Một đánh giá các dữ liệu cổ từ đá từ kỷ Phấn trắng đến cận kỷ Đệ Tam từ Việt Nam, Đông Dương và Nam Trung Quốc, và những tác động của họ đối với kiến tạo địa tầng Kainozoi tại Việt Nam và khu vực lân cận

Please

cite

this

article

in

press

as:

Cung,

T.C.,

Geissman,

J.W.,

A

review

of

the

paleomagnetic

data

from

Cretaceous

to

lower

Tertiary

rocks
from

Vietnam,

Indochina

and

South

China,

and

their

implications

for

Cenozoic

tectonism

in

Vietnam

and

adjacent

areas.

J.

Geodyn.

(2013),
doi:
10.1016/j.jog.2011.11.008
ARTICLE IN PRESS
G

Model
GEOD-1103;

No.

of

Pages

11
Journal

of

Geodynamics

xxx (2013) xxx–

xxx
Contents

lists

available

at

SciVerse

ScienceDirect
Journal

of

Geodynamics
j

ourna

l

h

om

epage:

/>A

review

of

the

paleomagnetic

data

from

Cretaceous

to

lower

Tertiary

rocks

from
Vietnam,

Indochina

and

South

China,

and

their

implications

for

Cenozoic
tectonism

in

Vietnam

and

adjacent

areas
Cung

Thuo
.
ng

Chí
a,∗
,

John

W.

Geissman
b,1
a
Institute

of

Geological

Sciences,

Vietnam

Academy

of

Science

&

Technology

84

Chua

Lang

Street,

Dong

Da

Dist.,

Hanoi,

Viet

Nam
b
Department

of

Earth

and

Planetary

Sciences,

MSC

03

2040,

1

University

of

New

Mexico,

Albuquerque,

NM

87131-0001,

United

States
a

r

t

i

c

l

e

i

n

f

o
Article

history:
Received

22

July

2010
Received

in

revised

form
19

November

2011
Accepted

22

November

2011
Available online xxx
Keywords:
Paleomagnetism
Tectonics
Cretaceous
Vietnam
Indochina
South

China
Extrusion
a

b

s

t

r

a

c

t

Available

paleomagnetic

data

from

rock

formations

of

Cretaceous

age

from

Vietnam,

Indochina

and

South
China

are

compiled

and

reviewed

in

the

context

of

their

tectonic

importance

in

a

common

reference

frame

with

respect

to

Eurasia’s

coeval

paleopoles.

Key

factors

that

play

an

important

role

in

determining

the
reliability

of

a

paleomagnetic

result

for

utilization

in

tectonic

studies

have

been

taken

into

consideration

and

include

the

absence

of

evidence

of

remagnetization,

which

is

a

feature

common

to

many

rocks

in
this

region.
Overall,

the

Cretaceous

paleomagnetic

data

from

the

South

China

Block

show

that

the

present

geo-
graphic

position

of

the

South

China

Block

has

been

relatively

stable

with

respect

to

Eurasia

since

the
mid-Cretaceous

and

that

the

paleomagnetically

detected

motion

of

a

coherent

lithospheric

block

must
be

based

on

the

representative

data

obtained

from

different

specific

localities

across

the

block

in

order
to

separate

more

localized,

smaller

scale

deformation

from

true

lithosphere

scale

motion

(translation
and/or

rotation)

of

a

tectonic

block.
Cretaceous

to

early

Tertiary

paleomagnetic

data

from

the

Indochina–Shan

Thai

Block

reveal

complex
patterns

of

intra-plate

deformation

in

response

to

the

India–Eurasia

collision.

Paleomagnetically

detected
motions

from

the

margins

of

tectonic

blocks

are

interpreted

to

mainly

reflect

displacement

of

upper
crustal

blocks

due

to

folding

and

faulting

processes.

Rigid,

lithosphere

scale

block

rotation

is

not

neces-
sarily

supported

by

the

paleomagnetic

data.

The

paleomagnetic

results

from

areas

east

and

south

of

the
Red

River

fault

system

suggest

that

this

major

transcurrent

fault

system

has

had

a

complicated

slip

history
through

much

of

the

Cenozoic

and

that

it

does

not

demarcate

completely

non-rotated

and

significantly
rotated

parts

of

the

crust

in

this

area.

However,

most

paleomagnetic

results

from

areas

east

and

south

of
the

Red

River

fault

system

at

the

latitude

of

Yunnan

Province

are

consistent

with

a

very

modest

(about
800

km+−),

yet

paleomagnetically

resolvable

southward

component

of

latitudinal

translation.

Accord-
ingly,

given

the

difficulty

in

separating

actual

lithosphere-scale

plate

motions

from

those

of

relatively
thin,

upper

crustal

blocks,

we

advocate

extreme

caution

in

interpreting

paleomagnetic

data

from

regions
such

as

Indochina

where

block

interaction

and

strong

deformation

are

known

to

have

occurred.
© 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1.

Introduction
The

tectonic

history

of

the

Southeast

Asia

region

has

attracted
the

attention

of

numerous

geoscientists

for

over

a

century.

Active
tectonic-geodynamic

processes

have

affected

the

region

in

a
∗
Corresponding

author.

Tel.:

+84

0913

222

102;

fax:

+84

4

37754797.
E-mail

addresses:



(T.C.

Cung),


(J.W.

Geissman).
1
Now

at:

Department

of

Geosciences,

The

University

of

Texas

at

Dallas,

ROC

21,
800

West

Campbell

Road,

Richardson,

TX

75080-3021,

United

States.
Tel:

+1

972

883

2454;

fax:

+1

972

883

2537.
prolonged

and

complicated

fashion.

These

include

the

subduc-
tion

of

the

Indo-Australian

plate

under

the

Eurasia

plate

along

the
Indonesia

arc;

the

India–Eurasia

collision

and

different

intra-plate
deformation

processes

associated

with

the

formation

and

growth
of

the

Tibetan

Plateau.

The

Southeast

Asian

region

is

considered

a
natural

laboratory

for

active

tectonic

and

geodynamic

processes,
and

thus

can

be

used

as

an

analog

for

studying

more

ancient

tec-
tonic

processes.

There

are

two

general

schools

of

thought

regarding
the

effects

of

the

collision

between

India

and

Eurasia

on

the
subsequent

tectonic

history

of

eastern

and

southeast

Asia.

Propo-
nents

of

extrusion

tectonics

suggest

that

convergence

between

the
Indian

subcontinent

and

the

Eurasian

plate

was

mainly

accom-
modated

by

east–southeast

directed

translation

and

rotation

of
0264-3707/$

–

see

front

matter ©

2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:
10.1016/j.jog.2011.11.008
Please

cite

this

article

in

press

as:

Cung,

T.C.,

Geissman,

J.W.,

A

review

of

the

paleomagnetic

data

from

Cretaceous

to

lower

Tertiary

rocks
from

Vietnam,

Indochina

and

South

China,

and

their

implications

for

Cenozoic

tectonism

in

Vietnam

and

adjacent

areas.

J.

Geodyn.

(2013),
doi:
10.1016/j.jog.2011.11.008

ARTICLE IN PRESS
G

Model
GEOD-1103;

No.

of

Pages

11
2 T.C.

Cung,

J.W.

Geissman

/

Journal

of

Geodynamics

xxx (2013) xxx–

xxx
Fig.

1.

Generalized

tectonic

framework

map

of

Southeast

Asia,

modified

from

Leloup

et

al.

(2001)

and

Takemoto

et

al.

(2005).

Arrows

adjacent

to

several

major

structures
show

overall

sense

of

shear

prior

to

∼16

Ma

along

these

structures.
large-scale,

discrete

continental

lithospheric

blocks

such

as

‘Sun-
daland’

(i.e.

Indochina,

Shan-Thai,

the

southwest

East

Vietnam

Sea,
and

southwest

Borneo),

South

China,

and

Tibet

along

major

left-
lateral

strike-slip

faults

(Tapponnier

et

al.,

1982,

1986;

Peltzer

and
Tapponnier,

1988;

Replumaz

and

Tapponnier,

2003)

(Fig.

1).

In

con-
trast,

other

workers

argue

that

crustal

shortening

and

thickening

in
the

Himalaya

and

Tibet

is

the

principal

mechanism

for

accommo-
dating

this

collision

(Dewey

et

al.,

1989;

England

and

Houseman,
1989;

England

and

Molnar,

1990).

One

major

consequence

pre-
dicted

by

both

models,

however,

is

a

large-magnitude

clockwise
rotation

of

Sundaland,

which

behaved

either

as

a

rigid

lithospheric
block

(a

basic

tenet

of

the

extrusion

model)

or

as

a

series

of

upper-
crustal

blocks

that

were

translated

southeastward

along

laterally
continuous,

north–south–trending

dextral

shear

zones

and

rotated

in

a

clockwise

sense

(as

in

crustal

shortening

models).
Over

the

past

few

decades,

paleomagnetic

results

from

rocks

of
different

ages

and

origins

from

the

Southeast

Asian

region

have
increased

both

in

quantity

and

quality,

and

the

data

obtained
contribute

to

elucidating

the

tectonic

history

of

this

region
over

time,

by

providing

increasingly

accurate

paleogeographic
reconstructions

of

lithosphere-scale

and

smaller

blocks

that

were
welded

together

as

microcontinents

to

form

the

Eurasian

conti-
nent

(Fig.

2).

However,

the

interpretation

of

paleomagnetic

results
from

an

actively

deforming

region

such

as

Southeast

Asia

is
not

straightforward,

because

early

acquired,

essentially

primary
magnetizations

may

be

modified

by

subsequent

tectonic

effects,
involving

enhanced

fluid

migration,

increased

burial

and

thus
enhanced

temperatures,

penetrative

deformation,

as

well

as

other
processes

(Lowrie

et

al.,

1986;

McCabe

and

Elmore,

1989;

Fuller
et

al.,

1991;

Gillett

and

Geissman,

1993;

Pares

et

al.,

1999;

Van
der

Voo

and

Torsvik,

2011).

Paleomagnetically

detected

rotations,
as

documented

by

discrepancies

or

discordances

in

declination
between

observed

and

expected

(or

“reference”)

declinations

may
sometimes

reflect

spatially

localized

components

of

deformation

related

to

shear

zones

(Ron

et

al.,

1984;

Jackson

and

Molnar,

1990),
differential

shortening

within

thrust

sheets

(Stamatakos

and

Hirt,
1994;

Roperch

et

al.,

2000;

Sussman

et

al.,

2004;

Pueyo

et

al.,

2004),
or

arc

related

deformation

(MacDonald,

1980;

Minyuk

and

Stone,
2009
).

Therefore,

rigid

body,

internally

coherent

rotations

of

plates,
or

microplates,

cannot

always

be

assumed

on

the

basis

of

the

data
available.
This

paper

synthesizes

the

available

paleomagnetic

data

from
Cretaceous

to

Paleogene

continental

red

bed

formations

from

the
Indochina

and

South

China

regions

obtained

in

several

studies
by

different

researchers

and

evaluates

their

tectonic

importance,
especially

paleomagnetically

detected

deformation

(specifically
rotation

and

translation)

of

crustal

elements

that

is

likely

related
to

the

India–Eurasia

collision

during

the

Cenozoic.

Space

does

not
allow

us

to

focus

attention

on

the

details

of

the

accuracy

and
reliability

of

each

specific

paleomagnetic

data

set;

rather,

we

con-
centrate

on

the

tectonic

interpretation

of

these

data,

and

consider
such

factors

as

the

origin

and

nature

of

magnetization

characteris-
tic

of

the

rocks

examined

(e.g.,

primary

or

secondary,

i.e.,

the

extent
of

possible

remagnetization),

the

age

of

the

rock

formation,

and

the
effects

that

tectonic

deformation

may

have

played

in

defining

the
tectonic

importance.
The

relative

rotation

and

translation

of

any

structural

block

or
domain

that

have

been

identified

on

the

basis

of

paleomagnetic
directions

from

rocks

located

within

that

block

are

determined
by

comparing

the

observed

directions

with

the

coeval

expected
Please

cite

this

article

in

press

as:

Cung,

T.C.,

Geissman,

J.W.,

A

review

of

the

paleomagnetic

data

from

Cretaceous

to

lower

Tertiary

rocks
from

Vietnam,

Indochina

and

South

China,

and

their

implications

for

Cenozoic

tectonism

in

Vietnam

and

adjacent

areas.

J.

Geodyn.

(2013),
doi:
10.1016/j.jog.2011.11.008
ARTICLE IN PRESS
G

Model
GEOD-1103;

No.

of

Pages

11
T.C.

Cung,

J.W.

Geissman

/

Journal

of

Geodynamics

xxx (2013) xxx–

xxx 3
Table

1
Apparent

Polar

Wander

Path

for

Eurasia

derived

by

Besse

and

Courtillot

(1991).
Age

(Ma)



(
◦
N)



(
◦
E)

A
95
Age

(Ma)



(
◦
N)



(
◦
E)

A

95
Note
10

84.1

149.1

2.3

110

73.3

206.5

5.1
20

82.3 147.6 3.2

120

74.8

210.9

4.1
30

81.0

132.8

2.7

130

75.2

205.8

5.0
40

80.2

145.4

3.8

140

71.6

173.0

10.4
50

77.9

149.0

4.3

150

70.0

157.8

6.7
60

78.5

178.7

3.9

160

68.8

154.9

6.0
70

77.2

192.4

4.1

170

63.3

120.7

3.0
80

76.2

198.9

3.4

180

64.2

116.7

2.7
90

76.7 200.1 3.5 190

66.7

109.0

3.9
100

76.7

197.1

5.4

200

67.3

111.6

6.7
Mean

Eocene

poles

79.8

143.1

3.3

30–50

Ma

poles
Mean

K2

poles

77.2

193.9

2.0

60–100

Ma

poles
Mean

K1

poles

74.3

198.1

6.0

110–140

Ma

poles
Mean

K

poles

75.9

196.0

2.5

60–140

Ma

poles

Mean

J3–K

poles

75.4

186.6

3.6

60–160

Ma

poles
Mean

J3–K1

poles

73.7

181.8

6.7

110–160

Ma

poles
directions

of

a

reference

block

or

continent

derived

from

an

Appar-
ent

Polar

Wander

Path

(APWP)

that,

ideally,

is

well

determined
for

the

appropriate

geologic

time

interval

in

question.

Besse

and
Courtillot

(1991,

2002)

have

derived

synthetic

APWPs

for

the
Eurasia

continent

from

200

Ma

to

present

with

considerably

high
precision.

In

addition,

several

studies

have

contributed

to

the

inde-
pendent

development

of

an

APWP

for

the

South

China

block

itself
(e.g.,

Enkin

et

al.,

1992;

Chen

et

al.,

1993;

Hankard

et

al.,

2005;

Sun
et

al.,

2006;

Zhu

et

al.,

2006;

Tsuneki

et

al.,

2009),

therefore

the
paleomagnetic

data

from

rocks

of

the

Indochina

and

South

China

blocks

discussed

in

this

paper

will

be

compared

with

the

expected
directions

calculated

from

this

APWP

for

certain

geologic

time
periods

(Table

1)

to

evaluate

their

tectonic

significance.
2.

Cretaceous

paleomagnetic

results

of

the

South

China
Block
According

to

Hsu

et

al.

(1988),

the

South

China

Block

consists

of

two

micro-continents—the

Yangtze

Craton

in

the

northwest
and

the

Hoa

Nam

Block

in

the

southeast

(Fig.

1).

These

two
micro-continents

were

welded

together

during

subduction

of

the
Fig.

2.

Simplified

tectonic

framework

digital

elevation

map

of

the

Indochina

and

South

China

regions

and

the

observed

declinations

of

selected

Cretaceous

rock

formations
compared

with

expected

declination

values.
Please

cite

this

article

in

press

as:

Cung,

T.C.,

Geissman,

J.W.,

A

review

of

the

paleomagnetic

data

from

Cretaceous

to

lower

Tertiary

rocks
from

Vietnam,

Indochina

and

South

China,

and

their

implications

for

Cenozoic

tectonism

in

Vietnam

and

adjacent

areas.

J.

Geodyn.

(2013),
doi:
10.1016/j.jog.2011.11.008
ARTICLE IN PRESS
G

Model
GEOD-1103;

No.

of

Pages

11
4 T.C.

Cung,

J.W.

Geissman

/

Journal

of

Geodynamics

xxx (2013) xxx–

xxx
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
Rotation Magnitude, in degrees

Locality Latitude, N
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
27
29
31
32
Mean, Early
Cretaceous (K1) poles
Mean, Late Cretaceous (K2) poles
Mean, Cretaceous poles
o
(clockwise)
(counterclockwise)
Fig.

3.

Relative

rotation

of

elements

of

South

China

tectonic

block,

as

a

function

of
latitude

of

the

sampling

area,

with

respect

to

Eurasia.

The

stars

represent

the

relative
rotation

of

South

China

Block

calculated

from

the

mean

of

paleomagnetic

poles

for
the

Early

Cretaceous,

the

Late

Cretaceous,

and

the

entire

Cretaceous

Period.

Vertical
bars

represent

the

uncertainty

of

each

result,

as

represented

by

˛
95
values.
paleo-Pacific

plate

under

the

Eurasia

plate

in

late

Mesozoic

time,
along

the

Jiangnan

suture

zone,

which

exposes

of

Mesoprotero-
zoic

and

Neoproterozoic

low-grade

metamorphic

rocks.

Xu

(1993),
however,

suggests

that

the

entire

eastern

part

of

the

Chinese

land-
mass

was

dominated

by

a

Mesozoic

sinistral

shear

system.

The

Xu
(1993)

hypothesis

is

supported

by

isotopic

and

paleomagnetic

data
from

Jurassic

and

Cretaceous

intrusions

that

are

widely

exposed

in
the

southeast

part

of

the

South

China

Block

(Gilder

et

al.,

1996).
There

is

general

consensus

that

by

the

Late

Jurassic

the

South
China

Block

was

already

accreted

to

the

North

China

Block

along
the

Qinling

suture

belt,

forming

the

stable

Eurasia

continent.

Since
the

early

1980s,

paleomagnetic

studies

have

been

carried

out

on
Mesozoic

and

Cenozoic

rock

formations

in

China,

and

these

data
have

facilitated

the

construction

of

overall

well-defined

Apparent
Polar

Wander

Paths

(APWP)

for

the

South

China

and

North

China
blocks

from

the

Late

Permian

to

the

present.

A

general

comparison
of

these

APWPs

with

the

APWP

for

the

Eurasian

continent

shows
that,

since

the

Cretaceous,

the

South

China

and

North

China

blocks
have

remained

relatively

stable

with

respect

to

the

Eurasia

plate
(
Enkin

et

al.,

1992).

The

India–Eurasia

collision

during

the

Cenozoic
has

not

significantly

distorted

the

South

China

and

North

China
blocks

relative

to

one

another

and

to

Eurasia

(Enkin

et

al.,

1992;
Chen

et

al.,

1993).
Paleomagnetic

data

from

Cretaceous

rock

formations

of

the
South

China

Block

(listed

in

Table

2)

show

that,

among

23

studies

at
generally

separate

localities,

only

six

provide

evidence

for

localities
affected

by

a

combination

of

the

relative

rotation

and

latitudinal

translation,

and

these

data

mainly

come

from

Upper

Cretaceous

to
Eocene

continental

red

beds.

For

six

other

localities,

only

relative
rotation

has

been

found

and

two

other

sites

show

only

latitudinal
translation.

The

relative

rotation

and

latitudinal

translation

data
are

summarized

in

Figs.

3

and

4.
A

comparison

of

Early

Cretaceous,

Late

Cretaceous

and

overall
Cretaceous

mean

paleopoles

of

the

South

China

Block

to

the

corre-
sponding

paleopoles

of

the

Eurasia

continent

shows

no

significant
rotation

nor

latitudinal

translation

of

the

South

China

Block

overall
relative

to

the

Eurasia

continent.

This

further

confirms

the

conclu-

sion

of

previous

workers

(e.g.,

Enkin

et

al.,

1992;

Chen

et

al.,

1993;
Hankard

et

al.,

2005;

Sun

et

al.,

2006;

Zhu

et

al.,

2006).

We

inter-
pret

the

relative

rotation

and

translation

that

is

implied

by

data
from

some

localities

to

reflect

local

deformation

of

the

upper

crust,
rather

than

motion

of

the

entire

lithospheric

block.

This

interpre-
tation

appears

to

be

consistent

with

the

observation

that,

at

least
for

some

localities,

larger

magnitudes

of

rotation

have

been

sug-
gested

in

younger

rocks

(e.g.,

Upper

Cretaceous

to

Eocene

strata),
yet

older,

underlying

rock

formations

have

been

less

deformed

by
20
10
0
-10
-20
Latitudinal Translation, in degrees
Locality Longitude, E
Mean, Early
Cretaceous (K1) poles
Mean, Late Cretaceous (K2) poles
Mean,
Cretaceous poles
o
(southward)
(northward)
30
25
15
5

-5
-15
-25
98
100
104 106
108 110
112
114
116
118
120
Fig.

4.

Latitudinal

translation

of

elements

of

the

South

China

block

as

a

function
of

longitude

of

the

sampling

area

with

respect

to

Eurasia.

The

stars

represent

the
relative

translation,

in

degrees,

of

parts

of

the

South

China

Block

calculated

from

the
mean

of

paleomagnetic

poles

for

the

Early

Cretaceous,

the

Late

Cretaceous,

and

the
entire

Cretaceous

Period.

Vertical

bars

represent

the

uncertainty

of

each

result,

as
represented

by

˛
95
values.
vertical

axis

rotation.

There

are

alternative

explanations

for

such
seemingly

disparate

data

sets.

Older

rocks

could

have

been

system-
atically

remagnetized

at

a

time

younger

than

the

age

of

overlying
rocks

preserving

primary

magnetizations

that

imply

rotations.
An

accurate

paleomagnetic

assessment

of

the

displacement

of
a

large-scale

lithospheric

block

should,

in

principle,

be

based

on
data

from

several

well-distributed

study

localities,

as

results

from
deformed

or

deforming

areas,

typically

at

the

margin

of

cratonic
block,

may

likely

be

unrepresentative

of

the

stable

interior

(e.g.,
Van

der

Voo,

1993).

Data

from

areas

that

have

potentially

been
affected

by

more

local

scale

tectonism

must

be

considered

with
great

caution

when

considering

their

incorporation

into

a

grand
mean

paleomagnetic

pole

determination

for

a

craton.

Furthermore,
the

age

of

the

rocks

examined,

as

well

as

the

age

of

the

magne-
tization(s)

that

are

characteristic

of

the

rocks

examined

must

be
known

for

the

most

robust

comparisons

with

well-dated

reference
paleomagnetic

poles.

Finally,

as

more

and

more

studies

are

demon-
strating,

the

effects

of

sediment

compaction

on

the

inclination

of

the

remanence

preserved

in

sedimentary

rocks

during

what

are
typically

prolonged

and

complicated

diagenetic

processes

can

be
significant

(refs).

Inclination

flattening

factors

(f),

with

f

being

the
ratio

of

tan

(Io)/tan

(If),

where

Io

is

the

observed

inclination

and
If

is

the

decompacted

or

deflattened

inclination,

can

be

approx-
imated

using

both

laboratory-based

approaches

(e.g.,

Bilardello
and

Kodama,

2009,

2010)

and

one

involving

examination

of

the
elongation

bias

in

observed

paleomagnetic

vectors

relative

to

an
expected

long-term

geocentric

axial

dipole

field

model

(Tauxe

and
Kent,

2004).

For

red

beds,

for

example,

f

values

typically

vary

from
about

0.78

(e.g.,

Donohoo-Hurley,

2011;

Donohoo-Hurley

et

al.,

in
preparation
)

to

about

0.52

(e.g.,

Kent

and

Olsen,

2008).

Not

all

“ref-
erence”

paleomagnetic

poles

that

are

used

in

the

present

overview,
or

any

similar

assessment,

either

include

only

those

data

from

sed-
imentary

rocks

that

have

been

adequately

corrected

for

inclination
shallowing

or

are

based

only

on

data

from

igneous

rocks

(unaf-
fected

by

inclination

shallowing).

Consequently,

inferences

based
on

the

inclinations

of

paleomagnetic

data

from

sedimentary

rocks
that

we

discuss

below

must

be

treated

with

caution,

as

it

is

likely
that

current

estimates

of

latitudinal

translation

may

be

in

greater
error

than

that

simply

based

on

the

estimated

dispersion

of

the
population

of

data

used

to

determine

a

mean

inclination.
3.

Cretaceous

paleomagnetic

results

from

Vietnam
Since

1992,

several

paleomagnetic

studies

have

been

carried

out
by

the

first

author

of

this

contribution,

as

well

as

others,

on

different
Please

cite

this

article

in

press

as:

Cung,

T.C.,

Geissman,

J.W.,

A

review

of

the

paleomagnetic

data

from

Cretaceous

to

lower

Tertiary

rocks
from

Vietnam,

Indochina

and

South

China,

and

their

implications

for

Cenozoic

tectonism

in

Vietnam

and

adjacent

areas.

J.

Geodyn.

(2013),
doi:
10.1016/j.jog.2011.11.008
ARTICLE IN PRESS
G

Model
GEOD-1103;

No.

of

Pages

11
T.C.

Cung,

J.W.

Geissman

/

Journal

of

Geodynamics

xxx (2013) xxx–

xxx 5
Table

2
Cretaceous–Eocene

paleomagnetic

results

of

the

South

China

block.
N

Location

Age

(Ma)

Observed

VGP

Expected

VGP

Rotation

Translation

Significance

Reference


(
◦
N)



(
◦
E)



(
◦
N)



(
◦
E)

A
95


(
◦
N)



(

◦
E)

R

±

R



±


South

China

block
1

25.7

101.3

E

72.3

218.4

4.5

79.8

143.1

8.3

±

6.1

16.3

±

5.6

Y/Y

(13)
2

26.1 101.7 E

70.1 224.6

4.9

79.8

143.1

9.1

±

6.5

19.2

±

5.9

Y/Y

(13)
3

25.7

102.1

K2–E

61.8

192.2

10.5

77.2

193.9

16.6

±

11.6

2.2

±

10.7

Y/N

(14)
4

25.9

101.8

K2–E

65.6

203.0

2.6

77.2

193.9

11.3

±

3.5

5.7

±

3.2

Y/Y

(14)
5

25.0

116.4

K2

67.9

186.2

9.2

77.2

193.9

10.1

±

10.9

−3.5

±

9.4

N/N

(4)
6

26.0

117.3

K2

65.1

207.2

5.0

77.2

193.9

13.1

±

6.0

4.8

±

5.4

Y/N

(2)
7

23.1

113.3

K2

56.2

211.5

3.9

77.2

193.9

20.8

±

4.6

9.9

±

4.4

Y/Y

(2)
8

24.4 112.3 K2

66.0 221.5 3.4

77.2

193.9

9.3

±

4.1

10.8

±

4.0

Y/Y

(15)
9

30.0 102.9 K2

72.8 241.1

6.6

77.2

193.9

−2.8

±

7.3

12.3

±

6.9

N/Y

(9)
10

32.0

119.0

K2

76.3

172.6

10.3

77.2

193.9

−0.7

±

13.6

−4.8

±

10.5

N/N

(12)
11

30.8

118.2

K2

83.8

200.3

14.6

77.2

193.9

−7.7

±

17.4

1.6

±

14.7

N/N

(16)
12

25.0

101.5

K

49.2

178.0

11.4

75.9

196.0

30.3

±

13.2

−4.2

±

11.6

Y/N

(3)
13

30.1

103.0

K

76.3

274.5

11.1

75.9

196.0

−14.0

±

11.9

11.9

±

11.4

Y/Y

(11)
14

22.2

114.2

J3–K

78.2

171.9

10.6

75.4

186.6

−4.2

±

12.6

−2.2

±

11.1

N/N

(1)
15

30.0

102.9

K1

74.5

229.0

4.0

74.3

198.1

−4.4

±

8.0

7.2

±

7.3

Y/N

(10)
16

18.9

109.4

K1

83.2

143.0

9.8

74.3

198.1

−12.5

±

12.5

−6.0

±

11.5

N/N

(17)
17

22.7

108.7

K1

86.5

26.4

10.0

74.3

198.1

−20.8

±

12.7

−1.1

±

11.6

Y/N

(2)
18

26.0 117.3 K1

66.9

221.4

5.4

74.3

198.1

6.2

±

8.9

8.9

±

8.1

N/Y

(5)
19

26.5

102.4

K1

81.5

220.9

7.1

74.3

198.1

−9.0

±

10.2

1.7

±

9.3

N/N

(6)
20

26.8

102.5

K1

69.0

204.6

4.3

74.3

198.1

4.8

±

8.0

3.5

±

7.4

N/N

(6)
21

27.9

102.3

K1

77.4

196.2

14.5

74.3

198.1

−3.2

±

17.5

−1.1

±

15.8

N/N

(7)
22

27.9

102.3

K1

85.2

241.7

3.5

74.3

198.1

−13.9

±

7.6

1.0

±

7.0

Y/N

(13)
23

29.7

120.3

K1

77.1

227.6

5.5

74.3

198.1

−4.5

±

9.4

6.6

±

8.1

N/N

(8)
Mean

K1

poles

(13–23): 80.0 216.1

5.4

74.3

198.1

−7.1

±

8.8

2.2

±

8.1

N/N
Mean

K2

poles

(3–11):

69.2

203.6

6.6

77.2

193.9

8.4

±

7.5

3.8

±

6.9

Y/N
Mean

K

poles

(3–23):

74.2

204.9

5.0

75.9

196.0

1.4

±

6.1

2.6

±

5.6

N/N
Note:

Sign.

=

Significance

(Y:

Yes,

N:

No),

Ref.

=

Reference,

K1

=

Early

Cretaceous,

K2

=

Late

Cretaceous,

K

=

Cretaceous,

J3–K

=

Late

Jurassic–Cretaceous,

K2–E

=

Late

Cretaceous–Eocene,

E

=

Eocene.

Rotation

and

latitudinal

translation

were

calculated

at

each

study

locality

following

Butler

(1992);

negative

(positive)

sign

indicates

CCW
(CW)

rotation

and

southward

(northward)

translation,

respectively.

Expected

VGPs

are

calculated

from

Eurasian

poles

(Table

1)

derived

by

Besse

and

Courtillot

(1991).
(1)

=

Chan

(1991),

(2)

=

Gilder

et

al.

(1993),

(3)

=

Funahara

et

al.

(1992),

(4)

=

Hu

et

al.

(1990),

(5)

=

Zhai

et

al.

(1992),

(6)

=

Huang

and

Opdyke

(1992a),

(7)

=

Zhu

et

al.

(1988),
(8)

=

Lin

(1984),

(9)

=

Enkin

et

al.

(1991a),

(10)

=

Enkin

et

al.

(1991b),

(11)

=

Otofuji

et

al.

(1990),

(12)

=

Kent

et

al.

(1986),

(13)

=

Yoshioka

et

al.

(2003),

(14)

=

Otofuji

et

al.

(1998),
(15)

=

Hsu

(1987),

(16)

=

Gilder

et

al.

(1999),

(17)

=

Li

et

al.

(1995).
rock

units

of

Cretaceous

age

in

Vietnam.

The

results

of

these

studies
have

been

published

in

Vietnamese

and

international

journals

(Chi,
1996,

2001;

Chi

et

al.,

1998,

1999,

2000;

Chi

and

Dorobek,

2004).
The

second

author

is

in

the

processes

of

preparing

a

contribution
on

a

collection

of

Cretaceous

red

beds

obtained

in

2009

and

some
preliminary

results

are

presented

here.

The

results

of

all

of

these
studies

are

summarized

below;

information

on

individual

site

data

and

characteristics

of

the

paleomagnetism

of

each

rock

unit

is

in
the

original

papers.
3.1.

Northwestern

Vietnam
Ten

sites

with

76

oriented

core

samples

were

collected

from

Late
Jurassic

and

Cretaceous

extrusive,

intrusive,

and

red

bed

rocks

from
the

Tu

Le

Depression

and

Song

Da

Terrane,

situated

just

to

the

south
of

the

Red

River

fault

(Figure

1

of

Chi

et

al.,

2000).

The

analysis

of

the
rock

magnetic

properties

and

the

response

to

progressive

AF

and
thermal

demagnetization

of

rock

samples

reveals

that

the

principal
remanence

carrier

in

the

extrusive

and

intrusive

rocks

sampled

is
nearly

pure

to

low

Ti

magnetite

and

that

of

red

beds

sampled

is
hematite

(Chi

et

al.,

2000).

The

paleomagnetic

results

(Table

3)

are
interpreted

to

suggest

that

the

area

studied

in

northwest

Vietnam
has

not

been

significantly

rotated

nor

translated

in

a

latitudinal
sense

relative

to

the

South

China

Block

or

the

Eurasia

continent
since

the

Cretaceous

(Table

5,

Figs.

5

and

6).

The

results

are

consis-
tent

with

those

reported

by

Huang

and

Opdyke

(1993),

from

Upper
Cretaceous

red

bed

strata

near

Xiaguan,

in

southwestern

Yunnan,
China,

situated

adjacent

to

the

Red

River

fault.

Chi

et

al.

(2000)
determined

a

Late

Jurassic–Cretaceous

paleomagnetic

pole

for

the
northwest

region

of

Vietnam,

which

is

located

at

83.9
◦
N,

233.1
◦
E
(A
95
=

11.9
◦
).

This

pole

is

statistically

indistinguishable

from

the
Late

Cretaceous

paleomagnetic

pole

for

the

Xiaguan

area

(83.6
◦

N,
152.7
◦
E,

A
95
=

10
◦
)

reported

by

Huang

and

Opdyke

(1993),

but
both

of

these

results

are

associated

with

relatively

high

dispersion.
The

two

reported

poles

are

also

indistinguishable

from

Cretaceous
paleomagnetic

poles

for

the

South

China

block

and

Eurasia

con-
tinent

at

95%

confidence

level,

which

further

corroborates

Huang
and

Opdyke’s

(1993)

conclusion

that

the

Red

River

fault

does

not
demarcate

unrotated

and

significantly

rotated

regions

(Huang

and
Opdyke,

1993).
More

recently,

Takemoto

et

al.

(2005)

reported

data

from

the
Yen

Chau

Formation,

consisting

of

mid-Cretaceous

red

bed

that

are
part

of

the

Song

Da

Terrane

in

northwest

Vietnam.

Fifteen

sites,
with

six

to

ten

hand

samples

at

each

site,

were

collected

at

Yen
Chau

and

Lai

Chau

localities

along

the

road

No.

6

leading

from
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
Rotation Magnitude, in degrees
Locality Latitude, N
(clockwise)
(counter-
clockwise)
21
11
12
13 14
15
16
17
18
19
20

22
23
24
25
26 27
Yongping (K1)
Yunlong
(K2)
Lan
ping
(K2)
Xiaguan (K2)
Northern Vietnam (
J3-K)
Khorat
Plateau (J3-K1)
Southern
Vietnam (K)
Shan Plateau (
J3-K)
Simao Terrane
Mengla (Eocene)
Mengla (K2)
Jinggu (K2)
Jinggu (K1)
70
80
90
100
110

120
o
Lanping
(Eocene)
Fig.

5.

Relative

rotation

of

elements

of

the

Indochina-Shan

Thai

terranes,

as

a

func-
tion

of

the

latitude

of

the

sampling

area,

with

respect

to

Eurasia.

Vertical

bars
represent

the

uncertainty

of

each

result,

as

represented

by

˛
95
values.
Please

cite

this

article

in

press

as:

Cung,

T.C.,

Geissman,

J.W.,

A

review

of

the

paleomagnetic

data

from

Cretaceous

to

lower

Tertiary

rocks
from

Vietnam,

Indochina

and

South

China,

and

their

implications

for

Cenozoic

tectonism

in

Vietnam

and

adjacent

areas.

J.

Geodyn.

(2013),
doi:
10.1016/j.jog.2011.11.008
ARTICLE IN PRESS
G

Model
GEOD-1103;

No.

of

Pages

11
6 T.C.

Cung,

J.W.

Geissman

/

Journal

of

Geodynamics

xxx (2013) xxx–

xxx
Table

3
Paleomagnetic

results

of

Late

Jurassic–Cretaceous

rocks

from

northwestern

Vietnam.
Site

Location

Rock

type

Age

n/N

ChRM

direction

VGP
Lat.

(
◦
N)

Long

(
◦
E)

D
g
(
◦
)

I
g
(
◦
)

D
s
(
◦
)

I
s
(
◦
)

˛
95
k

Lat

(
◦
N)

Long

(
◦
E)
GP

21.15

104.65

Volcanic

tuff

J3–K

5/5

37.2

56.1

–

–

9.6

34.0

54.3

161.3
BH1

21.47

104.38

Rhyolitic

tuff

J3–K

6/6

357.8

34.7

–

–

2.6

669.5

86.6

321.8
BH2

21.47

104.38

Rhyolitic

porphyry

J3–K

7/7

353.8

26.9

–

–

6.2

94.5

80.4

323.8
TL

21.69 104.45 Volcanic

ash

J3–K

8/8

5.6

49.5

–

–

7.9

24.1

80.4

135.1
PT

22.53

103.28

Sandstone

K

6/7

338.6

48.8

–

–

12.7

14.2

69.7

37.7
NTH

21.48

104.42

Rhyolite

K

6/6

358.5

23.4

–

–

5.1

170.3

80.3

293.4
SR

21.28

104.70

Redbed

siltstone

K

9/9

21.1

−30.6

–

–

7.8

44.9

46.8

254.9

22.3

8.4

7.2

52.6

62.3

230.6
YC

21.05

104.27

Redbed

siltstone

K2

12/12

188.0

−36.5

–

–

14.9

9.4

82.5

199.1
192.6 −15.6 14.7 9.7 72.1 239.8
QH

22.36 103.78

Granite

K2–Pg

8/8

347.7

18.3

–

–

9.2

37.5

72.3

328.0
OQ

22.37

103.73

Granite

K2–Pg

7/8

18.9

21.9

–

–

4.6

88.9

68.7

223.0
Mean:

10

–

–

4.9

31.2

13.1

14.5

83.9

233.1
Note:

N

=

total

number

of

samples;

n

=

number

of

samples

used

in

calculation

of

mean

directions;

ChRM

=

characteristic

remanent

magnetization;

D
g
,

I
g
=

geographic

(in
situ)

declination

and

inclination;

D
s
,

I
s
=

stratigraphic

(tilt

corrected)

declination

and

inclination;

˛
95
=

radius

of

95%

confidence

circle;

k

=

precision

parameter;

VGP

=

Virtual
Geomagnetic

Pole;

J3–K

=

Late

Jurassic-Cretaceous;

K2–Pg

=

Late

Cretaceous–Paleogene;

K2

=

Late

Cretaceous.
Hoa

Binh

to

Son

La

and

Lai

Chau.

Thirteen

sites

yield

a

positive
fold

test

and

give

a

grand

mean

mid-Cretaceous

paleomagnetic
direction

(D

=

6.4

◦
,

I

=

32.0
◦
,

˛
95
=

8.5
◦
)

that

corresponds

to

a

paleo-
magnetic

pole

located

at

82.9
◦
N,

220.7
◦
E

(A
95
=

6.9
◦
).

Their

results
are

consistent

with

results

reported

by

Chi

et

al.

(2000),

(Table

5,
Figs.

4

and

5).

On

the

basis

of

a

paleomagnetic

collection

involving
ten

separate

localities,

with

6–19

sites

collected

per

locality

and

seven

to

15

samples

collected

from

each

site,

Geissman

(unpub-
lished

data,

2011)

concluded

that,

overall,

the

paleomagnetic

data
from

this

area

are

consistent

with

those

reported

by

Takemoto

et

al.
(2005)

,

and

that,

depending

on

the

locality

investigated,

the

rema-
nence

in

these

mid-Cretaceous

strata

is

heavily

contaminated

by

a
relatively

recent,

post-folding

magnetization

(Fig.

7).
Overall,

the

paleomagnetic

results

from

the

three

areas

located
along

and

immediately

southwest

of

the

Red

River

fault

system

in
northern

Vietnam

suggest

that

the

fault

does

not

demarcate

non-
rotated

and

significantly

rotated

crust.

If

elements

of

the

Indochina
Block

had

been

extruded

by

a

significant

amount,

in

a

southeast
directed

fashion,

as

suggested

by

proponents

of

the

extrusion

tec-
tonics,

it

must

have

taken

place

on

some

other

faults

located

farther
to

the

southwest

of

the

Red

River

fault.
3.2.

Southern

Vietnam
Twenty

four

sites

with

a

total

of

163

core

samples

were

col-
lected

from

Cretaceous

volcanic,

intrusive

and

sedimentary

rocks
in

southern

Vietnam

(Chi

and

Dorobek,

2004).

The

distribution
of

VGPs

from

the

accepted

sites

(Table

4),

when

compared

with
20
10
0
-10
-20
Latitudinal Translation, in degrees
Locality Longitude, E
(southward)
(northward)
25
15
5
-5
-15
-25
98

100
104
106
108
96
97
99
101
102
105
107
Southern
Vietnam
Khorat Plateau
Northern
Vietnam
Simao Terrane
Mengla
(Eocene)
Lanping (Eocene)
Mengla (K2)
Lanping (K2)
Jinggu (K2)
Jinggu (K1)
Shan Plateau
Yongping (K1)
-30
-35
o
Fig.

6.

Relative

translation

of

the

Indochina-Shan

Thai

terranes,

as

a

function

of

the
longitude

of

the

sampling

area,

with

respect

to

Eurasia.

Vertical

bars

represent

the
uncertainty

of

each

determination,

as

represented

by

the

˛
95
values.
the

Eurasia

mean

Cretaceous

paleopole,

may

indicate

a

very

slight
southward

displacement

of

southern

Vietnam

(6.5

±

5.1
◦
),

yet

no
appreciable

rotation

since

the

Cretaceous

(Table

5,

Figs.

4

and

5).
Given

that

this

is

the

only

set

of

paleomagnetic

results

from

south-
ern

Vietnam

and

that

the

data

are

from

a

wide

range

of

rock

types,
this

result,

although

it

represents

the

only

data

available

from
southern

Vietnam,

should

be

considered

of

limited

importance.
The

available

paleomagnetic

data

from

Cretaceous

rocks

in
northwest

and

southern

Vietnam

may

support

some

degree

of
internal

deformation

of

this

region

in

response

to

the

India–Eurasia
collision,

but

the

distribution

of

the

data

remains

far

too

sparse
to

provide

firm

conclusions.

The

possible

southward

displace-
ment,

yet

insignificant

rotation

of

southern

Vietnam,

may

reflect
north–south

oriented

spreading

in

the

northern

part

of

South

China
Sea

with

the

development

of

a

major

right-lateral

transform

fault
system

that

extended

just

off

the

eastern

continental

margin

of
Vietnam

(Taylor

and

Hayes,

1980,

1983).

High

quality

paleomag-
netic

data

are

sorely

needed

from

Cretaceous

rocks

from

the

far
northeast

part

of

Vietnam,

east

of

the

Red

River

fault

system.
4.

Cretaceous

paleomagnetic

results

from

the
Indochina–Shan

Thai

Block
A

term

that

has

often

been

used

in

reference

to

tectonic

models
of

Cenozoic

deformation

in

the

Southeast

Asia

region,

and

referred
to

in

the

introduction,

is

the

‘Sundaland’

plate.

The

Sundaland

plate
is

defined

to

the

northeast

by

the

Red

River

fault,

to

the

west

by

the
Sagaing

fault

in

Myanmar,

to

the

east

by

the

Philippine

subduction
zone,

and

to

the

south

by

the

Indonesia

subduction

zone

(Fig.

1).
This

plate

includes

the

Shan-Thai

and

Indochina

blocks,

southwest
East

Vietnam

Sea,

Borneo

and

Malaya-Indonesia

islands.

Paleomag-
netic

data

from

farther

south

in

the

Sundaland

plate

(Fuller

et

al.,
1991;

Richter

and

Fuller,

1996)

were

used

to

evaluate

the

Cenozoic
tectonic

evolution

of

this

region

and

reflect

the

tectonic

complexity
of

the

Southeast

Asian

region.

Opposite

sense

rotations

with

dif-
ferent

magnitudes

of

rotation

have

been

observed

from

the

same

terrane

or

from

different

terranes.

Data

from

the

interior

part

of
Sundaland

are

supportive

of

some

magnitude

of

clockwise

rota-
tion,

although

counterclockwise

rotations

appear

to

characterize
the

Indonesian

peninsula

and

islands

located

in

the

southeastern
part

of

the

region.
The

Cretaceous

paleomagnetic

data

of

the

Shan-Thai

and

Indochina

blocks

obtained

over

the

past

two

decades

or

so

highlight
the

nature

and

potential

complexities

of

intraplate

deforma-
tion

due

to

the

impact

of

India–Eurasia

collision.

According

to
Please

cite

this

article

in

press

as:

Cung,

T.C.,

Geissman,

J.W.,

A

review

of

the

paleomagnetic

data

from

Cretaceous

to

lower

Tertiary

rocks
from

Vietnam,

Indochina

and

South

China,

and

their

implications

for

Cenozoic

tectonism

in

Vietnam

and

adjacent

areas.

J.

Geodyn.

(2013),
doi:
10.1016/j.jog.2011.11.008
ARTICLE IN PRESS
G

Model
GEOD-1103;

No.

of

Pages

11
T.C.

Cung,

J.W.

Geissman

/

Journal

of

Geodynamics

xxx (2013) xxx–

xxx 7
Fig.

7.

Some

preliminary

paleomagnetic

results

from

Cretaceous

redbeds

in

northwest

Vietnam.

(a,

b)

Relatively

recent

road

construction

activities

have

resulted

in

abundant
road

exposures

of

relatively

fresh

bedrock

in

this

area.

(c–i)

Examples

of

response

to

progressive

demagnetization

by

Cretaceous

redbeds.

Orthogonal

demagnetization
diagrams

showing

the

endpoint

of

the

magnetization

vector

plotted

onto

the

horizontal

(filled

symbols)

and

vertical

(open

symbols)

planes

(Zijderveld,

1967).

Selected
demagnetization

steps

are

show

adjacent

to

vertical

projections.

All

diagrams

in

geographic

coordinates.

(c–e)

Demagnetization

results

showing

the

removal

of

a

north-
directed

and

steep

positive

inclination

(in

geographic

coordinates)

magnetization

followed,

at

high

laboratory

unblocking

temperatures,

a

magnetization

that

is

northwest-
directed

and

shallow

inclination

that,

in

stratigraphic

coordinates

is

north–northeast

directed

and

moderate

positive

in

inclination

and

is

interpreted

as

a

primary

remanence.
(f

and

g)

Demagnetization

results

showing

the

first-removal

of

a

north-directed

and

moderate

positive

inclination

magnetization,

followed

by

an

east-directed

and

shallow
magnetization.

Results

from

this

locality

are

interpreted

to

suggest

a

considerable

magnitude

clockwise

rotation,

that

is

inconsistent

with

other

data

from

northwest

Vietnam
and

likely

reflective

of

a

local

structural

feature.

(h

and

i)

Examples

of

results

where

a

moderate

negative

inclination

magnetization

predominates;

after

structural

correction
this

magnetization

is

south-directed

and

of

relatively

shallow

inclination,

and

thus

interpreted

as

a

reverse

polarity

primary

magnetization.
Please

cite

this

article

in

press

as:

Cung,

T.C.,

Geissman,

J.W.,

A

review

of

the

paleomagnetic

data

from

Cretaceous

to

lower

Tertiary

rocks
from

Vietnam,

Indochina

and

South

China,

and

their

implications

for

Cenozoic

tectonism

in

Vietnam

and

adjacent

areas.

J.

Geodyn.

(2013),
doi:
10.1016/j.jog.2011.11.008
ARTICLE IN PRESS
G

Model
GEOD-1103;

No.

of

Pages

11
8 T.C.

Cung,

J.W.

Geissman

/

Journal

of

Geodynamics

xxx (2013) xxx–

xxx
Table

4

Paleomagnetic

results

of

Cretaceous

rock

formations

from

southern

Vietnam.
Site

Location

Rock

type

St/Dp

n/N

ChRM

direction

VGP
Lat

(
◦
N)

Long

(
◦
E)

D
g
(
◦
)

I
g
(
◦
)

D
s

(
◦
)

I
s
(
◦
)

˛
95
k


s
(
◦
N)


s
(
◦
E)

A
95
8703

12.47

109.13

Rhyolitic

tuff

18/24

7/7

18.1

36.9

35.1

33.2

7.4

67.7

185.1

55.8

6.8
8705

12.29

109.21

Rhyolite

–

6/6

354.7

34.6

–

–

2.8

561.5

72.8

81.5

2.4
8706

12.20

109.21

Trachyriolite

34/18

5/5

2.5

37.3

16.9

44.8

3.0

661.1

155.0

68.7

3.0
8707
a
12.06 108.53 Dacite

–

4/5

65.7

34.0

–

–

16.7

31.3

183.6

26.6

14.4
8708

11.85

108.58

Shalestone

265/04

4/6

28.0

44.4

26.1

41.0

5.7

261.8

169.9

62.6

5.4
8709

11.76

108.51

Andesitic

tuff

254/06

6/10

24.5

40.6

21.2

35.0

13.2

26.8

175.6

68.3

11.5
8710

11.88

108.47

Red

Siltstone

295/15

6/6

12.7

36.8

14.5

22.0

11.5

34.6

198.8

75.8

8.8
8711

11.78

108.42

Dacite

07/23

6/7

349.1

40.1

9.8

43.2

1.8

999.9

141.8

73.7

1.8
8713

11.69

108.38

Red

Siltstone

281/06

7/9

21.3

41.9

20.4

35.7

7.9

58.9

173.5

68.8

7.0
PH

11.62 108.20 Red

Siltstone 266/18

7/7

13.1 51.3

8.8

33.9

4.2

207.8

157.8

79.0

3.6
NH

12.47 109.13

Rhyolitic

tuff

18/24

8/8

5.6

39.5

26.1

40.4

1.9

876.3

172.4

63.0

1.8
BD2
a
11.39

106.19

Granodiorite

–

8/8

70.7

26.4

–

–

12.1

22.0

185.5

21.2

9.7
BD1

11.39

106.15

Andesite

–

6/6

26.4

22.5

–

–

7.2

99.8

192.8

64.1

5.6
DL

11.90

108.45

Felsite

–

5/7

15.9

33.9

–

–

10.9

49.9

173.0

73.3

9.4
BN

11.80

109.11

Dacite

–

7/7

27.8

34.4

–

–

3.2

359.7

180.8

62.3

2.8
RR

12.33

109.20

Andesite

–

8/8

6.3

54.3

–

–

4.0

193.4

122.4

66.8

4.7
TR

12.31

109.19

Andesite

–

8/8

4.5

23.6

–

–

4.0

191.6

198.8

85.6

3.1
NT

11.27

108.73

Rhyolite

–

6/6

13.0

37.7

–

–

6.0

123.9

158.8

74.1

5.4
VT

10.35 107.07 Rhyolite

–

3/3

354.5

15.6

–

–

17.6

50.0

353.7

84.1

13.0
DC

12.88

109.38

Granite

–

6/6

13.6

26.3

–

–

5.4

96.8

193.5

76.7

4.3
CN

11.36

108.87

Granite

–

6/6

34.5

30.9

–

–

7.1

59.5

185.8

56.2

5.9
NS

10.68

105.08

Granite

–

7/8

155.7

–15.6

–

–

4.0

258.9

10.7

65.9

2.9

CT

10.37

105.02

Granodiorite

–

8/8

23.3

23.4

–

–

6.3

77.6

188.2

67.1

4.9
THI

a
10.56

107.08

Granite

–

4/6

315.9

6.8

–

–

7.9

136.7

11.1

45.7

5.6
Mean

of

21

sites: 21/24

11.5

35.3

14.5

33.3

6.3

26.7

171.1

74.2

5.9
Note:

St

=

bedding

strike,

Dp

=

bedding

dip,

n

=

number

of

samples

(sites)

used

in

calculation

of

mean

directions,

N

=

total

number

of

samples

(sites),

D
g
(I
g
)

=

geographic
declination

(inclination),

D
s
(I
s
)

=

stratigraphic

declination

(inclination),

˛
95
(A
95
)

=

circle

of

95%

confidence,

k

=

precision

parameter,


s
(
s
)

=

stratigraphic

latitude

(longitude).
a
Indicates

the

sites

which

were

not

included

in

the

mean

calculation.
models

proposed

for

the

quasi-rigid

extrusion

of

tectonic

ele-
ments

of

Southeast

Asia,

the

Indochina

Block

has

experienced

a
net

clockwise

rotation

of

about

40
◦
,

and

has

been

displaced

south-
ward

some

800–1000

km,

which

under

favorable

circumstances
is

resolvable

with

paleomagnetic

data,

along

the

sinistral

Red
River

and

Me

Kong

River

fault

systems

to

accommodate

defor-
mation

related

to

the

convergence

of

the

India–Eurasia

collision.
The

paleomagnetic

data

from

Upper

Jurassic

to

Lower

Cretaceous
sedimentary

rocks

from

the

Khorat

Plateau

(16.5
◦
N,

103.0
◦
E),
Thailand

(Yang

and

Besse,

1993)

are

cited

as

early

acquired

evi-
dence

in

support

of

this

model.

Based

on

a

comparison

with

five
selected

Late

Jurassic–Early

Cretaceous

paleopoles

from

the

South
China

Block,

Yang

and

Besse

(1993)

determined

that

the

Indochina
Block

has

rotated

about

14
◦
(14.2

±

7.1
◦
)

clockwise

and

was

dis-
placed

some

11
◦
southward

(11.5

±

6.7
◦
)

relative

to

the

South
China

Block

since

the

Cretaceous.

If

Late

Jurassic

to

Early

Creta-
ceous

reference

poles

for

the

Eurasian

continent

are

used

as

a
reference,

however,

the

estimated

magnitude

of

Khorat

Plateau
clockwise

rotation

is

less

(10.2

±

7.3
◦
)

and

the

estimated

magnitude
of

southward

displacement

is

insignificant

(3.4

±

6.9
◦
)

(Table

5,
Figs.

4

and

5).

As

noted

above,

the

selection

of

accurate

reference
paleomagnetic

poles

is

critical

for

reliable

tectonic

interpretation
Table

5
Cretaceous–Eocene

paleomagnetic

results

of

the

Indochina

Block.
Locality

Lat

(
◦
N)

Long

(
◦
E)

Age

Observed

VGP

Expected

VGP

Rotation

Translation

Significance

Ref.


(
◦
N)



(
◦
E)

A
95


(
◦
N)



(
◦
E)

R

±

R



±


Indochina

Block:
Song

Da

Terrane

21.7

103.9

K2

82.9

220.7

6.9

77.2

193.9

−7.0

±

7.6

2.7

±

7.1

N/N

(1)
Tu

Le

Depression

21.7

104.2

J3–K

83.9

233.1

11.9

75.4

186.6

−10.7

±

13.1

5.1

±

12.4

N/N

(2)
South

Vietnam

11.7

108.2

K

74.2

171.1

5.9

75.9

196.0

0.4

±

5.4

−6.5

±

5.1

N/Y

(3)
Khorat

Plateau

16.5

103.0

J3–K1

63.8

175.6

1.7

73.7

181.8

10.2

±

7.3

−3.4

±

6.9

Y/N

(4)
Shan-Thai

Block:
Simao

Terrane:
Lanping

26.5

99.3

E

14.5

169.7

10.9

79.8

143.1

76.5

±

12.6

9.9

±

11.4

Y/N

(5)
Mengla

23.5

100.7

E

13.2

172.2

5.4

79.8

143.1

76.7

±

6.9

8.8

±

6.4

Y/Y

(10)
Yunlong

25.8

99.4

K2

54.6

171.3

4.4

77.2

193.9

26.0

±

5.6

−7.0

±

4.9

Y/Y

(6)
Xiaguan

25.6

100.2

K2

83.6

152.7

10.0

77.2

193.9

−8.2

±

11.7

−5.3

±

10.2

N/N

(7)
Jinggu

23.4

100.9

K2

18.9

170.0

8.9

77.2

193.9

65.7

±

10.1

−3.9

±

9.1

Y/N

(7)
Mengla

21.6

100.4

K2

33.7

179.3

8.2

77.2

193.9

47.2

±

9.0

−0.4

±

8.5

Y/N

(7)
Lanping

25.8

99.4

K2

69.7

167.6

6.9

77.2

193.9

8.2

±

8.4

−7.5

±

7.1

N/Y

(9)
Yongping

25.5

99.5

K1

50.9

167.3

20.6

74.3

198.1

27.5

±

25.7

−11.1

±

21.5

Y/N

(8)
Jinggu

23.5

100.7

K1

−13.9

161.3

4.3

74.3

198.1

99.2

±

7.9

0.6

±

7.4

Y/N

(10)
Shan

Plateau

20.4

96.3

J3–K

46.4

190.6

3.5

75.4

186.6

29.1

±

5.2

7.8

±

4.0

Y/Y

(11)
Note:

Ref.

=

reference,

significance

(Y

=

Yes,

N

=

No).

K1

=

Early

Cretaceous,

K2

=

Late

Cretaceous,

K

=

Cretaceous,

J3–K

=

Late

Jurassic–Cretaceous,

J3–K1

=

Late

Jurassic–Early
Cretaceous,

E

=

Eocene.

Rotation

and

latitudinal

translation

were

calculated

at

each

study

locality

following

Butler

(1992);

negative

(positive)

sign

indicates

CCW

(CW)

rotation
and

southward

(northward)

translation,

respectively.

Expected

poles

are

calculated

(Table

1)

from

Eurasian

poles

derived

by

Besse

and

Courtillot

(1991).

(1)

=

Takemoto

et

al.
(2005)
,

(2)

=

Chi

et

al.

(2000),

(3)

=

Chi

and

Dorobek

(2004),

(4)

=

Yang

and

Besse

(1993),

(5)

=

Sato

et

al.

(2001),

(6)

=

Sato

et

al.

(1999),

(7)

=

Huang

and

Opdyke

(1993),
(8)

=

Funahara

et

al.

(1993),

(9)

=

Yang

et

al.

(2001),

(10)

=

Chen

et

al.

(1995),

(11)

=

Richter

and

Fuller

(1996).
Please

cite

this

article

in

press

as:

Cung,

T.C.,

Geissman,

J.W.,

A

review

of

the

paleomagnetic

data

from

Cretaceous

to

lower

Tertiary

rocks
from

Vietnam,

Indochina

and

South

China,

and

their

implications

for

Cenozoic

tectonism

in

Vietnam

and

adjacent

areas.

J.

Geodyn.

(2013),
doi:
10.1016/j.jog.2011.11.008
ARTICLE IN PRESS
G

Model
GEOD-1103;

No.

of

Pages

11
T.C.

Cung,

J.W.

Geissman

/

Journal

of

Geodynamics

xxx (2013) xxx–

xxx 9
of

paleomagnetic

results

from

a

particular

area,

in

particular

when
magnitudes

of

rotation

and

latitudinal

translation

may

be

relatively
small.
Many

paleomagnetic

studies

have

been

carried

out

on

Cre-
taceous

to

Eocene

red

bed

formations

from

the

Lanping-Simao
Terrane

in

western

Yunnan,

China

(Huang

and

Opdyke,

1993;

Chen
et

al.,

1995;

Sato

et

al.,

1999,

2001;

Yang

et

al.,

2001;

Burchfiel
et

al.,

2007;

Geissman

et

al.,

2011,

in

preparation).

In

terms

of
geographic

location,

this

area

is

part

of

western

Yunnan

Province,
China,

yet

in

a

tectonic

context,

the

area

is

within

the

Shan

Thai
Block

near

the

eastern

syntaxis

of

the

India–Eurasia

collision

belt
(
Fig.

1);

where

locally

intense

internal

deformation,

involving

fold-
ing

and

faulting

of

thick

upper

Paleozoic

through

lower

Tertiary
strata

occurred

in

response

to

the

India–Eurasia

collision

and

dis-
placement

of

components

of

southeast

Asia

(Wang

and

Burchfiel,

1997
).

A

range

of

paleomagnetic

results

have

been

obtained

from
Cretaceous

to

Eocene

red

bed

strata

from

different

localities

in
this

broad

region,

reflecting

a

heterogeneous

deformation

field.
Inferred

clockwise

rotations

of

local

regions

within

the

Lanping
Simao

belt

are

as

large

as

100
◦
,

and

estimates

of

southward

lat-
itudinal

displacement

relative

to

both

the

Eurasia

and

the

South
China

reference

frames

range

from

insignificant

to,

more

typically,
about

10
◦
and

no

greater

than

12
◦
(Table

5,

Figs.

5

and

6).

The
areas

that

are

interpreted

to

have

experienced

large

magnitudes

of
rotation

likely

reflect

local

deformation

of

upper-crustal

elements
during

differential

crustal

shortening

(MacDonald,

1980;

Burchfiel
et

al.,

2007).

In

some

areas

of

the

belt,

such

as

near

Lanping

and
Mengla,

somewhat

larger

magnitudes

of

clockwise

rotation

are
suggested

by

data

from

Eocene

red

beds,

although

lesser

clock-
wise

rotations

have

been

estimated

based

on

data

from

underlying
Upper

Cretaceous

red

beds

(Fig.

5).

Similar,

seemingly

conflicting
results

have

been

obtained

for

inferred

latitudinal

displacements,
with

younger,

overlying

redbeds

yielding

larger

values

than

older
rocks

(Fig.

6).

It

is

possible

that

these

data

sets

may

imply

the

complexity

of

local

tectonic

displacements.

Alternative

interpreta-
tions

involve

the

overall

reliability

of

the

age

interpretation

of

the
rocks

and,

more

importantly,

the

age

of

their

characteristic

mag-
netization.

It

is

often

difficult

to

determine

a

sufficiently

accurate
age

of

thick

sequences

of

medium

to

coarse

grained

continental
red

beds

because

fossils

are

uncommon.

Age

assignments

for

red
bed

sequences

are

often

based

on

stratigraphic

correlations,

and,
together

with

inaccuracies

in

interpreting

the

ages

of

magneti-
zations

characteristic

of

the

rocks,

these

can

result

in

inaccurate
tectonic

interpretations

of

paleomagnetic

data,

leading

to

unrea-
sonable

conclusions,

especially

in

strongly

deformed

rocks,

like
parts

of

Southeast

Asia.
Paleomagnetic

data

from

Upper

Jurassic

to

Cretaceous

conti-
nental

red

beds,

exposed

near

the

western

margin

of

the

Shan
Thai

Block

near

the

Sagaing

right-lateral

strike-slip

fault

(Fig.

1),
show

that

the

study

area

was

rotated

in

a

clockwise

sense

by
nearly

30
◦
(29.1

±

5.2
◦
)

and

may

have

been

translated

north-
ward

by

about

8
◦
(7.8

±

4.0
◦
)

(Richter

and

Fuller,

1996)

(Table

3,
Figs.

4

and

5).

A

component

of

the

inferred

deformation

of

this

area
is

likely

a

consequence

of

dextral

displacement

along

the

more
than

1000

km

long

Sagaing

fault

system,

that

formed

and

during
the

India–Eurasia

collision

process

and

remains

very

active

(Vigny
et

al.,

2003;

Tsutsumi

and

Sato,

2009).

Under

those

circumstances
where

there

is

ample

evidence

of

sufficient

averaging

of

the

geo-

magnetic

field

and

that

data

can

be

accurately

referenced

to

the
paleohorizontal,

paleomagnetic

data

can

provide

a

powerful

means
of

quantifying

important

components

of

the

deformation

matrix,
specifically

vertical

axis

rotation

and

latitudinal

components

of
displacement.

Paleomagnetic

data

based

on

studies

that

have

con-
centrated

or

targeted

sampling

in

tectonically

active

areas

must

be
interpreted

with

caution,

as

they

represent

the

cumulative

sum

of
all

components

of

deformation

experienced

by

the

rocks

studied
and

thus

may

not

be

an

accurate

representation

of

the

phase

of
deformation

of

interest

(e.g.,

over

a

specific

time

interval).

Rarely

is

it

the

case

that

a

single

set

of

observations

from

a

relatively
restricted

locality

an

accurate

reflection

of

the

coherent

motion
of

the

entire

lithospheric

block.

Caution

should

be

taken

in

the
interpretation

of

paleomagnetically

defined

rotations

and/or

trans-
lations

of

specific

areas,

in

particular

in

the

context

of

the

motion
of

features

that

encompass

a

considerably

larger

area

than

that
examined

in

the

paleomagnetic

study.
5.

Conclusions
In

the

context

of

the

history

of

late

Mesozoic

to

present

defor-
mation

of

Vietnam

and

immediately

adjacent

areas,

overall,

the
paleomagnetic

data

from

Cretaceous

and

Paleogene

sedimentary
rocks

from

the

South

China

Block

and

Indochina

regions

can

be
interpreted

to

indicate

that

the

South

China

Block

has

been

rela-
tively

stable

with

respect

to

the

Eurasian

continent

at

least

since
the

Cretaceous.

Components

of

vertical

axis

rotation

and

latitudinal
translation,

dominantly

in

a

south-directed

sense,

have

contributed
to

the

deformation

of

crustal

to

lithosphere

scale

elements

of

South-
east

Asia.

We

suspect

that

results

from

some

localities

reflect
more

localized

deformation

of

elements

confined

to

the

upper
crust,

rather

than

involving

an

entire

lithosphere

section.

The
India–Eurasia

collision

strongly

deformed

the

Indochina–Shan

Thai
Block,

in

particular

in

the

areas

near

the

collision

belt.

During

the
Cenozoic,

Indochina

and

parts

of

Sundaland

experienced

complex
internal

deformation

and

clearly

did

not

behave

as

a

coherent

block,
as

suggested

by

extrusion

models.

The

Red

River

fault

system,
which

is

juxtaposed

on

or

adjacent

to

the

long-lived

left

lateral
Ailao

Shan

shear

zone,

may

not

entirely

demarcate

the

South

China
Block

and

the

Indochina

Block.

Some

of

the

available

paleomagnetic
data

are

interpreted

to

suggest

that

at

least

some

terranes

located
southwest

of

the

fault

system

have

not

been

significantly

rotated
nor

translated

southward

relative

to

the

South

China

block

since

the
Cretaceous.

However,

the

preponderance

of

paleomagnetic

results
from

much

of

the

Lanping

Simao

belt

in

western

Yunnan

Province,
China,

in

consistent

with

a

modest

amount

of

southward

displace-
ment,

and

variable

clockwise

rotation,

with

the

observed

range

in
rotation

magnitudes

possibly

reflecting

more

localized

deforma-
tion

unrelated

to

that

affecting

the

remainder

of

the

lithosphere
in

this

region.

A

mobile,

more

lithosphere

scale

boundary

between
the

South

China

and

Indochina

blocks

in

the

extrusion

model

is
possibly

located,

at

the

latitude

of

northwest

Vietnam,

southwest
of

the

Red

River

fault.

Although

the

data

upon

which

this

is

based
are

very

sparse,

the

inferred

very

modest

southward

displacement
of

the

southern

part

of

Vietnam

may

be

consistent

with

the

extru-
sion

model,

however,

no

clockwise

rotation

has

been

observed

from

this

area.

Modest

magnitude

counterclockwise

rotations

appear

to
characterize

the

Borneo

and

Malaya

peninsula

areas,

located

farther
to

the

south

(Fuller

et

al.,

1991),

indicating

that

the

complex

tec-
tonic

evolution

of

the

Southeast

Asian

region

cannot

be

completely
explained

by

any

single,

simple

tectonic

model.
Acknowledgements
The

research

has

been

supported

by

a

grant

for

the

basic
research

project

(No.

105.03.05.09)

from

National

Foundation
for

Science

and

Technology

Development

(Nafosted)

of

Vietnam
to

Cung

Thuong

Chi.

In

addition,

Geissman

acknowledges

sup-
port

from

National

Science

Foundation

awards

EAR9706300

and
EAR0537604.

Mr.

Scott

Muggleton

assisted

Geissman

with

field
sampling

in

northern

Vietnam;

and

the

collaboration

with

Dr.

N.V.
Pho

over

this

time

period

is

greatly

appreciated.

We

wish

to

thank
Dr.

Mike

Fuller

for

helpful

comments

on

the

manuscript.
Please

cite

this

article

in

press

as:

Cung,

T.C.,

Geissman,

J.W.,

A

review

of

the

paleomagnetic

data

from

Cretaceous

to

lower

Tertiary

rocks
from

Vietnam,

Indochina

and

South

China,

and

their

implications

for

Cenozoic

tectonism

in

Vietnam

and

adjacent

areas.

J.

Geodyn.

(2013),
doi:
10.1016/j.jog.2011.11.008
ARTICLE IN PRESS

G

Model
GEOD-1103;

No.

of

Pages

11
10 T.C.

Cung,

J.W.

Geissman

/

Journal

of

Geodynamics

xxx (2013) xxx–

xxx
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