
Report of IPCC, global warming and
the melting of snow and glaciers in the
twentieth century caused a 10- to 20-
centimeter increase in sea levels and will
lead to an increase of 88 centimeters be-

fore the end of the century. According
to the United States’ National Aeronau-
tics and Space Administration (NASA),
in 2007 Greenland saw record levels of
ice melting—estimated at approximate-
ly one million square kilometers, twice
the size of France, and corresponding to
one billion tons. There is a danger there-
fore that global warming will jeopardize
the existence of the 160,000 glaciers
in the world. The melting of snow on
the Himalayas caused the proliferation
of the number of lakes situated in high
altitude. In Nepal, they are estimated at
2,323, of which 20% constitute a threat
to neighboring communities because of
the risk of the waters overflowing. Since
more than 50% of the major cities of
the world are situated in coastal areas
and because more than 3 billion people
live less than 100 kilometers from the
coast, sea-level rise will have disastrous
consequences on the world’s popula-
tion. At the Bali climate conference in
2007, the President of the Maldives re-
minded the international community
of the statement made 20 years before,
in October 1987 at the United Nations
General Assembly, describing Maldives
as “a nation in danger”, with some 65%

of its land mass barely a meter above sea
level.
Scarcity of water and
climate change
T
oday four out of 10 people in
the world live in countries with
a severe shortage of potable wa-
ter. While a citizen in the developed
world can count on an average of 135
liters of water a day, an African citizen
has to survive with only 14 liters and
in Namibia, for example, with 5 liters
a day. As a result of climate change and
increasing human demands on ecosys-
tems, total available water in the Niger,
Lake Chad and Senegal basins has de-
Ice from the great lakes
melting, blowing into shore.
SPECIAL REPORTS
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 13
14 A P R I L - J U N E 2 0 0 8 n w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g
creased by 40 – 60% over the past 100
years. In 2025, two thirds of humanity,
i.e. more than 5.5 billion people will ex-
perience a similar situation.
According to a CIA (Central Intel-
ligence Agency of the United States)
report, the shortage of water will in the
near future constitute one of the major

sources of tension and armed conflict
in the world. The report further states
that more than 30 countries receive
more than a third of their consump-
tion of drinking water from outside of
their borders. Such a forecast takes on
its true meaning when we consider that
out of the 268 international river ba-
sins, shared by 145 countries and feed-
ing 40% of the world population, more
than 158 are not governed by any form
of joint cooperation mechanism be-
tween neighboring countries. In some
cases, more than 16 countries share this
natural resource. That is the case, for
example, with the Congo and the Niger
rivers, as well as the Nile.
The scarcity of water and climate
change will have far-reaching implica-
tions for human health. The World
Health Organization (WHO) is cat-
egorical on this point: climate change
is one of the main causes of the high
increase in the number of new infec-
tious diseases. Since 1960, more than
35 infectious diseases have been re-
corded. The number of deaths result-
ing from new or old infectious diseases
has doubled since 1980. The last Gen-
eral Assembly of the WHO confirmed

that global warming has already begun
to impact on patterns of water-borne
and parasite illness in areas vulnerable
to drought and flooding. It is estimated
that climate change has already, directly
or indirectly, killed more than one mil-
lion people globally since 2000. More
than half of those deaths have occurred
in the Asia-Pacific area, the world’s
most populous region. Those figures do
not include deaths linked to urban air
pollution, which kills about 800,000
worldwide each year. Singapore saw
mean annual temperatures increase by
2.7 degrees Fahrenheit between 1978
and 1998, while the number of dengue
fever cases jumped tenfold during the
same period. I have been informed by
the Director of Public Heath that 20
cases of dengue fever were recorded last
year in Singapore.
Malaria has recently reached Bhutan
and new areas in Papua New Guinea
for the first time. Experts predict that
global warming could lead to a return
of malaria in Britain. Today, malaria ac-
counts for the death of 1.5 to 2.7 mil-
lion people each year, mainly in Africa.
Every 30 seconds a child dies from ma-
laria. Scientific studies have proven the

strong link between the proliferation of
cholera cases and the increase in tem-
perature of the affected regions.
The scarcity of drinking water will
have disastrous consequences on the ac-
celeration of desertification particularly
in Africa where it has attained alarming
proportions. Today, more than 1.2 bil-
lion people in 110 countries are affected
by desertification. It is threatening the
lives of more than 135 million people.
According to some estimates more than
6 million hectares of arable land are cov-
ered by this phenomenon, which affects
the poorest of the poor. According to
IPCC, more than 100 million people in
Africa alone will become climate-change
refugees. The recently released report of
the United Nations Environment Pro-
gramme (UNEP) on the environment
situation in Sudan demonstrates that
the Darfur conflict is one of the conse-
quences of climate change. During the
last four years, 200,000 persons have
been killed and 2.2 million displaced in
Darfur.
A report issued in April 2007 by top
retired American military leaders con-
cluded that climate change poses a “se-
rious threat to America’s national security

and the U.S. will likely be dragged into
fights over water and other shortages”.
The report warned that in the next 40
to 50 years there will be wars over water,
increased hunger instability from wors-
ening diseases and rising sea levels, and
global warming-induced refugees. The
report concluded that, “chaos that results
can be an incubator of civil strife, geno-
cide and the growth of terrorism.”
But climate change is not only a
security issue; it is also a moral issue.
Those who have contributed the least to
climate change will be the most at risk.
Even though it produces on average less
than one ton of CO
2
emissions per cap-
ita, representing only 3 percent of world
emissions, Africa will suffer the most.
SPECIAL REPORTS
14 A P R I L - J U N E 2 0 0 8 n w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 15
Loss of biological diversity
I
f climate change is the new threat to
peace and human security, the loss
of biodiversity is also another major
threat to peace and security as it under-
mines the capacity of the ecosystems to

continue providing their goods and ser-
vices and sustaining life on Earth.
The findings of the Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, which is the
result of four years of work by more
than 1,395 experts from 95 countries,
are also very explicit. The Assessment
concluded that the pressures on the
planet’s natural functions caused by
human activity have reached such a
high level that the ability of ecosystems
to satisfy the needs of future genera-
tions is seriously, and perhaps irretriev-
ably, compromised. Since the end of
the Second World War, more land has
been converted to agricultural use than
in the two previous centuries. Since
the appearance of man on Earth, im-
pacts on the natural functions of our
planet have never been as destructive
as in the last 50 years, leading to an
unprecedented extinction of biological
diversity. During the last 50 years, one
fourth of the world’s top soil, one-fifth
of agricultural land and one-third of its
forests have been depleted.
During the last century, the extinc-
tion rate of species increased a thousand
times. Twenty percent of known bird
species have already disappeared. Forty-

one percent of mammals are in decline
and 28 percent are under direct threat.
Some 13 million hectares of forests, an
area four times the size of Belgium, are
being lost every year. Tropical forests
are home to more than 80 percent of
the earth’s plants and animals. Eight
square kilometers of tropical forests
may contain 1500 plants species and
750 tree species. In Singapore, there
are more species of trees than in all of
North America. Although 95 percent of
Singapore’s original forests have gone,
there are still 840 flowering species in
the 163-hectare Bukit Timah Nature
Reserve. Some 35 percent of mangroves
have been destroyed in the last 20 years.
In the Caribbean, the average hard-cor-
al cover has fallen from 50 percent to
10 percent over the last three decades.
In Singapore, 5 percent of the original
areas occupied by mangrove forests still
exist, and it has been estimated that 60
percent of Singapore’s reefs have been
lost. However 30 percent of the hard
corals of the world can still be found in
Singapore. Approximately 35 percent of
world crops depend on pollinators such
as bees. However, their populations
have already decreased by 30 percent

in the last 20 years. Around 20 percent
of domestic animal breeds are at risk
of extinction, with a breed lost each
month. Some 190 have become extinct
in the past 15 years and 1,500 more are
deemed at risk of extinction.
This unprecedented loss of biodi-
versity was confirmed by the fourth
edition of the Global Environment
Outlook launched in October 2007 by
UNEP. The authoritative assessment
of the state of the environment of our
planet by the world environmental au-
thority of the United Nations system,
since the launch in 1987 of the Brundt-
land report, was prepared by more than
500 experts and peer-reviewed by more
than 1,000 experts. It reiterates that we,
human beings, are witnessing and are
responsible for a reduction in distribu-
tion and functioning land, freshwater
and marine biodiversity, more rapid than
at any time in human history. The “eco-
logical footprint” of humankind now ex-
tends 20 percent beyond the biological
capacity of the planet. For some experts,
we are at the eve of the sixth global mass
During the last 50 years, one fourth of the
world’s top soil, one-fth of agricultural land and
one-third of its forests have been depleted.

SPECIAL REPORTS
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 15
16 A P R I L - J U N E 2 0 0 8 n w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g
extinction of species and the first to be
generated by human beings.
This unprecedented loss of biodi-
versity is being compounded by climate
change. The Fourth IPCC Assessment
Report indicates that up to 30 percent
of all known species are likely to be at
increased risk of extinction before the
end of this century. As a result of climate
change, in sub-Saharan Africa, between
25 and 40 percent of mammals in na-
tional parks will become endangered
while as many as 2 percent of the species
currently classified as critically endan-
gered, will become extinct. In the Suc-
culent Karoo and Fynbos ecosystems in
southern Africa, more than 50 percent of
habitat is expected to be lost by 2050.
The IPCC report predicts that up
to 50 percent of the biodiversity of Asia
is at risk due to climate change while
as much as 88 percent of reefs may be
lost over the next 30 years. Further-
more, as many as 1,522 plant species in
China and 2,835 plants in Indo-Burma
could become extinct. Climate change
is threatening the rich biodiversity

heritage of the region that sustains 30
percent of the world’s coral reefs and
mangroves, produces 40 percent of the
world’s fish catch, and is considered one
of the world’s centres for tropical ma-
rine biodiversity.
Therefore, climate change and the
loss of biodiversity are the two major
planetary threats facing mankind. In
fact, I would argue that loss of biologi-
cal diversity is one the most serious ef-
fects, and at the same time driver, of
climate change. The relationship be-
tween biodiversity and climate change
is a two-way street. Yes, climate change
is an important driver of biodiversity
loss. At the same time, however, the loss
of biodiversity and the deterioration of
natural habitats also contribute to cli-
mate change.
Forests account for as much as 80
percent of the total above-ground ter-
restrial carbon, while peatlands, which
only cover 3 percent of the world’s ter-
restrial surface, store 30 percent of all
global soil carbon or the equivalent of
75 percent of all atmospheric carbon. As
such, healthy forests and wetland systems
have the potential to capture a significant
portion of projected emissions.

SPECIAL REPORTS
16 A P R I L - J U N E 2 0 0 8 n w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 17
tory. In 1820, London became the first
modern city with a population of more
than one million. Sixteen other cities
joined the list in 1900. Today the list
includes 411 cities. The population of
the world’s cities has now reached 3.2
billion people. It has increased nearly
fourfold since 1950. By 2030, two-
third of humanity will live in cities. If
not managed adequately, the growth of
the urban population may accelerate the
unprecedented loss of biodiversity of
our planet. Although cities occupy only
2.8 percent of the Earth’s surface, urban
dwellers use 75 percent of the planet’s
natural resources. More than this, how-
ever, is the fact that nearly half of the
world’s major cities are located within
50 kilometers of the coast, and coastal
population densities are 2.6 times great-
er than in inland areas. Some would
even say that the battle for life on Earth
will be won or lost in cities.
It is for this reason that at the ini-
tiative of the Mayor of Curitiba, Brazil,
the host of the eighth meeting of the
Conference of the Parties, 34 mayors

and their representatives adopted in
March 2007 the “Curitiba Declara-
tion on Cities and Biodiversity”. In May
2008, the 150 representatives of may-
ors from around the world adopted the
Bonn Call for Local Action on Biodi-
versity. As a result, 5,000 participants
representing 191 Parties and their part-
ners adopted an initiative on cities and
biodiversity aimed at adopting a plan
of action on cities and biodiversity at
their next meeting to be held in Octo-
ber 2010 in Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture,
Japan.
Multilateral cooperation
toward 2010
I
t has been said that what is lost in
one country is lost to the world.
Hence, each country has a vested
interested in mitigating climate change.
More than ever, multilateral coopera-
tion is required for addressing the en-
vironmental challenges. Never before
in history have environmental issues
received such intense consideration
from international organisations, gov-
ernments, and the general public. In his
acceptance speech for the Nobel Peace
Prize, Al Gore stated:

Until recently, forests covered 47
percent of the Earth’s land surface. Since
then, they have totally disappeared in 25
countries and, in a further 29 countries,
90 percent of forest cover has been lost.
Each year about 13 million hectares of
the world’s forests are lost due to defor-
estation. Deforestation is currently esti-
mated to be responsible for 20 percent
of annual human-induced CO
2
emis-
sions. Some 45 percent of the ASEAN
region is covered by forests. However,
10 million hectares have been lost dur-
ing the last decade owing to forest fires.
With the current rate of deforestation,
three quarters of the forest cover of the
region will disappear along with 42 per-
cent of its biodiversity by 2100. This
will have far-reaching implications on
the livelihood of the 500 million people
of the region and the biodiversity of the
planet.
The region covers a land area of
447 million hectares representing a
mere 3 percent of the Earth’s surface,
but contains 20 percent of the world’s
biodiversity. It harbors 18 percent
of all recorded flowering plants, and

21 percent of all recorded freshwater
species. The region has seven of the
25 recognized biodiversity hotspots.
However, out of the 64,800 known
species of the region, 1,312 are en-
dangered. The ASEAN region has one
third of the 284,000 square metres of
coral reef in the world, but 80 percent
of it is at risk. The threats to biodiver-
sity are also compounded by acceler-
ated urbanization.
“Homo Urbanus”
T
he year 2007 marked a paradigm
shift and will be remembered as
a major milestone. For the first
time in history, the world’s urban dwell-
ers exceeded the rural population. The
majority of the world’s population is
now living in urban areas, mainly in poor
countries; poor in terms of money, but
very rich in terms of biodiversity. A new
era is born, the era of “Homo Urbanus”,
the city dweller. The impact is expected
to have far reaching implications on hu-
manity.
The growing urban world repre-
sents one of the most dramatic changes
experienced by humanity in recent his-
“In the Kanji characters used in both

Chinese and Japanese, ‘crisis’ is written
with two symbols, the first meaning ‘dan-
ger’, the second ‘opportunity’. By facing and
removing the danger of the climate crisis,
we have the opportunity to gain the moral
authority and vision to vastly increase our
own capacity to solve other crises that have
been too long ignored.”
The Convention on Biological Di-
versity (CBD) provides the adequate
framework to respond to these crises. In
July 2007, Al Gore challenged the citi-
zens of world, stating that:
“Our home Earth is in danger. What
is at risk of being destroyed is not the
planet itself, but the conditions that have
made it hospitable for human beings. The
climate crisis offers us the chance to expe-
rience what a few generations in history
have had the privilege of experiencing: a
generational mission, a compelling moral
purpose, a shared cause, and the thrill of
being forced by circumstances to put aside
the pettiness and conflict of politics and
to embrace genuine moral and spiritual
challenges.”
The Summit of the ASEAN Heads
of State and government to be held in
2010 provides a unique opportunity for
the leaders of the region to embrace the

genuine moral and spiritual challenge
of protecting life on Earth. The Sum-
mit will be held while the leaders of the
world will be meeting first at the United
Nations General Assembly in New York
in September 2010, then in Nagoya in
October to assess progress achieved in
reducing the rate of loss of biodiversity
and shaping the way ahead for the post
2010 biodiversity targets.
The ASEAN region, its people and
leaders will have a significant contribu-
tion to make. We in the Secretariat of
the Convention on Biological Diversity
look forward to joining forces with the
ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity or ACB,
our collaborative centre, to assist the
leaders of the region in rising to meet the
biodiversity challenges for the benefit of
present and future generations.
Dr. Ahmed Djoghlaf is the Assistant
Secretary-General of the United Nations
and Executive Secretary of the United
Nations Convention on Biological
Diversity
SPECIAL REPORTS
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18 A P R I L - J U N E 2 0 0 8 n w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g
SPECIAL REPORTS
By JUAN ECHANOVE

C
limate change represents one
of the greatest environmental,
social and economic threats
facing the planet. The European
Union (EU) is committed to
working constructively for a
global agreement to control climate change, and
has been taking serious steps to address its own
greenhouse gas emissions since the early 1990s. The
EU played a key role in the development of the two
major treaties addressing the issue: the 1992 United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) and its Kyoto Protocol, established in
1997. In 2000, the European Commission (EC)
launched the European Climate Change Programme
(ECCP) that has led to the adoption of a wide range
of new policies and measures. These include the
pioneering EU Emissions Trading System, which
has become the cornerstone of EU efforts to reduce
emissions cost-effectively, and legislation to tackle
emissions of fluorinated greenhouse gases.
European Union
Policies on
Climate Change
18 A P R I L - J U N E 2 0 0 8 n w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 19
The Targets
E
stablished in 1997, the Kyoto

Protocol set an objective for the
developed world as a whole to re-
duce greenhouse gas emissions by an av-
erage of 5.2 percent between 1990 and
2012. The 15 countries of the EU at
that time went further and committed
collectively to an 8 percent reduction in
their emissions. Even though the Unit-
ed States and Australia have not rati-
fied the protocol and are therefore not
formally contributing to the objective,
the EU has gone ahead with concrete
measures to achieve its emission targets,
which take each member state’s level of
economic and industrial development
into account.
To limit global warming to 2°C,
global emissions of greenhouse gases
will need to stop increasing within 10
to 15 years and then be cut to around
half of 1990 levels by 2050. The EU
is striving for a new global agreement
to reach these goals. As a first step, it
considers that industrialized countries
should collectively cut their emissions
of greenhouse gases to 30 percent be-
low 1990 levels by 2020. Developing
countries, such as China and India, will
also need to start limiting the growth
in their emissions. To underline its de-

termination and set an example for its
partners to follow, the EU has agreed to
cut its own greenhouse gas emissions by
at least 20 percent by 2020 regardless of
what other countries do.
The EU plans to achieve this reduc-
tion through actions foreseen in the
new integrated energy and climate
policy together with measures already
in place. The EU leaders have decided
To limit global warming
to 2°C, global emissions
of greenhouse gases will
need to stop increasing
within 10 to 15 years
and then be cut to
around half of 1990
levels by 2050.
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 19
20 A P R I L - J U N E 2 0 0 8 n w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g
to: (1) save 20 percent of energy con-
sumption compared with projections
for 2020 by improving energy efficien-
cy; (2) increase to 20 percent by 2020
the share of renewable energies in over-
all energy consumption, thus almost tri-
pling the current level; and (3) increase
tenfold — to at least 10 percent — the
share of biofuels in overall petrol and
diesel consumption by 2020, provided

that sustainable, ‘second-generation’
biofuels from non-food crops become
commercially available.
The European Union Emission
Trading System
T
he cornerstone of the EU’s strat-
egy for fighting climate change
is the EU emission trading
scheme (EU ETS), launched in 2005.
It was the first international trading
system for CO
2
emissions and has be-
come the main driver behind the rapid
expansion in carbon trading around the
world. Emission trading helps to ensure
that emission cuts are achieved at the
least cost. The EU ETS currently cov-
ers around 10,500 installations in the
energy and industrial sectors, which are
collectively responsible for close to half
the EU’s emissions of CO
2
. Under this
scheme, the national authorities in each
EU country allocate a certain number
of emission allowances to each installa-
tion. Companies that keep their emis-
sions below the level of their allowances

can sell the allowances they do not need.
Those facing difficulty in keeping to
their allowances must either take mea-
sures to reduce their own emissions (for
example, by investing in more efficient
technology or using less carbon-inten-
sive energy sources), or buy the extra al-
lowances needed on the market.
Companies covered by the EU ETS
are also allowed to use emission credits
generated by emission-saving projects in
non-EU countries, like the Philippines.
This is organized under the Kyoto Pro-
tocol’s clean development mechanism
(CDM).
Energy Policies
G
reenhouse gas emissions come
largely from energy use and
production. Energy policy is
therefore crucial to meeting climate
change targets. The choices we make
as consumers have a real impact on
greenhouse gas emissions from energy
use and production. Virtually all EU
consumers are now free to buy their gas
or power from any supplier, including
those that specialize in renewable ener-
gy. Efficient markets are making energy
more affordable and helping remove

barriers to achieving lower greenhouse
gas emissions.
The use of renewable energy will rise
dramatically as a result. The use of bio-
mass (wood), biogas and bio-waste in,
for example, power plants, is growing
in Europe. So will co-generation, where
steam generated in electricity production
is not wasted but used, for example, in
district heating systems. Drawing heat
from the ground (geothermal sources)
is also increasing, as well as the use of
solar energy. The biggest growth in elec-
tricity production will most likely come
from wind generation through more
and increasingly efficient wind turbines.
Today the average ration of renewable
energy in the European energy mix is
6 percent, although in some countries,
like Sweden, Finland or Austria, already
more than 20 percent of the energy is
coming from renewable sources.
The easiest way to increase the secu-
rity of supply and help the climate is to
reduce demand for energy. This means
using energy more efficiently so that less
is wasted. This can be done through en-
ergy-saving technology or by changing
our behavior. Above all, saving energy
also makes economic sense: the EU’s

target of using 20 percent less energy
by 2020 will reduce spending on energy
by 100 billion a year. This target may
sound hard to achieve, but in practice
there is great scope for using energy
much more efficiently, sometimes with
little effort. For example, energy label-
ling, minimum efficiency standards and
voluntary agreements by manufacturers
of household appliances have already
reduced the energy consumption in Eu-
rope of an average new fridge or freezer
by almost 50 percent since 1990. A lot
of energy is wasted by inefficient appli-
ances. The EU is therefore pushing for
still more energy efficient appliances by
enforcing energy labelling and fixing
minimum performance requirements.
Buildings account for 40 percent of the
EU’s energy requirements. Tightening
standards for buildings and their heat-
ing and hot water systems can reduce
the amount of energy they use and re-
duce emissions generated by wasteful
heating and cooling.
Biofuels
B
iofuels from agricultural crops
are currently the only available
large-scale substitute for petrol

and diesel fuel in transport. The EU is
supporting biofuels with the aim of re-
ducing greenhouse gas emissions, diver-
sifying fuel supply sources, offering new
income opportunities in rural areas and
developing long-term replacements for
fossil fuel. Biofuels contribute less than
one percent of the total European trans-
port fuel consumption, but this contri-
bution has risen progressively over the
past decade. The EU has set the target
that 10 percent of all fuel consumed
in Europe shall be biofuels by 2020.
Member States must set their own na-
tional indicative targets and use these to
steer national policies and measures to
build a minimum share for biofuels on
their domestic markets. Bioethanol is
mainly produced by fermentation from
grains rich in sugar or starch. Biodiesel
is mainly produced from oil crops, such
as rapeseed and sunflower. Most biofu-
els in commercial production in Europe
today are based on sugar beet and rape-
seed. Biofuels are sold in Europe today
as blends with conventional fuels, often
under a ‘green’ label or brand from the
major oil companies. In Europe, Ger-
many led the production of biodiesel,
followed by France and Italy, while

Spain is the leading bioethanol produc-
er. The EC expects most of the biofuels
consumed in Europe to be produced
in the EU. Imports will probably be a
small portion of the biofuels consumed
in Europe.
Whether produced in the EU or
not, the EU wants to ensure that the
production of biofuels is sustainable.
The new EU Renewable Energy Direc-
tive, approved in 2008, has defined the
sustainability scheme for biofuels, which
focuses on preventing biodiversity loss
and the conversion of land and forest.
What the EC proposes is a target of pro-
SPECIAL REPORTS
20 A P R I L - J U N E 2 0 0 8 n w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 21
ducing sustainable biofuels in transport
fuels, not just any biofuel. Biofuels that
do not meet the criteria can still be im-
ported and marketed in the EU. They
will not, however, count towards the
obligation that the EU has taken that
each Member State will ensure that at
least 10 percent of its energy for trans-
port shall be renewable by 2020.
As to the links between food and
fuel markets, there are ongoing debates
on the potential adverse effects of a

rapid increase, worldwide, of the pro-
duction and consumption of biofuels
with respect to food security. Currently,
in Europe less than 2 percent of arable
production is set aside for biofuels, so
they do not contribute significantly to
higher food prices in the European con-
text. The EU does not foresee a major
problem with a shift away from food
production in Europe towards biofuel
feed-stocks.
Reducing Emissions
from Transportation
A
viation contributes to global cli-
mate change, and its contribu-
tion is increasing. From 1990
to 2002, emissions from international
aviation increased by almost 70 percent.
Although there has been significant im-
provement in aircraft technology and
operational efficiency, this has not been
enough to neutralize the effect of in-
creased traffic, and the growth in emis-
sions is likely to continue in the coming
decades.
In 2006, the EC proposed to include
aviation in the EU Emissions Trading
Scheme. The proposal provides for avia-
tion to be brought into the EU ETS in

two steps. From the start of 2011, emis-
sions from all domestic and interna-
tional flights between EU airports will
be covered. By 2012, the scope will be
expanded to cover emissions from all in-
ternational flights - from or to anywhere
in the world - that arrive at or depart
from an EU airport. The intention is
for the EU ETS to serve as a model for
other countries considering similar na-
tional or regional schemes.
In 2007, the EC adopted a propos-
al for legislation to reduce the average
CO
2
emissions of new passenger cars.
The draft legislation defines a limit val-
ue curve of permitted emissions of CO
2

for new vehicles according to the mass
of the vehicle.
Carbon Capture
C
arbon capture and geologi-
cal storage is a technique for
trapping carbon dioxide as it
is emitted from large point sources,
compressing it, and transporting it to a
suitable storage site where it is injected

into the ground. It has significant po-
tential as a mitigation technique for
climate change, both within Europe
and internationally, in particular in
those countries with large reserves of
fossil fuels and a fast-increasing energy
demand.
The EC has identified two major
tasks for the deployment of Carbon
Capture and Geological Storage (CCS):
(1) develop an enabling legal framework
and economic incentives for CCS within
the EU, and (2) encourage a network of
demonstration plants across Europe and
in key third world countries. Large-scale
projects in the pipeline in Europe could
form the basis of a range of demonstra-
tion projects across Europe and interna-
tionally, over the next 10 or 15 years.
Climate Change Adaptation
T
he EU has no choice but to take
on the challenge of adaptation,
working in partnership with its
Member States and globally with partner
countries. The European approach can
only complement and support action at
national, regional and local levels through,
for instance, enhanced coordination and
information sharing and by making sure

that adaptation considerations are ad-
dressed in all relevant EU policies.
Over the last few years the EU has
financed several large research projects
on regional climate modeling and im-
pact assessment. Some projects have
produced high-resolution maps repre-
senting the projected changes in climate
variables, such as mean temperature and
precipitation, and projected impacts,
e.g. agricultural yields, conditions for
tourism, cold- and heat-related mor-
tality and biodiversity losses. Adapta-
tion is complex, since the severity of
the impacts will vary considerably from
one region to another region. Concrete
measures will range from the relatively
inexpensive to the very costly, includ-
ing the fields of agriculture, climate
research, technological innovation, di-
saster preparedness. The involvement of
all segments of society, business and the
public is essential in the further devel-
opment of adaptation strategies.
SPECIAL REPORTS
Mr. Juan Echanove is the Environment
and Sustainable Development Pro-
gramme Officer of the Delegation of the
European Commission in the Philippines
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 21

www.ickr.com
22 A P R I L - J U N E 2 0 0 8 n w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g
Viet Nam is considered to be one
of the nations most affected by climate
change. Though its impacts on society,
economy and environment have not
yet been thoroughly assessed, climate
change is definitely a real challenge to
ongoing efforts to meet hunger eradi-
cation and poverty reduction goals. It
has also become a threat to sustainable
development as well as the implemen-
tation of various Millennium Develop-
ment Goals. For these reasons, adapta-
tion to climate change has now become
the first priority, both in the long term
and in the short term, for Viet Nam.
Viet Nam has entered into the Unit-
ed Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) (1992),
SPECIAL REPORTS
Linkages Between
Biodiversity and
VIET NAM
By TRUONG QUANG HOC
limate change, illustrated mainly by global warming
and sea level rise, is one of the most serious challenges
for mankind in the 21st century. Natural disasters and
other climate extremes are increasing in most areas of
the world, and the global average temperature and sea

level are continuing to rise faster than ever experienced.
Climate change impacts all areas of natural resources,
environment, socio-economic conditions, and
human health. However, the extent of impact may
differ depending on geological conditions, level of
development, and adaptation measures taken by specific
regions and countries.
C
Climate Change in
22 A P R I L - J U N E 2 0 0 8 n w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 23
VIET NAM
Kyoto Protocol - KP (1998), and par-
ticipated in the Bali Summit in 2007.
The Government of Viet Nam has as-
signed the Ministry of Natural Resourc-
es and Environment (MoNRE) as the
country’s coordinator in implementing
the UNFCC and the KP, and other rel-
evant ministries and local authorities to
implement these commitments.
So far, Viet Nam has participated in
many regional and international climate
change activities and has maintained
regular contacts with the UNFCCC Sec-
retariat, the Clean Development Mecha-
nism (CDM), the International Execu-
tive Board (KP), the Intergovernment
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), other
countries, and international organiza-

tions to resolve relevant issues. Vietnam-
ese scientists have also carried out several
researches and a number of projects with
regard to climate change and CDM with
good results (see: Ninh et. al. 1993; Kelly
et al. 1996; Tri, et al. 1998; Nguyen, et
al. 2001; Lien et al. 2002).
With these experiences and activities
as a foundation, Viet Nam is currently
moving quickly to address the chal-
lenges of climate change. As mandated
in Government Resolution 60/2007/
NQ-CP, dated 03 December 2007,
MoNRE has submitted for approval by
the Government, the National Targeted
Programme in Response to Climate
Change. Once approved by the Govern-
ment, the Programme will be the basic
orientation and strategy of the State to
respond to climate change, upon which
the ministries and local authorities will
build their action plans.
BIODIVERSITY
L
ocated in Southeast Asia and cov-
ering an area of 330,541 square
kilometers, Viet Nam is included
in the world’s countries that are rich in
biodiversity. The country’s geographical
and climate features have contributed

to abundant and diverse ecosystems and
species. In terms of biogeography, Viet
The links between
biodiversity and climate
change run both
ways. Climate change
threatens biodiversity,
but biodiversity, if
managed properly, can
reduce the impacts of
climate chnage.
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 23
A ood-proof embankment protects a local community from storm surges and sustained ooding. (Photo by Brennon Jones/IRIN)
24 A P R I L - J U N E 2 0 0 8 n w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g
Nam is an important point of intersec-
tion for the fauna and flora in the India-
Myanmar, South China and Indo-Ma-
laysia regions (MARD, 2002).
Ecosystem diversity. Viet Nam has a
high diversity of terrestrial / forest, wet-
land and marine ecosystems. Wetland
ecosystems include 30 types of natural
wetland, 11 types of coastal wetland, 19
types of inland wetland, and 9 types of
man-made wetland. Marine biodiversity
occupies 20 ecosystem types. Viet Nam’s
forest ecosystems are also very diverse.
Some typical examples are limestone
mountains, deciduous forests, semi-de-
ciduous forests, and evergreen forests in

low, medium and high mountains.
Species diversity. Viet Nam has
been estimated to be home to between
20,000 and 30,000 plant species (Tre’
de Groombridge, 1992). Moreover, the
World Conservation Monitoring Cen-
ter ranks Viet Nam as 16th in world
biodiversity (with 6.5 percent of world
species) (WCMC, 1992). Table 1 sum-
marizes the species composition of
plants and animals in Viet Nam, based
on available data and records.
Genetic diversity in Agriculture
A
ccording to Jucovski (1970),
Viet Nam is one of the 12 cen-
tres of origin of domesticated
plants. There are 16 groups of crops
with over 800 plant species and thou-
sands of strains being cultivated.
In term of domestic animals, Viet
Nam is home to 14 species of major
livestock and poultries: 20 breeds of
pigs (14 native), 21 breeds of cows (5
native), 27 breeds of chicken (16 na-
tive), and 10 breeds of ducks (5 native).
CLIMATE CHANGE
From a general perspective, climate
change comes with three fundamental
characteristics:

• Increased average temperature;
increased change and abnormal-
ity of weather and climate con-
ditions;
• Sea level rising due to ice melt-
ing from the poles and high
mountains;
• Extreme weather conditions
and calamities (hot weather,
cold weather, typhoon, flood,
drought) with higher levels of
frequency, abnormality and
strength.
According to the World Bank
(2007), Viet Nam is one of two
countries most vulnerable to climate
change.
During the past 50 years, annual
average temperature has increased by
0.7
o
C and sea level has increased by
about 20 centimeters. El Niño and La
Niña have affected the country more
strongly, and natural disasters, espe-
cially storms, floods and droughts,
have become increasingly severe.
These changes are only a hint of what
is to come. According to the most re-
cent estimations, by the year 2100,

average temperature in Viet Nam
can increase by 3
o
C and sea level can
rise by one meter (National Target
Programme on Response to Climate
Change - NTP, 2008).
An increase of 2
o
C and a sea level
rise of one meter may take away 12.2
percent of the land where 23 percent of
the population live (about 17 million
people). If sea level rises by 3 meters,
about 25 percent of the population
would be directly affected with 25 per-
cent of GDP lost.
Without adaptation measures, a
sea level rise of one meter would re-
sult in the flooding of the Mekong
river delta for long periods of the year.
It is expected as well that, by 2030,
about 45 percent of the area of the
delta will be extremely salty and crops
will be severely damaged as a result of
flooding. The estimated cost associ-
ated with such a situation is USD 17
billion (Van Urk and Misdorp, 1996;
Pilgrim, 2007).
INTER-LINKAGES: BIODIVERSITY

AND CLIMATE CHANGE
The links between biodiversity and
climate change run both ways: Climate
SPECIAL REPORTS
Taxonomic Groups
Species in
Viet Nam
Species in the
world
R
atio (%)
VN/world
1. Micro algae
Freshwater
Marine
1,438
537
15,000
19,000
9.6
2.8
2. Seaweeds, seagrasses
Freshwater
Marine
~ 20
667
2,000
10,000
1
6.8

3. Vascular Plants
Moss
Fungi
11,400
1,030
826
220,000
22,000
50,000
5
4.6
1.6
4. Aquatic invertebrate
Freshwater
Marine
794
~ 7,000
80,000
220,000
1
3.2
5. Soil invertebrate ~ 1,000 30,000 3.3
6. Parasite worms in livestoc
k
161 1,600 10
7. Insects 7,750 250,000 3.1
8. Fishes
Freshwater
Marine
~ 700

2,458 6,300 4.7
9. Reptiles
Marine
296
21
6,300 4.7
10. Amphibians 162 4,184 3.8
11. Birds 840 9,040 9.3
12. Mammals
Marine mammals
310
25
4,000 7.5
Table 1. Diversity of species composition in Viet Nam
Source: MONRE, 2005
24 A P R I L - J U N E 2 0 0 8 n w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 25
change threatens biodiversity, but prop-
er management of biodiversity can re-
duce the impacts of climate change.
The links between biodiversity and
climate change run both ways: Climate
change threatens biodiversity, but prop-
er management of biodiversity can re-
duce the impacts of climate change.
Impacts of climate change
on biodiversity
According to the Secretariat of the
Convention on Biological Diversity or
SCBD, by the end of the century, many

species will have to struggle to adapt to
weather and climate changes, and the
rate of extinction will increase (CBD
COP 9 formal documents, 2008). Pre-
dictions estimate that a one meter sea
level rise will seriously affect 78 impor-
tant biotopes (27 percent), 46
reserves (33 percent), and nine
other areas with important bio-
diversity (23 percent) (Pilgrim,
2007). Complicating the situ-
ation further, average tempera-
ture changes will also change
the geographic distribution and
pattern of biological population
of many ecosystems. Mountain species
also have very limited capacity to move
to higher altitude in response to warm-
ing temperatures. Temperature increase
will also magnify forest fire threats, par-
ticularly on peatland reserves, and cause
havoc to biological resources and increase
the greenhouse gas emission. Moreover,
forests could become increasingly threat-
ened by pests and fires, making them
more vulnerable to invasive species.
Impacts on Agro-ecosystems
Viet Nam is an agricultural country
where 75 percent of the population are
farmers, and 70 percent of the territory

is rural, with people still very much de-
pendent on natural resources. Agricul-
tural production is still small-scale with
little reliance on scientific and technical
inputs. The current state of agriculture
poses an important challenge in view of
the expected impacts of climate change.
Agricultural production is heavily
subject to weather conditions. Any in-
crease in temperature, changeability and
abnormality of the weather and climate
conditions will have significant impacts
on agricultural production, particularly
crop cultivation. Abnormality in the
agro-climate cycles will lead to not only
an increase in crop diseases, but also a
decrease in crop yield and other unfore-
seeable disadvantages.
The recent extreme cold period of 33
days (2007-2008) is an example of how
abnormal weather patterns have caused
serious destruction: death of 33,000 of
buffaloes and bulls, and destruction of
34,000 hectares of planted rice, tens of
thousands of hectares of young rice, and
many shrimp farms in the North and
North Central parts of Viet Nam. In
economic terms, trillions of Vietnamese
Dong have been lost. These estimates do
not include losses of wildlife in remote

areas, whose survival and/or extent of
damage is still unknown.
the habitat of aquatic species,
provide food for local people,
and serve as protection against
storms and tides; and
• Sea level rise and increased tem-
perature that will strongly im-
pact many coastal ecosystems,
such as coral reefs, seagrass beds,
salt marshes, and mangroves that
play an important role to nature
and human life.
Meanwhile, the temperature zones
of wetland and continental ecosystems
will tend to shift further up. Tropical
species will also decline in coastal eco-
systems and tend to move to higher
zones in inland ecosystems. Temperate
species (which often give high biological
productivity) will also decline and the
SPECIAL REPORTS
The increase in natural calamities and extreme weather
and climate conditions such as typhoons, oods,
droughts, and coldness will have direct and strong impacts
on agroforestry, aquatic and shery production.
Impacts on Coastal
Wetland Ecosystems
The coastal zones of Viet Nam
stretch over 15 degrees of latitude from

the north to the south. The coastline
runs 3,260 kilometers through the ter-
ritory of 29 of 64 provinces. The coastal
zones are greatly significant to socio-
economic development, environmental
protection, and national security and
defence. Although the coastal zone has
great potentials for development, it also
encounters a lot of changes and chal-
lenges, and is particularly vulnerable
to climate change and human activities
(Bertilsson and Truong Quang Hoc,
2007; Truong Quang Hoc and Bertils-
son, 2008). These changes include:
• Flooding, resulting in loss of
residential space and produc-
tion land (crop farming, aquatic
farming, and salt production), as
well as chaos in traditional eco-
systems;
• Increased intrusion of saline
water and shrinkage of coastal
wetland ecosystems, particu-
larly mangrove forests that are
pattern of food chains and food webs
will change.
The increase in natural calamities and
extreme weather and climate conditions
such as typhoons, floods, droughts, and
coldness will have direct and strong im-

pacts on agro-forestry-aquatic and fish-
ery production. Already, significant crop
losses have occurred in many areas of
Viet Nam (due to floods and droughts).
Impacts on Forest Ecosystems
Viet Nam possesses a high level of
biodiversity with varied ecosystems.
However, for different reasons, the biodi-
versity, particularly in forest ecosystems
sheltering the highest level of biodiver-
sity, has been severely damaged. Forest
coverage was reduced from 43 percent
in 1943 to 28.2 percent in 1995. Coast-
al mangrove forests have also seriously
deteriorated (reduced by 80 percent in
area) as a result of unplanned aquatic
farming. The general forest coverage
has increased to 37 percent in 2005 but
the area of primary forests is still only
10 percent (compared to 50 percent in
other countries in the region).
A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 25