creative sequencing techniques for music production a practical guide to pro tools, logic, digital performer, and cubase

Creative Sequencing
Techniques for Music
Production
A Practical Guide to Pro Tools, Logic,
Digital Performer, and Cubase
To my father.
Creative Sequencing
Techniques for Music
Production
A Practical Guide to Pro Tools, Logic,
Digital Performer, and Cubase
Second edition
Dr. Andrea Pejrolo
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD
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First edition 2005
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11 12 13 14 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
v
Contents
Acknowledgments xi
Introduction xiii
CHAPTER 1 Setting up Your Creative Environment: The Studio 1
1.1 Basic Studio Information 1
1.2 Setting up Your Production Space: The Project Studio 2
1.3 The Music Equipment 3

1.3.1 MIDI Equipment and MIDI Messages 5
1.3.2 Channel Voice Messages 8
1.3.3 Channel Mode Messages 13
1.3.4 System Real-Time Messages 15
1.3.5 System Common Messages 16
1.3.6 System Exclusive Messages 16
1.4 MIDI Components: Controllers, Hardware Synthesizers/Sound
Modules, Software Synthesizers and Sequencers 17
1.4.1 MIDI Synthesizer 17
1.4.2 Keyboard Controller 17
1.4.3 Sound Module 17
1.4.4 Software Synthesizers 18
1.4.5 Sequencers: An Overview 21
1.4.6 Which Controller? 22
1.4.7 Sound Palette 25
1.5 Connecting the MIDI Devices: Soft Synth-Only, Daisy Chain, and
Star Network Setups 28
1.5.1 The Software Synthesizer-Only Studio 28
1.5.2 Daisy Chain Setup 29
1.5.3 Star Network Setup 32
1.5.4 The Future of MIDI 33
1.6 The Audio Equipment 33
1.6.1 Mixing Board and Monitors 34
1.6.2 Computer and Audio Connections 37
1.6.3 Audio Interface Inputs and Outputs 41
1.6.4 Audio Interface Connections 43
1.6.5 Software and Audio Interface Compatibility 46
1.7 Which Digital Audio Workstation? 47
1.7.1 The Primary Goals You Want to Achieve with Your Audio Sequencer 48
1.7.2 Ease of Use and Learning Curve 48

vi Contents
1.7.3 Which Features Suit You Best? 48
1.7.4 Other Factors to Consider 51
1.7.5 What About the Computer? 53
1.8 Final Considerations and Budget Issues 55
1.9 Summary 56
1.10 Exercises 56
CHAPTER 2 Basic Sequencing Techniques 59
2.1 Introduction 59
2.2 The Sequencer: Concepts and Review 59
2.3 How a Sequencer Works and How it is Organized 60
2.4 MIDI Tracks 63
2.5 Audio Tracks 65
2.6 Organizing Your Projects 68
2.7 Flight-Check Before Take-off! 69
2.8 The First Session: Click Track and Tempo Setup 70
2.8.1 Who Plays the Metronome? 71
2.9 Recording MIDI Tracks 72
2.10 Basic MIDI Editing Techniques 76
2.10.1 The Graphic Editor 76
2.10.2 Level of Undos 77
2.10.3 The List Editor 78
2.10.4 The Score Editor 79
2.11 Basic Principles of MIDI Note Quantization 79
2.12 Audio Track Basics 83
2.12.1 Destructive and Nondestructive Audio Editing 84
2.12.2 Playing it Nice with the Other Tracks 86
2.13 Basic Automation 89
2.13.1 Static Automation 89
2.13.2 Dynamic Mix: Real-Time Automation 91

2.13.3 Editing Automation Data 92
2.14 Practical Applications of Automation 94
2.14.1 Volume Automation 95
2.14.2 Pan Automation 96
2.14.3 Mute Automation 97
2.15 Exporting and Importing your Work: Standard MIDI Files 97
2.16 Summary 98
2.17 Exercises 99
CHAPTER 3 Intermediate Sequencing Techniques 101
3.1 Introduction 101
3.2 Groove Quantization and the “Humanize” Function 101
3.2.1 Quantization Filters 102
viiContents
3.2.2 Swing Quantization 107
3.2.3 Groove Quantization 108
3.3 Layering of MIDI Tracks 110
3.4 Layering of MIDI and Audio Tracks 114
3.5 Alternative MIDI Track Editing Techniques: The Drum Editor 114
3.6 Alternative MIDI Controllers 118
3.6.1 Guitar/Bass-to-MIDI Converters 118
3.6.2 MIDI Drums and Pads 119
3.6.3 MIDI Wind Controllers 121
3.7 Complex Tempo Tracks: Tempo and Meter Changes 121
3.7.1 Creative Use of Tempo Changes 124
3.8 Tempo Changes and Audio Tracks 128
3.8.1 Time-Stretching Audio Files 129
3.9 Interapplication Protocols: ReWire 132
3.9.1 Setting Up ReWire 132
3.10 Synchronization 136
3.10.1 Synchronization of Nonlinear Machines 137

3.10.2 Sequencer Setup for MC and MTC Synchronization 140
3.11 Safeguard Your Work: Back it Up! 141
3.11.1 Backup and Archive 142
3.11.2 How to Calculate the Size of a Session 144
3.12 Summary 145
3.13 Exercises 146
CHAPTER 4 Advanced Sequencing Techniques 149
4.1 Introduction 149
4.2 Advanced Quantization Techniques 149
4.2.1 Custom Groove Creation 149
4.2.2 Editing a Groove 150
4.2.3 Audio to MIDI Groove Creation 152
4.2.4 Audio Quantization 157
4.3 Advanced Editing Techniques 162
4.3.1 Advanced MIDI Editors 162
4.3.2 “Ofine” Global MIDI Data Transformers 163
4.3.3 “Real-Time” MIDI Effects 172
4.4 Overview of Audio Track Effects 176
4.4.1 “Insert” Effects 176
4.4.2 “Send” Effects 177
4.5 MIDI System Exclusive Messages 180
4.5.1 SysEx Custom Consoles 180
4.5.2 SysEx “MIDI Dump” Function 182
4.6 Summary 185
4.7 Exercises 187
viii Contents
CHAPTER 5 Elements of MIDI Orchestration 189
5.1 Introduction 189
5.2 Rhythm Section: Overview 189
5.2.1 The Piano 190

5.2.2 The Guitar 193
5.2.3 The Bass 195
5.2.4 Drums and Percussion 196
5.3 String Section: Overview 198
5.3.1 Sequencing Strings 198
5.3.2 Sonorities and Sound Libraries 200
5.3.3 Panning and Reverb Settings 203
5.4 Wind Instruments: Overview 205
5.4.1 The Brass Section: The Trumpet and the Flugelhorn 206
5.4.2 The Trombone 207
5.4.3 The French Horn 207
5.4.4 The Tuba 208
5.4.5 Sequencing Brass: Libraries, Pan, and Reverb 208
5.5 Woodwind: Overview 209
5.5.1 The Saxophones 209
5.5.2 The Flutes 211
5.5.3 The Clarinets 211
5.5.4 The Oboe and the English Horn 212
5.5.5 The Bassoon and the Contrabassoon 213
5.6 Synthesizers: Overview 213
5.6.1 Hardware and Software Synthesizers 214
5.6.2 Synthesis Techniques 216
5.6.3 Analog Subtractive Synthesis 216
5.6.4 Additive Synthesis 218
5.6.5 Frequency Modulation Synthesis 219
5.6.6 Wavetable Synthesis 220
5.6.7 Sampling 220
5.6.8 Physical Modeling Synthesis 221
5.6.9 Granular Synthesis 223
5.7 Summary 223

5.8 Exercises 227
CHAPTER 6 The Final Mix 229
6.1 Introduction 229
6.2 The Mixing Stage: Overview 230
6.2.1 Rendering MIDI Tracks for Hardware Synthesizers 230
6.2.2 Rendering MIDI Tracks for Software Synthesizers 233
6.2.3 Track Organization and Submixes 234
6.2.4 The “Rough” Mix 237
ixContents
6.3 Panning 237
6.3.1 Balance 238
6.3.2 Frequency Placement 238
6.4 Reverberation and Ambience Effects 239
6.4.1 Specic Reverb Settings for DP, CU, LP, and PT 241
6.4.2 Synthesized Reverbs 242
6.4.3 Convolution Reverbs 247
6.5 Equalization 249
6.5.1 Equalizers in DP, CU, PT, and LP 253
6.6 Dynamic Effects: Compressor, Limiter, Expander, and Gate 256
6.6.1 Dynamic Effects in DP, PT, CU, and LP 258
6.7 Bounce to Disk 262
6.7.1 Audio File Formats 265
6.8 Premastering: Introduction 269
6.8.1 The Premastering Process: To Normalize or Not? 270
6.8.2 Premastering Equalization 271
6.8.3 Multiband Compression 271
6.8.4 The Limiter 274
6.9 Summary 277
6.10 Exercises 279
CHAPTER 7 Working with Video 281

7.1 Working with Video: Importing Movies in Digital Format 281
7.2 SMPTE: Synchronization of Linear to Nonlinear Machines 281
7.3 Synchronizing and Working with Nonlinear Video Media 285
7.3.1 Video Syncing in DP, LP, CU, and PT 286
7.3.2 Adding a “Two-Beep” 291
7.4 Using Markers 292
7.4.1 Beat-Based Markers 292
7.4.2 Time-Code-Based Markers 293
7.5 Bouncing to Movie 296
7.6 Stem Creation 299
7.7 Summary 304
7.8 Exercises 306
Further Reading 307
Index 309
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xi
Acknowledgments
I am extremely lucky to be able to write about my passions: composing, producing, and educating.
This new edition of Creative Sequencing Techniques is a combined effort by many people who for the
last year have been supportive, inspiring, and encouraging. First of all, my dear wife Irache and my
wonderful daughter Alessandra. Without them there would be no music in me. To my parents Rosalba
and Gianni, my brothers Luca and Marco, and my dear friend Nella, whose support, education, and con-
stant attention have always helped me to achieve my goals, thank you!
A special thank you goes to Catharine Steers and Carlin Reagan from Elsevier UK for the interest
they showed in the idea for this new edition and for their precious support.
And nally a big thanks to my friends, students, and colleagues, a constant source of learning and
growing.
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xiii
Introduction

The main reason why I decided to update this book for a new second edition resides not only in the
need to update the original content for the new versions of the digital audio workstation (DAW) software
but also, and mainly, because new techniques, tools, and options have become available since the book
was rst published. Therefore, here you will nd many new topics such as a brand new chapter dedi-
cated entirely to working with video, which has become a real must for any contemporary commercial
composer and producer, in addition to new studio setups, MIDI and audio hybrid production techniques,
and much more. You might also have noticed that the bundled CD has been removed from this edition.
A new website: www.CreativeSequencingTechniques.com now hosts all the audio examples and support-
ing les. On the website you will nd not only all the audio examples and supporting les but also a
comprehensive list of video tutorials, articles, forums, and a live chat with me to discuss the techniques
presented in the book. Having the website as a companion to this book gives you the possibility of more
frequent updates and multimedia experience.
This book covers the four main DAWs used in professional production environments: Digital
Performer, Cubase, Pro Tools, and Logic Pro, and how to get the most out of them by explaining and
revealing advanced techniques such as groove quantization, sounds layering, tap tempo, creative meter
and tempo changes, advanced use of plug-ins automation, synchronization of linear and non-linear
machines, to mention a few. The subjects are approached from both a technical and a creative point
of view in order to provide the modern composer/producer with tools and inside views on how to treat
MIDI and DAWs as the orchestra and musicians of the twenty-rst century.
This new and updated edition not only lls in techniques and tools for the new revisions of the soft-
ware, but also adds several crucial new topics such as working with video and software synthesizers. The
main reason that inspired me to write this book was the incredible potential concealed in the modern
production tools and in the existing software applications that are available to contemporary composers
and producers. Unfortunately, most of the time, these tools are used in very mechanical and non-musical
ways, therefore reducing and limiting not only the potential of the technology involved but also (and
mainly) the potential of the composers who use these incredibly powerful tools for their productions. In
this book I bridge the two worlds, trying to return the term “music technology” to its original connota-
tion, meaning a way to produce music with the help of technology. I want to stress the “help” factor that
technology plays in the music production process since this is what technology is, a tool to help expand
and improve the creation process on which the composer relies. Technology applied to music is not the

goal of the production process but can be seen as the thread that guides and joins the inspirational proc-
ess with the nal product. In this book you will learn sequencing techniques that always relate to practi-
cal aspects of music production and they are explained as much as possible in a simple yet thorough
way. Following this concept I will refer often to the MIDI/audio computer workstation as the “orches-
tra of the twenty-rst century”, since modern composers nd themselves increasingly treating the MIDI
and audio setup as the virtual musicians for whom they are writing. The MIDI standard, along with
professional sequencing programs and software synthesizers/libraries, represent the modern score paper
and they provide an extremely exible medium both for sketching ideas and for full-scale productions.
I don’t see this approach as limiting in terms of exibility and sonorities, in fact I believe the opposite.
The use of new sounds, techniques, and tools can only expand and improve the palette of contemporary
composers, orchestrators, and producers. I decided to take on the four main sequencers at the same time
because these days both professional and beginner musicians need to be able to master and program all
xiv Introduction
of them in order to have an edge over the competition. It is not enough any more to be familiar with only
one or two applications. It is crucial to be comfortable with all of them, not only to expand one’s oppor-
tunities, but also to be able to take advantage of specic features that are available only in certain appli-
cations. This approach will help you to enhance considerably your palette and tools when it comes to
sequencing and music production. Each technique explained in this book is presented rst on a general
level and then further developed with examples and practical applications for each sequencer.
This book was written with mainly four categories of readers in mind: the professional acoustic
composer, the professional MIDI composer, the college educator along with his or her students, and the
beginner. The professional acoustic composer who so far has been afraid to approach the digital MIDI
and audio workstation, or who has been using only basic sequencing techniques, will be able to greatly
improve his or her skills and will nd a familiar environment reading this book since references are
made keeping in mind a musical approach to sequencing. Seasoned MIDI programmers and produc-
ers can take advantage of the multi-sequencer environment on which this book is based. Through the
examples and techniques for each of the four main DAWs used in the industry, they can quickly learn
the same tools with which they are already familiar within a certain sequencer for all the other applica-
tions, giving them an advantage over the competition. College educators and students can use this man-
ual not only as an introduction to intermediate MIDI and sequencing classes, but also for more advanced

MIDI orchestration and production courses. The summaries and the exercise sections at the end of each
chapter were specially designed for educational applications. The beginner readers will be amazed by
the improvement in their sequencing skills brought about by reading just few chapters and using the
included exercises to improve their techniques.
In Chapter 1, I will cover the needs and solutions for a problem-free project studio, to enhance the
creative ow involved in a production session. In Chapters 2, 3, and 4, I will guide the readers through
basic, intermediate, and advanced sequencing techniques targeted to improve the overall quality of their
productions. These chapters will help the reader to reach a professional level in terms of MIDI orches-
tration and programming using the leading and most advanced digital audio sequencers available on the
market.
Chapter 5 is dedicated to MIDI orchestration. Here you will learn how to orchestrate for the MIDI
ensemble and how to get the most out of your gear. This chapter covers not only the acoustic instruments
but also the synthesizers and some of the most common synthesis techniques available at the moment.
Chapter 6 focuses on the nal mix and on the premastering process. Here you will learn mixing tech-
niques that take advantage of plug-in technology. Maximizing the use of effects such as reverb, compres-
sor, limiter, equalizer, and many others is crucial to bring your productions to the next level. Finally,
Chapter 7 focuses on dealing with projects that are based on video. Here you will learn the techniques
and tools for successfully writing music to video.
At the end of each chapter you will nd a comprehensive summary of the concepts and techniques
explained within it and a series of exercises oriented to provide practical applications and to develop the
notions learned. These two sections are particularly helpful for both the professional and the student.
They provide the former with a quick reference for several techniques and ideas, while the latter can take
advantage of the concise layout to familiarize themselves with the concepts just learned.
The book is supported by several video tutorials, examples of arrangements, and sequencing tech-
niques accessible through the companion website. These examples demonstrate how to avoid common
mistakes and how to x them. Here you can nd loops, templates, and comprehensive audio/video
examples that you can use as a starting point for your productions.
Learn the technology in every detail but let always the creative ow guide your music! Now let’s
begin.
1

Creative Sequencing Techniques for Music Production.
© 2005 Andrea Pejrolo. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER
2011,
Setting up Your Creative
Environment: The Studio
1
1.1 BASIC STUDIO INFORMATION
There is nothing more exciting for me than to sit in my studio, my creative environment, and write, pro-
duce, create music. I am sure that if you are reading these pages you share the same excitement and pas-
sion. I strongly believe that having this enthusiasm as the main motivation to write and produce music
is a key element in obtaining successful results. Now you are ready to take the next step in sequencing
and production techniques in order to improve the quality of your work. Remember that the nal qual-
ity of your music depends on many variables, including your skills with and knowledge of sequencing
techniques, the equipment you use, the software, and the environment (meaning essentially the studio) in
which you work. In fact, the studio is one of the most important elements involved in the creative proc-
ess of composing music. I am not talking just in terms of equipment, machines, and software (which I
will discuss in detail in a moment), but also in terms of comfort, ease of use of the working environment
and accessibility of the various functions that your studio provides. These are all qualities that are essen-
tial if you are going to spend many hours composing and sequencing your projects. Your studio should
have good illumination, both natural and articial. If you are going to use electric light as a main source
for illumination, try to avoid lights with dimmer switches, since they are known for causing interfer-
ence with studio recording equipment. I particularly recommend having as much natural light as pos-
sible. You would be amazed how much an extra window can improve the overall working experience
in your studio, particularly when having to spend several hours in a row sitting in front of a computer
and a mixer.
Acoustic isolation and acoustic treatment of the room are also important elements that will help
avoid external noises and create well-balanced mixes. Even though the subject of acoustic isolation and
treatment goes beyond the scope of this manual, here are some basic rules to follow when building your
studio. First of all, try to avoid (if possible) perfectly square or rectangular rooms. These are the most

problematic because the parallel walls can create unwanted phasing effects and standing waves. You will
soon realize that, unless you build an environment designed specically to host a studio, most rooms are
in fact rectangular. Therefore, I recommend the use of absorption panels to reduce excessive reverbera-
tion caused by reective and parallel surfaces, such as at and smooth walls. Absorption panels (Figure
1.1) help reduce excessive reverberation, their main function being to stop the reection of high fre-
quencies. As a rule of thumb, try to avoid covering your entire studio with absorption panels since this
would make your room a very acoustically dry listening environment, which not only would cause hear-
ing fatigue but also would mislead your ears during your nal mixes.
In order to reduce standing waves, you should use diffusers (Figure 1.2) on the walls and ceiling of
the room. The main purpose of diffusers is to reect the sound waves at angles that are different (mostly
wider) than the original angle of incidence and thereby to limit the audio artifacts caused by parallel walls.
2 CHAPTER 1 Setting up Your Creative Environment: The Studio
The use of bass-traps (Figure 1.3) will help to reduce low-frequency standing waves. By placing
them in the top corners of the room you will avoid annoying bass buildup frequencies.
If you have a tight budget or construction limitations you can achieve similar acoustic treatment
effects by making sure to have the walls of your studio covered with a variety of surfaces and materials.
For example, accurately placed bookshelves and heavy curtains are excellent low-budget solutions to
improve the acoustic response of a room. For more detailed information on studio acoustics and studio
design I highly recommend Recording Studio Design, by Philip Newell.
1.2 SETTING UP YOUR PRODUCTION SPACE: THE PROJECT STUDIO
Although up to four or ve years ago the distinction between a home studio, a project studio, and a
recording studio was very clear, these days things are much more blurred. A home studio can often be all
FIGURE 1.2
Example of diffusers.
(© Primacoustic, a division of Radial Engineering Ltd).
FIGURE 1.3
Example of bass-traps.
(© Primacoustic, a division of Radial Engineering Ltd).
FIGURE 1.1
Example of absorption panels.

(© Primacoustic, a division of Radial Engineering Ltd).
3
1.3 The Music Equipment
you need to record and produce your projects (particularly if the use of acoustic instruments is limited).
In addition, the size and sophistication of what we used to consider a home studio have increased, blur-
ring even further the line between home and project studio; therefore, from now on I will refer to your
working environment as the project studio, independently of space size or complexity of the equipment.
A project studio originally meant a studio designed and built specically for a particular project. More
recently, the term has shifted to indicate a studio that is smaller than a fully-edged recording studio
(and not designed to handle large live recording sessions). A project studio is built around a medium-
sized control room that serves as the main writing room and that can also be used to track electric
instruments, such as electric guitars or basses, if necessary. A small or medium-sized iso-booth is often
included in order to allow the recording of vocalists, voiceovers, or solo instruments. The size and layout
can change drastically, depending on the location and budget, but it is important to understand what the
main elements are that are indispensable to create an efcient, powerful, and exible studio for the mod-
ern composer. In my project studio (Figures 1.4 and 1.5) I have a large control/writing room where all
my gear (computers, synthesizers, controllers, etc.) resides. Adjacent to the control room I have a small
room that serves as a recording booth for vocal and acoustic instruments tracks. I used little acoustic
treatment in the control room and the booth since a series of bookshelves provides good natural diffu-
sion, but I would recommend paying particular attention to your specic situation.
The equipment around which your project studio is going to be built can be divided into three main
general categories: music equipment, computer equipment, and software. All these elements are indis-
pensable for composers to achieve the best results for their productions. In the modern project studio the
music equipment can be further divided into three subgroups: electronic instruments, acoustic instru-
ments, and sound/audio equipment. Remember that every element plays a very important and essential
role in the music-making process. Let’s take a closer look at each category to help you make the right
decision when building your composing environment.
1.3 THE MUSIC EQUIPMENT
The music equipment constitutes the “muscles” of your studio. This category includes everything
related to the actual writing/sequencing, playing, and mixing of your production. In general, the acoustic

FIGURE 1.4
My project studio setup: the gear.
4 CHAPTER 1 Setting up Your Creative Environment: The Studio
instruments’ setup can vary from studio to studio and from composer to composer. If you are a composer
who plans to produce in a variety of styles and genres, and for a wide assortment of ensembles, I recom-
mend having available a good selection of acoustic instruments. Therefore, besides your main instru-
ments you should have a series of other ones that you will use to produce and record. Having a wider
acoustic palette available when writing, arranging, and producing will increase exponentially the quality
of your nal productions. Being a bass player, I have available in my studio different basses (acoustic,
electric, and stick) that give me a good starting palette for creating convincing bass tracks in a variety
of styles. In addition, I have two guitars (acoustic and electric) and several percussion instruments. You
don’t need to have very expensive or extremely rare acoustic instruments; as long as they sound good
and have a nice feel you are all set. The bottom line is that you should have everything you need (and
can afford) to have as much exibility as possible when composing and producing.
While any acoustic instrument interfaces easily with any other component of a studio, the electronic
instrumentation and the digital/analog audio equipment need to be accurately coordinated and integrated,
in order to achieve the most efcient and trouble-free production environment. The modern project stu-
dio is based on two different signal paths: musical instrument digital interface (MIDI) and audio (analog
and digital). These two paths interact with one another during the entire production, integrating with
and complementing each other. The electronic instruments are connected to each other through the
MIDI network, while the audio components of your studio are connected through the audio network.
At the most basic level you can think of the MIDI devices in your studio as the interface with which
you will interact with the other electronic instruments. Take a look at Figure 1.6. The MIDI network
includes all devices that exchange data and information using the MIDI standard. The audio network
includes devices connected using audio cables (either analog/digital and balanced/unbalanced connec-
tions, depending on the type of device). As you can see, at the center of both networks is the computer
(or computers) that among other very important tasks such as recording/editing MIDI and audio, serving
as a virtual mixer and a virtual sound generator (software synthesizers), has the crucial role of being the
main hub for all the data in your studio.
FIGURE 1.5

My project studio setup: acoustic treatment.
51.3 The Music Equipment
1.3.1 MIDI Equipment and MIDI Messages
Before moving on to analyze the details of each signal path, it is useful to know more about the MIDI
standard, its evolution, and its characteristics. While some believe (incorrectly) that MIDI is not used any-
more in the modern digital audio workstation (DAW) era, this could not be further from the truth. For the
past 25 years MIDI has been the only valid and widely accepted standard to allow controllers, hardware
synthesizers, and computers to exchange data. Even though the standard is fairly old it was originally con-
ceived with a very open structure that would be future proof and that is why the modern composer is still
using it constantly. MIDI has naturally evolved and improved over the years and while some of its origi-
nal features have been less useful others have been proved essential to today’s writing and production.
In order to understand better such an important tool let’s take a look at the evolution of MIDI and at its
future. MIDI was established in 1983 as a protocol to allow different devices to exchange data. In particu-
lar, the major manufacturers of electronic musical instruments were interested in adopting a standard that
would allow keyboards and synthesizers from different companies to interact with each other. The answer
was the MIDI standard. With the MIDI protocol, the general concept of interfacing (meaning to establish
FIGURE 1.6
MIDI and audio network in your studio.
(Courtesy of Roland Corporation US, Avid Technology, © 2010, Apple Inc., Akai Professional).
6 CHAPTER 1 Setting up Your Creative Environment: The Studio
a connection between two or more components of a system) is applied to electronic musical instruments.
As long as two components (synthesizers, sound modules, computers, etc.) have a MIDI interface, they
are able to exchange data. In early synthesizers the data were mainly notes played on keyboards that could
be sent to another synthesizer. This allowed the keyboard players to layer two sounds without having to
play simultaneously the same part with both hands on two different synthesizers. Nowadays the specica-
tions of MIDI data have been extended considerably, ranging from notes to Control Changes (CCs), from
System Exclusive messages to synchronization messages (i.e., MTC, MIDI Clock, etc.).
The MIDI standard is based on 16 independent channels on which MIDI data are sent to and received
from the devices. On each channel a device can transmit messages that are independent from the other chan-
nels. When sending MIDI data the transmitting device stamps on each message the channel on which the

information is sent so that the receiving device will assign it to the right receiving channel. One aspect of
MIDI that is important to understand and remember is that MIDI messages do not contain any information
about audio. MIDI and audio signals are always kept separate. Think of MIDI messages as the notes that a
composer would write on paper; when you record a melody as MIDI data, for example, you write the notes
in a sequencer but you do not actually record their sound. While the sequencer records the notes, it is up to
the synthesizers and sound modules connected to the MIDI system to play back the notes received through
their MIDI interfaces. The role of the sequencer in the modern music production process is very similar to
that of the paper score in the more traditional compositional process. You sketch and write (sequence) the
notes of your composition on a sequencer, then you have your virtual musicians (synthesizers, samplers,
etc.) play back your composition. This is the main feature that makes MIDI such an amazing and versatile
tool for music production. If you are dealing only with notes and events instead of sound les, the editing
power available is much greater, meaning that you are much freer to experiment with your music.
Here is a quick example to illustrate this concept. In Figure 1.7 we see a simple melody that was
sequenced using a MIDI keyboard controller. The sequencer (in this example, Logic Pro, LP), after
recording the notes played on the MIDI keyboard, shows the part as notation (there are many other ways
of looking at MIDI data; we will learn other editing techniques later). Since the sequencer (LP) is deal-
ing with performance data only, you are free to change any aspect of the music; for example, the pitch
of the notes, their position in time, and the tempo of the piece. In Figure 1.8 I have changed the key, the
upbeat of bars 60–66, and the tempo (from 120 to 110 beats per minute, or BPM).
FIGURE 1.7
MIDI data shown in notation format in Logic Pro.
71.3 The Music Equipment
Every device that needs to be connected to a MIDI studio or system needs to have a MIDI interface.
The MIDI standard uses three ports to control the data ow: IN, OUT, and THRU. The connectors for
the three ports are all the same: a ve-pin DIN female port on the device (Figure 1.9) and a correspond-
ing male connector on the cable.
While the OUT port sends out MIDI data generated from a device, the IN port receives the data. The
THRU port is used to send out an exact copy of the messages received from the IN port, and it can be
utilized in a particular setup called Daisy Chain, which I will describe in a moment. Of course, as I men-
tioned earlier, in order to be connected to the MIDI network a device needs to be equipped with a MIDI

interface. Nowadays all the professional electronic music instruments, such as synthesizers, sound mod-
ules, and hardware sequencers, have a built-in MIDI interface. It is important to note that in the mod-
ern digital studio setup the presence of external hardware gear has been reduced to a minimum owing
to the increasing power, exibility, and cost-effectiveness of personal computers. This has changed how
we design and conceive the modern home and project studio. Whereas in the past a complicated MIDI
network was almost an essential part of the working environment, owing to the large use of hardware syn-
thesizers, nowadays things have changed drastically. The explosion of the software synthesizers market
(sound generator engines that run on your computer instead of on dedicated hardware platforms) has the
main advantage, among many others, of reducing cable clutter and simplifying the setup immensely (more
on this later). Since the computer is usually not equipped with a built-in MIDI interface, if you want to
have it connected to a MIDI device through the IN and OUT ports, you will need to expand its I/O with
an external MIDI interface, which usually connects to the computer through a universal serial bus (USB)
interface. The MIDI data can eventually be recorded by a device called a sequencer. Such a device records,
FIGURE 1.8
MIDI data edited.
FIGURE 1.9
Standard MIDI ports.
(Courtesy of Roland Corporation US).
8 CHAPTER 1 Setting up Your Creative Environment: The Studio
stores, edits, and plays back MIDI data. In simple words, a sequencer acts as a digital tape recorder for
MIDI data; we can record the data on a MIDI track, edit them as we want, and then play them back.
Before we go on to learn how to connect and setup the production studio and work on your creative
sequencing skills, you need to understand thoroughly the structure, potential and strengths of the MIDI
protocol. Because the number of messages that constitute the MIDI standard is very high, it is practical
to separate them into two main categories: Channel messages and System messages. Channel messages
are further subdivided into Channel Voice and Channel Mode messages, while System messages are sub-
divided into Real-Time, Common, and Exclusive. Table 1.1 illustrates how they are organized.
1.3.2 Channel Voice Messages
Channel Voice messages are probably the most used and are the most important in terms of sequencing
and production, because they carry the information about the performance, meaning, for example, which

notes we played and how hard we pressed the trigger on the controller.
Note On message: This message is sent every time you press a key on a MIDI controller; as soon as
you press it, a MIDI message (in the form of binary code) is sent to the MIDI OUT of the transmit-
ting device. The Note On message includes information about the note you pressed (the note number
ranges from 0 to 127, or C-2 to G-8), the MIDI channel on which the note was sent (1 to 16), and the
velocity-on parameter, which describes how hard you press the key (this ranges from 0 to 127).
Note Off message: This message is sent when you release the key of the controller. Its function is to
terminate the note that was triggered with a Note On message. The same result can be achieved by
sending a Note On message with its velocity set to 0, a technique that can help to reduce the stream
of MIDI data. It contains the velocity-off parameter, which registers how hard you released the key
(note that this particular information is not used by most of the MIDI devices at the moment).
Aftertouch: This is a specic MIDI message sent after the Note message. When you press a key of
a controller a Note On message is generated and sent to the MIDI OUT port; this is the message that
triggers the sound on the receiving device. If you push a little bit harder on the key, after hitting it, an
extra message called Aftertouch is sent to the MIDI OUT of the controller. The Aftertouch message is
usually assigned to control the vibrato effect of a sound. But, depending on the patch that is receiving
it, it can also affect other parameters, such as volume, pan and more.
There are two types of Aftertouch: polyphonic and monophonic. Monophonic Aftertouch affects
the entire range of the keyboard no matter which key or keys triggered it. This is the most common
type of Aftertouch, and it is implemented on most (but not all) controllers and MIDI synthesizers
available on the market. Polyphonic Aftertouch allows you to send an independent message for each
key. It is more exible since only the intended notes will be affected by the effect.
Table 1.1 List of MIDI Messages Organized by Category.
Channel Messages System Messages
Channel Voice: Note On, Note Off, Monophonic
Aftertouch, Polyphonic Aftertouch, Pitch Bend,
Program Change, Control Changes
System Real-Time: Timing Clock, Start, Stop,
Continue, Active Sensing, System Reset
Channel Mode: All Notes Off, Local Control (On/Off),

Poly On/Mono On, Omni On, Omni Off, All Sound Off,
Reset All Controllers
System Common: MIDI Time Code (MTC), Song
Position Pointer, Song Select, Tune Request, End of
System Exclusive
System Exclusive
9
1.3 The Music Equipment
Pitch Bend: This message is controlled by the Pitch Bend wheel on a keyboard controller. It allows
you to raise or lower the pitch of the notes being played. It is one of the few MIDI data that does not
have a range of 128 steps. In order to allow a more detailed and accurate tracking of the transposi-
tion, the range of this MIDI message extends from 0 to 16,383. Usually, a sequencer would display 0
as the center position (non-transposed), 8191 fully raised, and 8192 fully lowered.
Program Change: This message is used to change the patch assigned to a certain MIDI channel. Each
synthesizer has a series of programs (also called patches, presets, instruments or, more generically,
sounds) stored in its internal memory; for each MIDI channel we need to assign a patch that will play
back all the MIDI data sent to that particular channel. This operation can be done by manually chang-
ing the patch from the front panel of the synthesizer, or by sending a program change message from a
controller or a sequencer. The range of this message is 0 to 127. As modern synthesizers can store many
more than 128 sounds, nowadays programs are organized into banks, where each bank stores a maximum
of 128 patches. In order to change a patch through MIDI messages it is, therefore, necessary to combine a
bank change message and a program change message. While the latter is part of the MIDI standard speci-
cation, the former changes depending on the brand and model of MIDI device. Most devices use CC 0
or CC 32 to change bank (or sometimes a combination of both), but you should refer to the synthesizer’s
manual to nd out which MIDI message is assigned to bank change for that particular model and brand.
Control Changes (CCs): These messages allow you to control certain parameters of a MIDI chan-
nel. There are 128 CCs (0–127); the range of each controller goes from 0 to 127. Some of these
controllers are standard and are recognized by all MIDI devices. Among these the most important
(mainly because they are used more often in sequencing) are CCs 1, 7, 10, and 64. CC 1 is assigned to
Modulation. It is activated by moving the Modulation wheel on a keyboard controller (Figure 1.10).

It is usually associated with a slow vibrato effect but it can be assigned to control pretty much any
FIGURE 1.10
The Pitch Bend (left) and the Modulation wheels (right) on a MIDI controller.
(Courtesy of Avid Technology, © 2010).
10 CHAPTER 1 Setting up Your Creative Environment: The Studio
parameter of a software synthesizer. CC 7 controls the volume of a MIDI channel from 0 to 127.
CC 10 controls its pan. Value 0 is pan hard left, 127 is hard right, and 64 is centered.
Controller number 64 is assigned to the Sustain pedal (the notes played are held until the pedal is
released). This controller has only two positions: on (values  64) and off (values  63). While the
four controllers mentioned above are the most basic ones, there are other controllers (such as CC 2
Breath, CC 5 Portamento Value, and CC 11 Expression, for example) that can considerably enhance
your sequences and the control that you have over the sound of your MIDI devices. Table 1.2 lists all
128 controllers with their specications and their most common uses in sequencing situations.
Table 1.2 MIDI Control Change (CC) Messages.
Controller no. Function Use
0 Bank Select Allows you to switch Bank for Patch selection. Sometimes
used in conjunction with CC 32 to send Bank number
higher than 128
1 Modulation Sets the Modulation Wheel to the specified value. Usually
this parameter controls a Vibrato effect generated through
an LFO. It can also be used to control other sound
parameters such as volume in certain sound libraries
2 Breath Controller Can be set to affect several parameters but usually is
associated with Aftertouch messages
3 Undefined
4 Foot Controller Can be set to affect several parameters but usually is
associated with Aftertouch messages
5 Portamento Value Controls the rate used by Portamento to slide between two
subsequent notes
6 Data Entry (MSB) Controls the value of either RPN or NRPN parameters

7 Volume Controls the Volume level of a MIDI channel
8 Balance Controls the Balance (Left and Right) of a MIDI channel.
Mostly used on patches that contain stereo elements (such
as stereo patches). 64  Centre, 127  100% Right,
0  100% Left
9 Undefined
10 Pan Controls the Pan of a MIDI channel. 64  Centre,
127  100% Right, 0  100% Left
11 Expression Controls a percentage of Volume (CC 7)
12 Effect Controller 1 Mostly used to control the effect parameter of one of the
internal effects of a synthesizer (e.g., the Decay Time of a
Reverb)
13 Effect Controller 2 Mostly used to control the effect parameter of one of the
internal effects of a synthesizer
14–15 Undefined
16–19 General Purpose These controllers are open and they can be assigned to
Aftertouch or similar messages
20–31 Undefined
(Continued)