next generation wireless systems and networks

Next Generation Wireless Systems
and Networks

Next Generation Wireless Systems
and Networks
Hsiao-Hwa Chen
National Sun Yat-Sen University, Taiwan
Mohsen Guizani
Western Michigan University, USA
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Contents
Preface xi
About the Authors xiii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Part I: Background Knowledge 2
1.2 PartII:3GMobileCellularStandards 5
1.3 Part III: Wireless Networking 9
1.4 Part IV: B3G and Emerging Wireless Technologies 10
1.5 Suggestions for Using This Book 15
2 Fundamentals of Wireless Communications 19
2.1 TheoryofRadioCommunicationChannels 20
2.1.1 RadioSignalPropagation 20
2.1.2 FadingChannelModels 22

2.1.3 NarrowbandandFrequency-DomainCharacteristics 26
2.1.4 WidebandandTime-DomainCharacteristics 30
2.2 SpreadSpectrumTechniques 36
2.2.1 Direct-SequenceSpreadSpectrumTechniques 41
2.2.2 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Techniques 55
2.2.3 Time Hopping Spread Spectrum and Ultra-Wideband Techniques 60
2.3 Multiple Access Technologies 62
2.3.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access . . 62
2.3.2 Time Division Multiple Access 64
2.3.3 Code Division Multiple Access 66
2.3.4 Random Multiple Access Technologies . 81
2.4 Multiple User Signal Processing 92
2.4.1 Multiuser Joint Detection against MAI . 93
2.4.2 Pilot-AidedCDMASignalDetection 100
2.4.3 Beam-FormingagainstCo-ChannelInterference 102
2.5 OSIReferenceModel 105
2.6 SwitchingTechniques 108
2.6.1 CircuitSwitchingNetworks 110
2.6.2 PacketSwitchingNetworks 111
2.7 IP-BasedNetworking 113
3 3G Mobile Cellular Technologies 117
3.1 CDMA2000 122
3.1.1 OperationalAdvantages 123
vi CONTENTS
3.1.2 GeneralArchitecture 130
3.1.3 AirlinkDesign 132
3.1.4 Data Throughput 133
3.1.5 TurboCoding 134
3.1.6 ForwardLink 135
3.1.7 Scheduling 141

3.1.8 ReverseLink 142
3.1.9 CDMA2000 1xEV Signaling 145
3.1.10 Handoffs 150
3.1.11 Summary of CDMA2000 1x-EV 151
3.1.12 CDMA2000 1xEV-DO 151
3.1.13 CDMA2000 1xEV-DV 152
3.2 WCDMA 155
3.2.1 HistoryofUMTSWCDMA 158
3.2.2 ETSIUMTSversusARIBWCDMA 164
3.2.3 UMTSCellandNetworkStructure 167
3.2.4 UMTSRadioInterface 169
3.2.5 UMTSProtocolStack 172
3.2.6 UTRAChannels 173
3.2.7 UTRA Multiplexing and Frame Structure 178
3.2.8 Spreading and Carrier Modulations . . . 180
3.2.9 PacketData 184
3.2.10 PowerControl 185
3.2.11 Handovers . . . 187
3.3 TD-SCDMA 189
3.3.1 Historical Background 190
3.3.2 OverviewofTD-SCDMA 193
3.3.3 FrameStructure 193
3.3.4 SmartAntenna 196
3.3.5 AdaptiveBeamPatterns 196
3.3.6 Up-LinkSynchronizationControl 196
3.3.7 IntercellSynchronization 199
3.3.8 Baton Handover 199
3.3.9 IntercellDynamicChannelAllocation 201
3.3.10 Flexibility in Network Deployment . . . 202
3.3.11 TechnicalLimitationsofTD-SCDMA 202

3.3.12 GlobalImpactofTD-SCDMA 202
4 Wireless Data Networks 205
4.1 IEEE 802.11 Standards for Wireless Networks . 205
4.1.1 Fundamentals of IEEE 802.11 Standards 208
4.1.2 Architecture and Functionality of a MAC Sublayer 215
4.1.3 IEEE 802.11 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum 219
4.1.4 IEEE 802.11 Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum 219
4.1.5 TheReasonDSSSWon 220
4.1.6 IEEE 802.11 Infrared Specifications . . . 220
4.1.7 IEEE 802.11b Supplement to 802.11 Standards 220
4.1.8 IEEE 802.11g Standard 221
4.2 IEEE 802.11a Supplement to 802.11 Standards . 221
CONTENTS vii
4.3 IEEE 802.11 Security . . 223
4.3.1 Authentication 224
4.3.2 WEP 225
4.4 IEEE 802.15 WPAN Standards 231
4.4.1 IEEE 802.15.3a Standard 232
4.4.2 IEEE 802.15.4 Standard 232
4.5 IEEE 802.16 WMAN Standards 232
4.6 ETSIHIPERLANandETSIHIPERLAN/2Standards 232
4.7 MMACbyJapan 233
4.8 Bluetooth Technologies . 233
4.8.1 BluetoothProtocolStack 234
4.8.2 BluetoothSecurity 235
5 All-IP Wireless Networking 237
5.1 SomeNoteson1G/2G/3G/4GTerminology 238
5.2 MobileIP 239
5.3 IPv6versusIPv4 241
5.4 MobileIPv6 241

5.5 WirelessApplicationProtocol(WAP) 243
5.6 IPonMobileAdHocNetworks 244
5.7 All-IPRoutingProtocols 246
6 Architecture of B3G Wireless Systems 249
6.1 SpectrumAllocationandWirelessTransmissionIssues 250
6.1.1 Modulation Access Techniques: OFDM and Beyond 251
6.1.2 Nonconventional Access Architectures . 251
6.1.3 Multiantenna Techniques 252
6.1.4 Adaptive Modulation and Coding 252
6.1.5 SoftwareDefinedRadio 253
6.2 IntegrationofWMAN/WLAN/WPANandMobileCellular 253
6.3 High-SpeedData 255
6.4 Multimode and Reconfigurable Platforms 256
6.5 AdHocMobileNetworking 258
6.6 NetworkingPlanIssues 261
6.7 Satellite Systems in B3G Wireless 264
6.8 OtherChallengingIssues 264
7 Multiple Access Technologies for B3G Wireless 267
7.1 WhatdoesB3GWirelessNeed? 268
7.2 AFeatureTopiconB3GWireless 269
7.3 Next-Generation CDMA Technologies 271
7.3.1 ImportanceofUsingGoodCDMACodes 271
7.3.2 SystemModelandAssumptions 272
7.3.3 Spreading and Carrier Modulations . . . 272
7.3.4 WhytheREALApproach? 275
7.3.5 REALApproachforDS-CDMA 276
7.3.6 REALApproachforOS-CDMA 280
7.3.7 ImplementationandPerformanceIssues 280
7.4 MulticarrierCDMATechniques 285
7.4.1 DuplicatedTime-SpreadingMC-CDMA 286

viii CONTENTS
7.4.2 DuplicatedFrequency-SpreadingMC-CDMA 287
7.4.3 Multiplexed Time-Spreading MC-CDMA 288
7.4.4 Multiplexed Frequency-Spreading MC-CDMA 289
7.5 OFDMTechniques 289
7.5.1 FromMulticarrierSystemtoOFDM 291
7.5.2 CyclicPrefix 293
7.5.3 PAPRIssues 295
7.5.4 OFDMA Technologies 295
7.6 Ultra-Wideband Technologies 297
7.6.1 Major UWB Technologies 299
7.6.2 DS-CDMAUWBSystemModel 304
7.6.3 FlatFadingChannel 306
7.6.4 Frequency-SelectiveFadingChannels 313
7.6.5 DS-CDMAUWBSystemPerformance 325
8 MIMO Systems 331
8.1 SIMO,MISOandMIMOSystems 331
8.2 SpatialDiversityinMIMOSystems 334
8.2.1 Diversity Combining Methods 334
8.2.2 Receiver Diversity 334
8.2.3 Transmitter Diversity 336
8.3 Spatial Multiplexing in MIMO Systems 339
8.4 STBC-CDMASystems 341
8.5 GenericSTBC-CDMASystemModel 343
8.6 UnitaryCode–BasedSTBC-CDMASystem 346
8.7 ComplementaryCodedSTBC-CDMASystem 348
8.7.1 Dual Transmitter Antennae 349
8.7.2 Arbitrary Number of Transmitter Antennae 352
8.8 DiscussionandSummary 354
9 Cognitive Radio Technology 361

9.1 Why Cognitive Radio? . 361
9.2 History of Cognitive Radio 364
9.3 What is Cognitive Radio? 366
9.3.1 Definitions of Cognitive Radio 367
9.3.2 Basic Cognitive Algorithms 367
9.3.3 Conceptual Classifications of Cognitive Radios 369
9.4 From SDR to Cognitive Radio 370
9.4.1 HowDoesSDRWork? 371
9.4.2 Digital Down Converter (DDC) 372
9.4.3 Analog to Digital Converter 373
9.4.4 AGenericSDR 375
9.4.5 ThreeSDRSchemes 378
9.4.6 Implement Cognitive Radio Based on SDR 378
9.5 Cognitive Radio for WPANs 382
9.6 Cognitive Radio for WLANs 384
9.7 Cognitive Radio for WMANs 389
9.8 Cognitive Radio for WWANs 390
9.9 Cognitive Radio for WRANs: IEEE 802.22 . . . 391
9.10 Challenges to Implement Cognitive Radio . . . 393
9.11 Cognitive Radio Products and Applications . . . 393
CONTENTS ix
10 E-UTRAN: 3GPP’s Evolutional Path to 4G 397
10.13GPPTSGforE-UTRAN 398
10.2OriginofE-UTRAN 400
10.3GeneralFeaturesofE-UTRAN 400
10.4E-UTRANStudyItems 406
10.5E-UTRANTSGWorkPlan 408
10.6E-UTRANRadioInterfaceProtocols 412
10.6.1 E-UTRANProtocolArchitecture 412
10.6.2 E-UTRANLayer1 413

10.6.3 E-UTRANLayer2 414
10.7E-UTRANPhysicalLayerAspects 416
10.7.1 DownlinkAspectsofFDDOFDMA 417
10.7.2 UplinkAspectsofFDDOFDMA 422
10.8Summary 425
A Orthogonal Complementary Codes (PG = 8 ∼ 512) 427
B MAI in Asynchronous Flat Fading UWB Channel 433
C MI in Asynchronous Modified S-V UWB Channel 439
D Proof of Equation (8.44) 443
E Properties of Orthogonal Complementary Codes 445
F Proof of Equation (8.66) 447
Bibliography 449
Index 481

Preface
This book arose from the idea that the next generation wireless communication has a close interplay
between the physical layer (system level) and the upper layer (network level) design.
In the last decade, the explosive growth of mobile and wireless communications has brought
a fundamental change to the design of wireless systems and networks. The demands on traditional
voice-centric services have been quickly overtaken by data-centric applications. The circuit-switched
end-to-end connection communication system and network design philosophy has been replaced by
all-IP packet-switched connectionless architecture. The traditional layered architecture of wireless
communication systems or networks has faced a great challenge from cross-layer optimized design.
The previously clearly defined boundaries between the seven Open System Interface (OSI) layers are
diminishing. On the other hand, the advancement in microelectronics has made it possible to imple-
ment a complex communication end-user terminal in a pocket-sized or a namecard-sized handset,
even with sufficiently high intelligence to work adaptively to the changing environment (i.e. cog-
nitive radio). At the same time, the data transmission rate through a wireless air-link has increased
tremendously, from 9.6 kbps in 1995 (on GSM) to 2 Mbps in 2005 (on a WCDMA system), increasing
by more than 200 times within the last 10 years. The international research community has targeted

“Super-3G” or “Beyond-3G” wireless systems and networks with a peak data transmission rate that
can reach as high as 500 Mbps, as demonstrated in the very recent field trials made in Japan by
NTT DoCoMo. Even more ambitious 4G wireless systems and networks will provide a peak data
transmission rate of approximately 1 Gbps. The great demands on the capacity and quality offered
over wireless communication links have pushed us hard to innovate new design methodologies and
concepts for wireless systems and networks.
This book project was initiated to respond to the evolutional trend in the design of wireless
systems and networks. It is written as an attempt to offer a handy reference, which has taken in
almost all the essential background of wireless communications on both the system level and the
network level, including the fundamental knowledge of wireless communication channels, almost all
major 3G mobile cellular standards, wireless local area networks (LANs), wireless personal area net-
works (PANs), Bluetooth, All-IP wireless networking, B3G wireless, and other emerging technologies,
such as ultra-wideband (UWB), orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), multiple-input
multiple-output (MIMO), cognitive radio, and evolution UTRAN (E-UTRAN) systems. Inevitably, it
was extremely difficult to write this book in the sense that we had to make a great effort to keep
a good balance on the completeness of the coverage and limited page budget. We do hope that this
project has achieved the goal and will be appreciated by you, the readers.
Altogether, there are 10 chapters discussed in this book. As mentioned earlier, the primary goal
is to offer an up-to-date research reference, which provides the readers with almost all the important
technological advancements in wireless systems and networks achieved in the last 20 years. The
book includes virtually all major third-generation mobile cellular technologies, such as CDMA2000,
WCDMA and TD-SCDMA technical standards. The coverage on those 3G mobile cellular technolo-
gies has been tuned to a level, at which their working principles, design philosophies, and salient
features can be easily understood without the need to refer to other references given at the end of
xii PREFACE
this book. However, the focus of this book has been put on newly emerging technologies, such as
UWB, Multi-Carrier Code Division Multiple Access (MC-CDMA), OFDM, MIMO, cognitive radio,
and Beyond-3G (B3G) systems.
This book can also serve as supplementary teaching material for the communications-related
courses taught for either undergraduate or postgraduate students, whose major is Electrical and Com-

puter Engineering, Computer Science, or Telecommunications Systems. If it is used as teaching
material for undergraduate students, the best effects will be achieved if the students have already
taken some prerequisites, such as “Signals and Systems” and “Digital Communications,” and so on.
A good background of engineering mathematics will also be desirable to easily follow the advanced
part of the materials presented. In addition, it can also be successfully used as the main teaching
material for professional training courses, which may last as long as a full semester/term.
We are all grateful to our families for their consistent support throughout this book project. Hsiao-
Hwa Chen would like to thank his wife, Tsuiping, for her patience and compassion during the holidays
and weekends spent working on this project. He would also like to thank his daughter, Cindy, and
his son, Peter, for their understanding rendered to their father for not being able to play with them on
weekends and holidays. Mohsen Guizani would like to thank his wife Saida and his children, Nadra,
Fatma, Maher, Zainab, Sara, and Safa for their understanding and patience throughout the duration
of this project.
Many people have helped us during the preparation of this book. Hsiao-Hwa Chen, would espe-
cially like to thank his students, En-Hung Chou, Ming-Jiun Liu, Yang-Wen Chen, Ho-Tai Lo, Bir-Rong
Sue, Kuo-Bin Wang, Hsiang-Yi Shih, Wei-Cheng Huang, Yao-Lin Tsao, Cheng-Lung Wu, Juang-Wei
Jang and Yu-Ming Kuo for helping in various ways to collect the data and references, and so on.
Some parts of the works given in this book resulted partly from their theses research works. Mohsen
Guizani would like to thank many of his students, in particular, Mr. Joe Baird.
Hsiao-Hwa Chen
National Sun Yat-Sen University
Taiwan
Mohsen Guizani
Western Michigan University
USA
About the Authors
Hsiao-Hwa Chen is currently a Professor at the Institute of Communications Engineering, National
Sun Yat-Sen University, Taiwan. He received his BSc and MSc degrees from Zhejiang University,
China, and a PhD degree from the University of Oulu, Finland, in 1982, 1985 and 1990, respectively,
all in Electrical Engineering. He worked with the Academy of Finland as a Research Associate during

1991–1993 and the National University of Singapore as a Lecturer and then a Senior Lecturer from
1992 to 1997. He joined the Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University,
Taiwan, as an Associate Professor in 1997 and was promoted to a Full Professor in 2000. In 2001, he
moved to National Sun Yat-Sen University, Taiwan, as a founding Director of the Institute of Com-
munications Engineering of the University. Under his leadership, the institute was ranked second in
the country in terms of SCI journal publications and National Science Council funding per faculty
in 2004. He has been a visiting Professor to the Department of Electrical Engineering, University
of Kaiserslautern, Germany, in 1999, the Institute of Applied Physics, Tsukuba University, Japan,
in 2000, the Institute of Experimental Mathematics, University of Essen, Germany in 2002, and the
Chinese University of Hong Kong in 2004. His current research interests include wireless networking,
MIMO systems, next generation CDMA technologies, and B3G wireless. He is a recipient of numer-
ous Research and Teaching Awards from the National Science Council and Ministry of Education,
Taiwan. He has authored or co-authored over 140 technical papers in major international journals and
conferences, and three books and two book chapters in the areas of communications. He served and is
serving as a TPC member and symposium chair of major international conferences, including IEEE
VTC 2003 Fall, IEEE ICC 2004, IEEE Globecom 2004, IEEE ICC 2005, IEEE Globecom 2005,
IEEE ICC 2006, IEEE Globecom 2006, IEEE VTC 2006 Spring, and IEEE ICC 2007, and so on. He
served or is serving as a member of the Editorial Board or Guest Editor of IEEE Communications
Magazine, IEEE Wireless Communications Magazine, IEEE JSAC, IEEE Networks Magazine, IEEE
Transactions on Wireless Communications, IEEE Vehicular Technology Magazine, Wireless Com-
munications and Mobile Computing (WCMC) Journal and International Journal of Communication
Systems, and so on. His original work in CDMA wireless networks, digital communications and radar
systems has resulted in five US patents, two Finnish patents, three Taiwanese patents and two Chinese
patents, some of which have been licensed to industries for commercial applications. He has been an
Honorable Guest Professor of Zhejiang University, China, and Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China,
since 2003 and 2005, respectively. For more information about Professor Hsiao Hwa Chen, please
visit the web site at />Mohsen Guizani is currently a Full Professor and the Chair of the Computer Science Department at
Western Michigan University. He served as the Chair of the Computer Science Department at the
University of West Florida from 1999 to 2003. He was an Associate Professor of Electrical and Com-
puter Engineering and the Director of Graduate Studies at the University of Missouri-Columbia from

1997 to 1999. Prior to joining the University of Missouri, he was a Research Fellow at the University
of Colorado-Boulder. From 1989 to 1996, he held academic positions at the Computer Engineering
Department at the University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. He was also a
xiv ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Visiting Professor in the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department at Syracuse University,
Syracuse, New York during the academic years 1988–1989. He received his B.S. (with distinction)
and M.S. degrees in Electrical Engineering; M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Computer Engineering in 1984,
1986, 1987, and 1990, respectively, all from Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York. His research
interests include Computer Networks, Design and Analysis of Computer Systems, Wireless Commu-
nications and Computing, and Optical Networking. He currently serves on the editorial boards of
many national and international journals, such as the IEEE Transaction on Wireless Communications,
IEEE Transaction on Vehicular Technology, IEEE Communications Magazine, the Journal of Parallel
and Distributed Systems and Networks, and the International Journal of Computer Research to name
a few. He served as a Guest Editor in the IEEE Communication Magazine, IEEE Journal on Selected
Areas in Communications, Journal of Communications and Networks, The Simulation Transaction,
International Journal of Computer Systems and Networks, International Journal of Communication
Systems, International Journal of Computing Research, and Journal of Cluster Computing. Dr. Guizani
is the founder and Editor-In-Chief of “Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing,” journal
published by John Wiley ( He is the author of
four books: Designing ATM Switching Networks, by McGraw-Hill 1999 (rawhill.
com/computing/authors/guizani.html), Wireless Systems and Mobile Computing, by Nova Science
Publishers 2001, Optical Networking and Computing for Multimedia Systems, by Marcel Dekker,
June 2002, and Wireless Communications Systems and Networks, by Kluwer, June 2004. He served
as a Keynote Speaker for many international conferences and has also presented a number of Tuto-
rials and Workshops. He served as the General Chair for the Parallel and Distributed Computer
Systems (PDCS 2002), IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference 2003 (VTC2003), PDCS 2003 and
IEEE WirelessCom 2005. He also served as the program chair for many conferences, such as Parallel
and Distributed Computer Systems, Wireless Networking Symposium (VTC2000), Annual Computer
Simulation Systems Conference, Optical Networking Symposium (Globecom 2002), Collaborative
Technologies Symposium 2002 (in conjunction with Western Multi-conference on Simulation and

Modeling), and the General Conference of IEEE Globecom 2003. He has more than 140 publications
in refereed journals and conferences in the areas of High-Speed Networking, Optical Networking,
and Wireless Networking and Communications. Dr. Guizani is the Co-Chair of the IEEE Communi-
cations Society Technical Committee on Transmissions, Access, and Optical Systems (IEEE TAOS),
Conference Coordinator of the IEEE Communications Society Technical Committee on Computer
Communications (IEEE TCCC), a member of the IEEE Communications Society of Optical Network-
ing (IEEE ONTC), the Secretary for the IEEE Communications Society of Personal Communications
(IEEE TCPC), and a member of the Computer Network Security Sub-Committee. He is designated
by the IEEE Computer Society as a Distinguished National Speaker until December 2005. He is
also ABET Accreditation Evaluator for Computer Science and Information Technology Programs. He
received both the Best Teaching Award and the Excellence in Research Award from the University
of Missouri-Columbia in 1999 (a college wide competition). He won the best Research Award from
KFUPM in 1995 (a university wide competition). He was selected as the Best Teaching Assistant
for two consecutive years at Syracuse University, 1988 and 1989. He is a senior member of IEEE,
a member of IEEE Communication Society, IEEE Computer Society, ASEE, ACM, OSA, SCS, and
Tau Beta Pi. For more details, please visit: />1
Introduction
As everybody is undoubtedly aware, we are living in the midst of rapid information renovation and
innovation. The changing world of information technology (IT) can be challenging or even frightening
to all of us. For any IT engineer who stays out of the technological advancement for even a very short
period of time, he/she will quickly find himself/herself an outsider to the technological transitions,
with difficulty in understanding hundreds and thousands of new terminologies that are invented every
year for newly emerging technologies.
In the last 30 years, the IT industries have witnessed two big waves of revolution, one being the
invention of the Internet, and the other the wide applications of wireless technologies. The Internet
technologies have for the first time in human history provided us with a high-speed information-
dissemination infrastructure via its global optical fiber webs that cover virtually every corner of the
world. If the time could be flashed back to 30 years earlier, people would have hardly believed that
all the information contained in an enormous number of books in libraries can be accessed without
going there personally. In addition, the readiness of two way data transactions on the Internet have

triggered fundamental changes in many sectors of our life. For instance, intercontinental telephone
calls will no longer be considered as a symbol of a lifestyle of luxury. Very soon everybody will
be given the privilege that all voice telephone calls (either demotic or international) will be free of
charge, thanks to the wide accessibility of the Internet throughout the world. The Internet operates on
an all-IP based networking architecture, and thus the network level design and performance-ensuring
mechanism play a critical role in all Internet-related applications. Table 1.1 shows the top 20 countries
with most Internet subscribers in the world as recorded in 2005.
1
On the other hand, the revolution of wireless technologies fuels the advancements in modern
telecommunication systems through its cordless and mobile extension of wired networks, such as
the Internet. Mobility is one of the most important characteristics of modern society. Everything and
everyone are in motion. Therefore, the information-dispatching facilities should also be made available
while people are on the move. The explosive increase in mobile cellular telephone services around the
world has reflected the great demand for mobile communications. The availability of mobile cellular
communications has exerted a strong influence on the lifestyle, the business models, as well as on
the sense of value, distance, and time. The wireless technologies work on radio frequency (RF) to
establish the data connection paths (or radio links) via electromagnetic radiation waves. The invisible
RF air links connect users’ end-terminals through base stations or access points with fixed or wired
network infrastructures, such as the Internet. Therefore, the wireless technologies have a lot to do
with the physical layer design and architecture.
1
It is amazing to note that China has contributed around 11% of the world’s total Internet subscribers in
2005, and has become second only to the United States in terms of the percentage of the world’s total Internet
subscribers.
Next Generation Wireless Systems and Networks Hsiao-Hwa Chen and Mohsen Guizani
 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
2 INTRODUCTION
Table 1.1 Top 20 countries with most Internet subscribers in the world as recorded in 2005.
Country Number of Population Penetration World
or region subscribers in 2005 rate (%) percentage (%)

United States 202,888,307 296,208,476 68.5 21.6
China 103,000,000 1,282,198,289 7.9 11.0
Japan 78,050,000 128,137,485 60.9 8.3
Germany 47,127,725 82,726,188 57.0 5.0
India 39,200,000 1,094,870,677 3.6 4.2
United Kingdom 35,807,929 59,889,407 59.8 3.8
South Korea 31,600,000 49,929,293 63.3 3.4
Italy 28,610,000 58,608,565 48.8 3.0
France 25,614,899 60,619,718 42.3 2.7
Brazil 22,320,000 181,823,645 12.3 2.4
Russia 22,300,000 144,003,901 15.5 2.4
Canada 20,450,000 32,050,369 63.8 2.2
Spain 15,565,138 43,435,136 35.8 1.7
Indonesia 15,300,000 219,307,147 7.0 1.6
Mexico 14,901,687 103,872,328 14.3 1.6
Taiwan 13,800,000 22,794,795 60.5 1.5
Australia 13,784,966 20,507,264 67.2 1.5
Netherlands 10,806,328 16,316,019 66.2 1.2
Poland 10,600,000 38,133,891 27.8 1.1
Malaysia 9,513,100 26,500,699 37.9 1.1
Rest of the World 176,943,950 2,444,250,712 7.2 18.8
World total 938,710,929 6,420,102,722 14.6 100.0
The Internet in the absence of wireless technologies’ support cannot offer the end users such
convenience and readiness; while the wireless systems without the backup of the Internet infrastruc-
ture will limit its diversity in services and content. The combination of the Internet and wireless
technologies will provide us access to information services at any time, in any place, and to any one.
The combination of the Internet and wireless technologies has also created many challenging issues,
such as the joint optimization of software and hardware implementations, cross-layer design for net-
work solutions, all-IP wireless platforms, intelligent radios, and so on. Therefore, a modern wireless
communication architecture can always be viewed from two different aspects: that is, the system level

view, which is based mainly on the hardware and physical layer implementations on a local scale,
and the network level, which is observed from the topological configuration and upper layer design
on a global scale. We have observed a trend where wireless designs on the system and network levels
come together. Investigations on both the system level (in a local scale) and the network level (in a
global scale) helps to better understand any wireless communication entity of today.
This book was written in an effort to give the readers an up-to-date research reference containing
almost all major technological advancements on both the system and the network levels that have
happened in the last 20 years. The contents of this book can be divided into four major parts. We
give a brief introduction for each part as follows.
1.1 Part I: Background Knowledge
The first part of this book was written by Professor Hsiao-Hwa Chen and it deals with the fundamentals
and background knowledge of wireless communications. This part consists of only one chapter, that
INTRODUCTION 3
is, Chapter 2, titled “Fundamentals of Wireless Communications,” in which there are six sections
altogether.
The first section introduces the theory of radio communication channels, which is part of the
most important background knowledge needed to understand why and how a wireless communi-
cation system or network suffers various problems and bottlenecks when it works in a particular
application scenario. The importance of the knowledge of the wireless channels lies in the fact
that, no matter how advanced a future wireless communication system or network might be, we
have to deal with the same set of problems associated with the radio propagation channels, such as
delay spread, Doppler spread, coherent time, coherent bandwidth, and so on, which will always be
there.
With the necessary information about radio channels, we can proceed to introduce various spread
spectrum (SS) techniques in the second section. It has to be noted that the SS techniques are the
basis of code division multiple access (CDMA) technology, which was first applied to the IS-95
standard [317–326] and has become the primary multiple access scheme chosen by almost all third
generation (3G) mobile cellular systems, including CDMA2000 [345–359], WCDMA [425–431],
TD-SCDMA [432–439], and so on. In this section, three major SS techniques are discussed, including
direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), and time

hopping spread spectrum (THSS) techniques. It is to be noted that the basic concepts of ultra-
wideband (UWB) technologies are introduced while discussing the THSS, which has been applied
to many emerging UWB systems, in particular, for those based on pulse position modulation (PPM).
Nevertheless, it must be admitted that the most commonly used SS techniques are the DS and FH,
rather than the TH technique. The wireless communication systems based on the SS techniques
can often be called wideband wireless applications, in contrast to those that do not use the SS
techniques.
It is amazing to note that the technological evolution happens so rapidly that used-to-be advanced
technologies quickly become common background knowledge for all. In the late 1990s one of the
coauthors of this book, Professor Hsiao-Hwa Chen, worked in the Telecommunications Laboratory,
University of Oulu, Finland, which used to be the largest research group focusing on SS tech-
niques in the whole of Europe. Then, most of the SS techniques had not been unclassified and
there were very few publications on the SS techniques applied to civilian applications. The SS tech-
niques were considered to be one of the most advanced know-hows at that time. Therefore, we
had to resort to many technical reports and patents for reference information. Nowadays, knowledge
of the SS techniques has become a must for all electrical engineers working in telecommunication
areas.
Chapter 2 continues with the fundamentals of wireless communications to discuss the issues on
multiple access technologies. Three major commonly used multiple access technologies are included
in the discussions given in this section, namely, frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time divi-
sion multiple access (TDMA), and CDMA technologies. Being different from CDMA, both FDMA
and TDMA are always considered to be the traditional narrow band multiple access technologies. On
the other hand, the CDMA technology was developed from the SS techniques and is often referred
to as a wideband multiple access technology. As mentioned earlier, CDMA technology has become
the main multiple access technology used in all major 3G mobile cellular standards owing to its rel-
atively high bandwidth efficiency and robustness against time-dispersive frequency-selective fading
and other external interferences. The first successful application of CDMA technology in commercial
communication systems is IS-95A [317–326], which was developed by Qualcomm Inc., USA, and
works based on DSSS techniques. The IS-95A system has been deployed in many countries in the
world today and its reliability and stability have been confirmed from its long time operations in

many countries. Now we have entered the era of 3G mobile communications. All major 3G systems
operate on CDMA technologies with no exception, indicating the great popularity of these tech-
nologies. An interesting question arises: Can CDMA be still used as the primary multiple access
technology in B3G wireless communications? Some people have suggested that the CDMA was
4 INTRODUCTION
developed in the later 1980s and is suitable only for slow-speed, continuous-time traffic, and voice-
centric applications. It has also been suggested that the current CDMA technologies may not be well
suited for those applications where dominant traffic will carry high-speed, bursty, and data-centric
services. To answer this challenging question, we have more discussions on this issue in Chapter 7
of this book.
The fourth section of Chapter 2 consists of three subsections, which are “Multiuser joint detection
against MAI,” “Pilot-aided CDMA signal detection,” and “beam-forming techniques against cochannel
interference.” Obviously, all these three subsections deal with issues on how to suppress or eliminate
the interferences. The multiuser detection (MUD) techniques used to be a very popular research topic a
couple of years ago, due to the widespread application of CDMA technologies. As indicated by the title
of the subsection, the MUD techniques are used only for overcoming the multiple access interference
(MAI) problem. The MUD concept is smart in terms of the fact that it treats all MAI as a whole
and proceeds with the detection through de-correlating the MAI components from the useful signals.
Thus, it treats all signals, whether useful or not, as indispensable parts in the entire detection process.
This entails a very high detection efficiency when compared to many other traditional interference
suppression techniques, which treat unwanted signals individually as a component that should be
suppressed as much as possible.
Pilot-added signal detection is another important issue covered in this subsection, where we
introduce many useful conclusions from others’ and our own research results. Pilot-added detection
is used for overcoming the interferences introduced mainly by dispersive channels, where time dis-
persion (caused by multipath effect) and frequency dispersion (caused by Doppler effect) may exist
individually or jointly. Unlike the MUD schemes, the pilot-added signal detection cannot solve the
problems associated with MAI. Therefore, the pilot-added detection should always work along with
the MUD to enable a wireless receiver with the capability to work successfully under various channel
conditions. In this subsection, we summarize the experience gained in designing pilot-added detection

schemes by the “three-same condition,” which states that the pilot signal should be constructed at the
same time, with the same frequency, and the same code as those used for data-carrying signals, to
ensure an accurate estimation of the channel condition.
Section 2.4 ends with the subsection titled “Beam-forming techniques against cochannel inter-
ference.” Actually, the beam-forming technique is a type of aperture-synthesizing technique, which
uses multiple antennas to transmit or receive the same signal to achieve a certain array gain through
narrowed beams. By using the beam-forming technique in transmitter (Tx) antennas we can pinpoint
the transmitting signal to a particular directional angle to facilitate the signal reception at the receiver
of interest.
2
On the other hand, we can also use receiver antenna beam-forming to reduce the cochan-
nel interference coming from the angle-of-arrival outside the beam.
3
It has to be pointed out that
the major difference between the traditional beam-forming techniques and the emerging multiple-
in-multiple-out (MIMO) systems lies in the fact that the signals transmitted or received in multiple
antennas in beam-forming techniques are exactly the same replicas (except for different delays), while
those in a MIMO system are subject to different coding processes in different antennas to achieve
spatial diversity gain or multiplexing capability.
The last three sections of Chapter 2 discuss the issues on “OSI reference model,” “switching
techniques,” and “IP-based networking.” Section 2.5 discusses an important concept on the Open
System Interconnection (OSI) layered networking model. Section 2.6 concentrates on the discussions
on two major network switching architectures, that is, circuit switching and packet switching, both of
which play very important roles in wired and wireless networks. It is to be noted that circuit switching
as a traditional switching technique has been revitalized recently because of its emerging applica-
tions in high-capacity fiber-optical trunk networks. Section 2.7 gives a brief introduction to IP-based
2
This is also called the beam-steering algorithm.
3
This sometimes is also called the null-steering algorithm.

INTRODUCTION 5
networking and its development, which has gained great attention due to its wide applications in the
Internet-related applications and systems.
1.2 Part II: 3G Mobile Cellular Standards
The second part of this book covers the major 3G mobile cellular standards, including CDMA2000,
WCDMA, and TD-SCDMA, which are discussed in Sections 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3, respectively, to form
Chapter 3, which was written by Professor Hsiao-Hwa Chen.
As mentioned earlier, it is a great challenge to cover all these major 3G mobile cellular standards
within the limited space available in this book, which also discusses many other up-to-date wireless
technologies. Obviously, it is not desirable to give only a very brief introduction to each of them, as
they also provide important information about the current state-of-the-art wireless technologies, which
is the foundation for further discussions on more advanced beyond 3G (B3G) wireless technologies
in this book. A relatively informative discussion on these important 3G systems will also be a useful
reference to the readers. On the other hand, we are not allowed to spend too much of the space in this
book to address the issues on 3G mobile cellular systems only. Therefore, we have to keep a very
careful balance on the contents covered here. For this purpose, the discussions given in Chapter 3 have
been made as informative as possible, while focusing mainly on their key technical features. Some
detail specifications given in the long standard documentations have been omitted for conciseness of
the discussions. Therefore, the discussions about the major 3G mobile cellular standards should not
be considered complete as it is utterly impossible to condense a standard written in several thousands
of pages into a section with only a few tens of pages.
The inclusion of the three major 3G mobile cellular standards, such as CDMA2000, WCDMA,
and TD-SCDMA, takes into account the fact that they have been deployed in many countries in the
world. The CDMA2000 is the standard that originated from the United States; whereas the WCDMA
was the one proposed by Europe.
4
It is to be noted that the Japanese 3G system, ARIB WCDMA,
bears a great similarity to the European 3G system, ETSI UMTS-UTRA. So, we do not discuss them
individually in two different sections due to the limitation of space in this book. Instead, we put the
two into the same section (i.e., Section 3.2), and their differences are discussed and explained in

Section 3.2.2. In fact, ARIB has committed to make the Japanese 3G standard fully compatible with
ETSI UMTS-UTRA system eventually, although there still are some differences in their specifications
at the moment. At the time when this book was written, the roaming between Japanese 3G networks
and European 3G networks has not been widely implemented.
Chapter 3 begins with the North American standard, or CDMA2000 standard, a 3G mobile cellular
standard proposed by the TIA/EIA of the United States.
5
The discussion of CDMA2000 allows us to
understand better how the evolutional change from 2G to 3G mobile cellular systems happens. The
CDMA2000 technology is always referred to as the successor of its 2G solution, IS-95. CDMA2000
is one of the IMT-2000 candidate submissions to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
As early as 1985, ITU regulators had a vision that the future of mobile cellular systems would be
multimedia – involving voice, video, and data services. Thus, in 1985 the ITU, the world’s governing
telecommunication body, began planning for the next generation digital cellular – “Future Public
Land Mobile Telecommunications Systems” (FPLMTS) – later known as IMT-2000.
6
The goal of
FPLMTS was to provide broadband multimedia wireless services via a single global frequency band
4
It is to be noted that the WCDMA standard was initially proposed by ETSI, Europe, and ARIB, Japan, jointly.
Although there still are some minor differences in their network operations, both committed to make the standards
fully compatible under the framework of 3GPP.
5
The abbreviations of TIA and EIA stand for “Telecommunications Industry Association” and “Electronics
Industry Association,” respectively. Both the organizations are based in the United States.
6
The abbreviation “IMT-2000” stands for “International Mobile Telecommunications in the year 2000,” which
would have been standardized in the year 2000 according to the ITU’s vision of the 1990s. Unfortunately, the
6 INTRODUCTION
IMT-2000

CDMA
direct spread
WCDMA
(UMTS)
IMT-2000
FDMA/
TDMA
DECT
IMT-2000
TDMA
single carrier
UWC-136/
EDGE
IMT-2000
CDMA
TDD
IMT-2000 terrestrial
radio interfaces
UTRA TDD
and TD-SCDMA
IMT-2000
CDMA
multi carrier
CDMA2000 1X
and 1xEV
Figure 1.1 Five radio interfaces for IMT-2000 standards as a part of the ITU-R M.1457 Recommen-
dation.
allocation and standardized, interoperable technologies. The frequency range allocated would be
around 2000 MHz.
The ITU requires that IMT-2000 (or 3G) networks, among other capabilities, deliver improved

system capacity and spectrum utilization efficiency over the 2G systems and support data services at
minimum transmission rates of 144 kbps in mobiles (outdoor) and 2 Mbps in fixed (indoor) environ-
ments. On the basis of these requirements, in 1999 ITU approved five radio interfaces for IMT-2000
standards as a part of the ITU-R M.1457 Recommendation. CDMA2000 is one of the five standards.
It is also known by its ITU name IMT-CDMA Multi-Carrier. Figure 1.1 shows five radio interfaces
for IMT-2000 standards as a part of the ITU-R M.1457 Recommendation, where WCDMA (Univer-
sal Mobile Telephone System (UMTS)) was submitted jointly by Europe and Japan, CDMA2000 1x
and 1xEV was proposed by the United States, UTRA time division duplex (TDD), and TD-SCDMA
were proposed by Europe and China, UWC-136 and EDGE were proposed by the United States, and
DECT was submitted by Europe.
The development of the CDMA2000 standard was driven mainly by North American technology
developers with an invested interest in the progression of IS-95, or its later version cdmaOne, as
the global standard for next generation mobile cellular systems. The share for CDMA remains to
be roughly same, if not reduced. Obviously, CDMA2000 is not a single standard in itself. From
IS-95 (the 2G equivalent of Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)) through CDMA2000
1xRTT, which increases the voice capacity of the former by approximately 40% and allows data
transfer speeds up to a peak of 144 kbps, to CDMA2000 1xEV-DO, which has a theoretical bit rate
of 2 Mbps, CDMA2000 1xEV-DO should be considered a full-fledged 3G standard.
CDMA2000 represents a family of technologies that includes CDMA2000 1x and CDMA2000
1xEV. CDMA2000 1x can double the voice capacity of cdmaOne (formerly known as IS-95 )networks
and can deliver peak packet data speeds up to 307 kbps in mobile environments. CDMA2000 1xEV
includes the following:
• CDMA2000 1xEV-DO, which delivers peak data speeds of 2.4 Mbps and supports applications
such as MP3 transfers and video conferences.
• CDMA2000 1xEV-DV, which provides integrated voice and simultaneous high-speed packet
data multimedia services at speeds of up to 3.09 Mbps, which has already exceeded the peak
data rate specified by IMT-2000 (or 3G) specifications.
1xEV-DO and 1xEV-DV are both backward compatible with CDMA2000 1x and cdmaOne. It is
noted that the world’s first CDMA2000 1x commercial system was launched by SK Telecom (Korea)
ITU’s effort to reach a consensus on the IMT-2000 standard in the year 2000 was not successful because of

obvious reasons.
INTRODUCTION 7
in October 2000. Since then, CDMA2000 1x has been deployed in Asia, North and South America,
and Europe, and it was estimated that the subscriber base is growing at 700,000 subscribers per day.
CDMA2000 1xEV-DO was launched in 2002 by SK Telecom (Korea) and KT Freetel (Korea).
Section 3.1 discusses the CDMA2000 standard in a progressive way so that it is easy to understand
for a person with a minimum background knowledge of wireless communications. Section 3.1 is made
up of altogether 13 subsections, in which we give an introduction to the various technical aspects of the
CDMA2000 standard. In order to make discussions up-to-date and consistent throughout Section 3.1,
we concentrate on the CDMA2000 1xEV (or IS-856) standard based mainly on the specifications
given in the following standard documentations [360–361]:
• CDMA2000 High Rate Packet Data Air Interface Specification, 3GPP2 C.S20024 Version 2.0,
Date: October 2000.
• CDMA2000 High Rate Packet Data Air Interface Specification, 3GPP2 C.S20024-A, Version
1.0, Date: March 2004
the former of which is known as Release 0 and the later is Revision A of CDMA2000 1xEV or
IS-856 standard. There are also numerous references to CDMA2000 1xEV and their evolutional
versions CDMA2000 1xEV-DO and CDMA2000 1xEV-DV, and readers may refer [360–367] for
more information about them. In particular, the April 2005 issue of IEEE Communications Magazine
has published a Special Issue on CDMA2000 1xEV-DV and seven papers appeared in this issue [368–
374], which indicated that the CDMA2000 1xEV-DV will gain greater popularity around the world.
While focusing on the discussion on CDMA2000 1xEV, we also refer to the CDMA2000 1x
standard from time to time in Section 3.1. Release 0 of the CDMA2000 1x standard [348–353]
consists of the following 3GPP2 documents:
• C.S0001-0 Introduction to CDMA2000 Standards for Spread Spectrum Systems
• C.S0002-0 Physical Layer Standard for CDMA2000 Spread Spectrum Systems
• C.S0003-0 Medium Access Control (MAC) Standard for CDMA2000 Spread Spectrum Systems
• C.S0004-0 Signaling Link Access Control (LAC) Standard for CDMA2000 Spread Spectrum
Systems
• C.S0005-0 Upper Layer (Layer 3) Signaling Standard for CDMA2000 Spread Spectrum Sys-

tems
• C.S0006-0 Analog Signaling Standard for CDMA2000 Spread Spectrum Systems
All final revisions (or Revision D) of CDMA2000 1x standard can be found in the reference list
[359], given at the end of this book.
After having discussed CDMA2000 standards proposed by the United States, we will move on to
Section 3.2, which covers the European 3G standard, the WCDMA system. The WCDMA is also one
of the IMT-2000 candidate proposals, as shown in Figure 1.1, proposed by ETSI, Europe, and ARIB,
Japan, jointly. The discussions given in Section 3.2 focus on the ETSI UMTS system; whereas the
difference between European UMTS-FDD and Japanese ARIB WCDMA systems are explained, in
particular, in Section 3.2.2 titled “ETSI UMTS versus ARIB WCDMA,” to save space in this book.
The conclusion will be drawn as a result from the comparison between ETSI UMTS-FDD and ARIB
WCDMA that the two should be made fully compatible in mid-2003 under the time frame specified
in UMTS Realease’99.
7
under the time frame specified in UMTS Release’99.
7
It has to be noted that some delay occurred in the compatibility time frame between the two, and up to the
time when this book was written the roaming between Japanese and European 3G networks has not been widely
implemented.
8 INTRODUCTION
Japanese mobile services operator NTTDoCoMo launched the world’s first commercial WCDMA
network in 2001, although its operation was limited to only the great Tokyo area initially. When
compared to the world’s first CDMA2000 1x commercial system launched by SK Telecom (Korea)
in October 2000, the NTTDoCoMo WCDMA system had suffered many technical problems during
the initial phase of its services in Japan, including both its FOMA terminals
8
and networking. Even
today, both Korea and Japan claim that they had the first 3G network in the world, and it is always
a very tough issue as to who is number one if the two progress neck and neck in the development of
new technologies. Nevertheless, the competition between Japan and Korea in the 3G mobile cellular

communication field has been very serious for a long time. That is why many people really doubt the
claim that Europe or the United States is the serious pusher for 3G development and standardization.
Japan has been very worried for a long time about the fact that Korea has obtained the core CDMA
intellectual property rights (IPRs) transfer from Qualcomm Inc., and consequently has grasped the
know-hows in many key CDMA technologies. By following the United States’s suit in developing
its TDMA-based second-generation (2G) cellular technology, Japanese Digital Cellular (JDC) (which
was not compatible with any of the 2G systems operating in the world), Japan virtually had no access
to the lucrative world of the mobile cellar market. This sad experience made Japan determined to be a
must-winner in the race for 3G technology, and motivated the country to work closely with Europe for
developing the WCDMA technology. It seems that Japan has got the right bid, as clearly seen from its
big share in terms of total WCDMA subscribers in the world. The number of 3G subscribers has so
far topped more than 100 million, including four-million WCDMA users (mainly from Japan). With
the growing maturity of WCDMA-related products and technology, its commercial-user networks
are undergoing a dramatic development. Today, more than 70 3G/UMTS networks using WCDMA
technology are operating commercially in 25 countries, supported by a choice of over 100 terminal
designs from Asian, European, and US manufacturers.
The last section, Section 3.3, in Chapter 3 talks about the TD-SCDMA standard, which was
proposed by China as one of the five IMT-2000 candidate proposals, as shown in Figure 1.1. Currently,
very few books have covered the TD-SCDMA standard in their chapters related to 3G technologies.
The importance of this Chinese-owned 3G standard will become clearer with the increase in the
leverage weight of China’s role in the world telecommunication market. China undoubtedly is the
largest single market for mobile communications. The number of its mobile service subscribers
surpassed the United States a few years ago, making it the most influential mobile cellular market in the
world. It will be considered very silly if a mobile communication vendor/manufacturer has no presence
in China today. Everybody wants to catch a bite of big China’s mobile communication market. On the
other hand, China clearly knows that it is stupid for its service providers to buy hundreds of thousands
cellular equipments from outsiders with their hard-earned money. Even for those made-in-China
equipments, they have to pay a large amount of loyalty fees to the foreign players due to the use of their
IPRs. This harsh reality has motivated China to develop its own mobile communication standard in an
effort to reduce or even eliminate the heavy reliance on these imported mobile cellular technologies.

However, the path toward the development of its own 3G system is not smooth either. The
TD-SCDMA standard was proposed originally by CATT, which is one of the largest institutes
9
that specializes in telecommunication research in China. However, many people criticized the TD-
SCDMA as standard lacks novelty technically and thus may still face a heavy licence fee payable
to foreign companies even after its commercialization. It was also suggested that the TD-SCDMA
used too many core technologies, such as power control (IS-95), RAKE receiver (IS-95), orthog-
onal variable spreading factor (OVSF) code for channelization (WCDMA), time division duplex
(TDD) (UTRA-TDD), and so on, which are borrowed from Qualcomm as well as other companies.
8
The name “FOMA” is the abbreviation for “Freedom Of Mobile multimedia Access.”
9
CATT used to be a very large research institute that belonged to the former Ministry of Post and Telecommu-
nications, China, and is now a privatized company specialized for mobile communications. For more information,
please refer to the web site at .