Engineering tools for environmental risk management 2 environmental toxicology

Engineering Tools for Environmental
Risk Management – 2

Tai Lieu Chat Luong


Engineering Tools for Environmental
Risk Management – 2

Environmental Toxicology

Editors

Katalin Gruiz
Department of Applied Biotechnology and Food Science, Budapest University
of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary

Tamás Meggyes
Berlin, Germany

Éva Fenyvesi
Cyclolab, Budapest, Hungary


CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
Printed in India by Replika Press Pvt. Ltd, Sonepat, Haryana
All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained
herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or

otherwise, without written prior permission from the publisher.
Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication
and the information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor
the author for any damage to the property or persons as a result of operation
or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein.
British Library Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Environmental toxicology (CRC Press)
Environmental toxicology / editors Katalin Gruiz, Department of Applied
Biotechnology and Food Science, Budapest University of Technology and
Economics, Budapest, Hungary,Tamás Meggyes, Berlin, Germany, Éva
Fenyvesi, Cyclolab, Budapest, Hungary.
pages cm. – (Engineering tools for environmental risk management ; 2)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-138-00155-8 (hardback : alk. paper) – ISBN 978-1-315-77877-8 (ebook)
1. Environmental toxicology. 2. Pollutants–Toxicity testing. I. Gruiz, Katalin.
II. Meggyes,T. (Tamás) III. Fenyvesi, Éva. IV. Title.
RA1226.E56855 2015
615.9’02–dc23
2014048002
Published by: CRC Press/Balkema
P.O. Box 11320, 2301 EH Leiden,The Netherlands
e-mail:
www.crcpress.com – www.taylorandfrancis.com
ISBN: 978-1-138-00155-8 (Hardback)
ISBN: 978-1-315-77877-8 (eBook PDF)


Table of contents

Preface
List of abbreviations
About the editors

1

Environmental toxicology – A general overview

xvii
xix
xxix

1

K. GRUIZ

1

2

3

Introduction, basic definitions
1.1 Toxicology and its role
1.2 Regulatory toxicology for chemical substances and
contaminated land
1.3 Future of environmental toxicology
1.3.1 Molecular technologies
1.3.2 Cell-based technologies

1.3.3 Computational toxicology
1.4 What environment means in the context of toxicology
1.5 Environmental toxicology versus human toxicology
1.6 Animal studies
1.7 In vitro contra in vivo: alternative test methods
1.8 Evidence-based toxicology
Adverse effects to be measured by environmental toxicology
2.1 Hazardous effects of chemical substances
2.2 Toxic effects of chemical substances
2.3 Carcinogenic effects
2.4 Mutagenic effects
2.5 Reprotoxicity
2.6 Persistent and very persistent substances
2.7 Bioaccumulative and very bioaccumulative substances
2.8 Emerging pollutants
Interaction of a chemical substance with living organisms
3.1 Dose–response relationship
3.2 Test end points: the results of the environmental toxicity test
3.3 Classification of environmental toxicological tests
3.3.1 Test type according to the aim of the test
3.3.2 Test organisms

1
3
9
12
13
15
15
16

17
18
20
23
23
24
25
31
32
32
33
33
34
36
39
42
44
44
45


vi Table of contents

3.3.3 Test design
3.3.4 Most commonly measured end points
3.3.5 Environmental compartments and phases to test
3.3.6 Aims of environmental toxicity tests
3.4 Environmental toxicology in relation to hazard and
risk assessment
3.4.1 Testing hazard or risk?

3.4.2 Standardized or customized test methods?
3.4.3 Testing or modeling? – QSAR and
environmental toxicology
3.5 Statistical evaluation of ecotoxicological tests
3.5.1 Evaluation of acute toxicity tests
3.5.2 Data analysis for chronic toxicity tests
3.5.3 Data analysis of multispecies toxicity tests
3.6 Standardization and international acceptance of newly
developed toxicity tests
2

Fate and behavior of chemical substances in
the environment

48
49
50
51
51
51
53
55
60
60
62
62
63

71

K. GRUIZ, M. MOLNÁR, ZS. M. NAGY & CS. HAJDU

1
2

3

Introduction
Interaction of the contaminants with environmental phases
2.1 Transport and partitioning
2.1.1 Partitioning between air and water
2.1.2 Partitioning between solid and water
2.1.3 Transport models
2.2 Chemical interactions between chemical substances and
the environment
2.2.1 Photolysis
2.2.2 Hydrolysis
2.2.3 Chemical oxidation and reduction
Interactions of chemical substances – with the biota
3.1 Biodegradation and biotransformation
3.1.1 Classification of environmental fate of chemicals for
regulatory purposes
3.1.2 Biodegradation – definitions
3.1.3 Biodegradation – the process
3.1.4 QSAR for biodegradation
3.1.5 Aims of testing biodegradation
3.1.6 Measurement end points for characterizing
biodegradation
3.1.7 Standardized biodegradability test methods for
chemical substances

3.1.8 Measuring biodegradation in soil
3.1.9 Soil respiration, biodegradative activity of the
soil – problem-specific applications

71
74
75
75
76
77
81
81
82
83
84
84
84
86
87
88
90
91
93
94
95


Table of contents

4

5

3

3.2 Bioaccumulation
3.2.1 Definitions
3.2.2 Bioaccumulative potential of chemicals
3.2.3 QSAR for bioaccumulation
3.2.4 Testing bioaccumulation
3.2.5 Standardized tests for measuring bioaccumulation
3.2.6 Field determination of bioaccumulation
3.3 Bioleaching
Availability of contaminants for environmental actors
Utilizing fate properties of chemicals to reduce their risk
in the environment
5.1 Environmental transport and fate processes change
contaminant risk

Human toxicology

vii

102
102
104
106
107
109
112
113

114
117
117
125

K. GRUIZ

1

2

3

Introduction
1.1 Adverse effects of chemicals on humans
1.2 Testing the adverse effects of chemicals on humans
Test organisms for human toxicology purposes
2.1 Microorganisms used in human toxicity testing
2.2 Isolated cells, tissue cultures in human toxicology
2.3 Lower animals in human toxicology
2.4 Birds
2.5 Mammals
2.6 3R in animal testing
Toxicity end points and methods
3.1 Acute toxicity
3.1.1 Animal tests for acute systemic toxicity
3.1.2 Non-animal, in vitro tests for acute systemic toxicity
3.2 Repeated-dose and organ toxicity testing
3.2.1 Animal test methods for repeated-dose and
organ toxicity

3.2.2 Alternative methods for repeated-dose and organ
toxicity testing
3.3 Genotoxicity
3.3.1 In vivo animal tests for assessing potential heritable
genotoxicity
3.3.2 OECD test guidelines for in vitro genotoxicity and
mutagenicity testing
3.3.3 New in vivo genotoxicity tests
3.3.4 QSAR for genotoxicity and genotoxic carcinogenicity
3.4 Chronic toxicity
3.4.1 Chronic toxicity testing methods on animals
3.5 Carcinogenicity
3.5.1 Animal methods for carcinogenicity testing
3.5.2 Non-animal testing of carcinogenicity

125
127
130
132
132
132
133
133
134
135
136
136
137
137
138

139
140
141
141
142
142
145
145
146
146
147
147


viii Table of contents

3.6

3.7

3.8

3.9

3.10

3.11

3.12

3.13

3.14
4

Reproductive and developmental toxicity
3.6.1 Animal tests for reproductive and developmental
toxicity
3.6.2 In vitro methods for reproductive and developmental
toxicity
Dermal penetration
3.7.1 Animal testing of dermal penetration
3.7.2 In vitro testing of dermal penetration
Skin irritation and corrosion
3.8.1 Animal testing of skin irritation and corrosion
3.8.2 Alternative, non-animal test methods for skin irritation
and corrosion
Skin sensitization
3.9.1 Skin sensitization: animal tests for regulatory
requirements
3.9.2 Non-animal alternative methods
Eye irritation and corrosion
3.10.1 Animal testing of eye irritation and corrosion
on rabbits
3.10.2 Non-animal alternative methods for evaluating eye
irritation and corrosion
Toxicokinetics, pharmacokinetics and metabolism
3.11.1 Testing of toxicokinetics, pharmacokinetics and
metabolism on animals
3.11.2 In vitro dermal testing

Neurotoxicity
3.12.1 Animal testing of neurotoxicity
3.12.2 In vitro models for neurotoxicology studies and testing
Endocrine toxicity and disruption
3.13.1 Animal tests for screening endocrine disruption
3.13.2 Validated non-animal alternatives for endocrine
disruptor activity
3.13.3 The US EPA endocrine disruptor screening program
Phototoxicity

Aquatic toxicology

148
149
149
151
151
151
152
152
152
154
154
154
155
155
156
156
158
159

159
160
160
161
161
161
162
164
171

K. GRUIZ & M. MOLNÁR

1
2
3

Introduction to aquatic toxicology
Human and ecosystem exposure to aquatic hazards
Some commonly used aquatic test organisms for testing
adverse effects
3.1 Microorganisms: bacteria, algae and protozoa
3.2 Fresh-water macroplants
3.3 Fresh-water invertebrates
3.4 Aquatic vertebrates
3.5 Sediment-dwelling organisms

171
174
180
180

184
185
190
192


Table of contents

ix

4

5

Measuring adverse effects of chemical substances on the
aquatic ecosystem
5 Some commonly used aquatic test methods
5.1 OECD guidelines for testing chemicals in aquatic environment:
water, sediment, wastewater
5.2 Water-testing methods standardized by the International
Organization for Standardization
5.2.1 Standardized bacterial tests for toxicity testing of water
and waste-water
5.2.2 Standardized algal and plant tests for waters
5.2.3 Invertebrates using standard methods for testing water
5.2.4 Standardized fish tests for water and waste-water
5.2.5 Ecological assessment of surface waters
6 Non-animal testing of aquatic toxicity
7 Testing sediment
8 Sewage and sewage sludge tests

9 Testing waste using an ‘Ecotox’ test battery
10 Non-standardized bioassays and other innovative test methods
11 Multispecies and microcosm test methods for aquatic toxicity
12 Description of Tetrahymena pyriformis bioassay
12.1 Experimental
12.2 Evaluation and interpretation of the results

199
199
201
201
201
203
203
208
209
212
217
220
221
222

Terrestrial toxicology

229

194
196
196
198

K. GRUIZ, M. MOLNÁR, V. FEIGL, CS. HAJDU, ZS. M. NAGY, O. KLEBERCZ,
I. FEKETE-KERTÉSZ, É. UJACZKI & M. TOLNER

1
2

3

4

5

Introduction
Terrestrial test organisms
2.1 Soil-living bacteria and fungi as test organisms
2.2 Terrestrial plants for soil toxicity testing
2.3 Soil fauna members as test organisms
Measuring terrestrial toxicity: end points and methods
3.1 Soil biodiversity
3.2 Evolutionary convergence phenomenon
3.3 Terrestrial bioassays for testing chemical substances and
contaminated soil
Standardized and non-standardized test methods
4.1 OECD standards for testing chemical substances in soil and
dung with terrestrial organisms
4.2 ISO and other standards for testing soil and sediment
4.3 Testing waste: a terrestrial test battery for solid waste
Non-standard terrestrial toxicity test methods
5.1 Some aspects of problem-oriented and site-specific soil testing

5.1.1 Soil community response
5.1.2 Concepts for characterizing soil functioning and health
5.1.3 Aims of testing whole soil response

229
237
238
242
246
254
255
258
259
260
260
260
263
263
264
265
266
266


x Table of contents

5.1.4

6

7

Consequences of the effect of soil matrix on the test
methodology
5.1.5 Field assessment or laboratory testing?
5.2 Ecological assessment: field testing of habitat quality, diversity
of species and abundance of indicator organisms
5.2.1 Abundance and diversity of soil microbiota
5.2.2 The use of carbon substrate utilization patterns for
ecotoxicity testing
5.2.3 Dung-dwelling organisms, a not yet standardized
field study
5.2.4 Effects of pollutants on earthworms in field situations:
avoidance
5.3 Non-standardized contact bioassays: description of some tests
5.3.1 Single species bacterial contact tests
5.3.2 Single species animal contact tests
5.3.3 Plant tests
5.3.4 Soil as a test organism
Multispecies terrestrial tests
6.1 Classification of multispecies soil tests
6.1.1 Terrestrial microcosm system for measuring
respiration
6.1.2 Terrestrial microcosm for substrate-induced respiration
technique (SIR)
6.1.3 Terrestrial model ecosystems (TME)
6.1.4 The cotton strip assay
6.1.5 Soil litter bag
6.1.6 Pitfall traps
6.1.7 Bait lamina

6.1.8 Soil in jar
6.1.9 Soil lysimeters
6.2 Characteristics of multispecies toxicity tests
6.3 Evaluation and monitoring of microcosms
Microcalorimetry – a sensitive method for soil toxicity testing
7.1 Background of microcalorimetric heat production by living
organisms
7.2 Experimental setup
7.3 Heat response of Folsomia candida to the effect of
diesel oil
7.4 Heat response of Panagrellus redivivus on contaminated soil
7.5 Heat response of Sinapis alba to the effect of toxicants
in soil
7.6 Heat production response of Azomonas agilis to toxicants
7.7 Evaluation and interpretation of the microcalorimetric heat
production results
7.8 Summary of microcalorimetric toxicity testing: experiences and
outlook
7.9 Acknowledgement to microcalorimetry research

267
271
272
272
273
273
274
275
275
278

279
280
282
282
283
283
284
285
285
286
286
287
288
290
290
291
291
292
293
294
296
296
299
299
301


Table of contents

6

Advanced methods for chemical characterization of
soil pollutants

xi

311

GY. ZÁRAY & I. VARGA

1
2

3

7

Introduction
Analytical methods for the determination of inorganic compounds
2.1 ICP-based analytical methods
2.1.1 Sample preparation
2.1.2 Inductively coupled plasma as photon and ion source
2.1.3 Analytical figures of merit
2.2 X-ray fluorescence spectrometry
2.2.1 Sample preparation
2.2.2 Basic equipment and set-up for XRF analysis
2.2.3 X-ray sources
2.2.4 Detectors
2.2.5 Quantification
2.2.6 Analytical figures of merit

2.2.7 Comparison of XRF and ICP-based analytical
techniques
Analytical methods for analysis of organic pollutants
3.1 Sample pretreatment
3.2 Extraction of analytes from soil samples
3.2.1 Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE)
3.2.2 Microwave assisted extraction (MAE)
3.2.3 Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE)
3.2.4 Ultrasonic assisted extraction (UAE)
3.3 Cleanup process
3.4 Preconcentration/enrichment of analytes
3.5 Separation and detection techniques
3.6 Applications
3.6.1 Pesticide analysis
3.6.2 Veterinary pharmaceuticals
3.6.3 Petroleum hydrocarbons
3.7 Recent developments and future trends

Bioaccessibility and bioavailability in risk assessment

311
313
313
313
313
316
318
318
319
319

320
322
322
323
323
324
324
324
325
326
327
328
328
328
329
329
330
330
331
337

CS. HAJDU & K. GRUIZ

1
2

3

Introduction
Managing bioaccessibility and bioavailability of contaminants in the

environment
2.1 Mobility, bioaccessibility, bioavailability and risk
assessment
2.2 Risk reduction in view of mobility and bioavailability
Bioavailability and bioaccessibility – definitions
3.1 Definitions and mechanisms
3.2 Contaminants’ location and form in soil and the related
accessibility and availability

337
341
343
344
345
346
348


xii Table of contents

4

Assessing bioavailability of contaminants
4.1 Bioaccessibility and bioavailability assessment methods
5 Mathematical models for contaminant bioavailability in soil
6 Chemical models for contaminant mobility and availability in soil
6.1 Partition between n-octanol and water to predict accessibility
of organic contaminants
6.2 Solid phase and membrane-based extractions – chemical
bioavailability models

6.3 Liquid-phase extractions to predict accessibility of toxic metals
7 Complex models
7.1 Interactive laboratory tests
7.2 Dynamic testing
7.3 Integrated evaluation
8 Examples of interactive testing of bioavailability in soil
8.1 Toxic metal bioavailability in mine tailings – the chemical
time bomb
8.2 Decreased bioavailability, lower toxicity – a soil
remediation tool
8.3 Correlation of chemical analytical and bioassay results
8.4 Bioavailability and biodegradation of organic soil contaminants
9 Worst-case and realistic worst-case simulation
9.1 Realistic worst-case models for dynamic testing of
bioavailability
9.2 Effect of soil sorption capacity on bioavailability
10 Bioaccessibility and bioavailability of contaminants for humans
10.1 Mathematical models for calculation of bioaccessibility- and
bioavailability-dependent human risk
10.2 Chemical models for estimating accessibility of contaminants
for humans
10.2.1 Human bioaccessibility of toxic metals
10.2.2 Bioaccessibility of organic compounds in humans
10.2.3 Chemical models combined with biological models –
measuring toxic effects after digestion
11 Conclusions
8

Microcosm models and technological experiments

351
352
354
355
355
356
358
362
362
363
366
367
368
369
372
374
378
378
381
381
383
384
385
389
390
391
401

K. GRUIZ, M. MOLNÁR, V. FEIGL, E. VASZITA & O. KLEBERCZ

1
2
3

Introduction
Aquatic microcosms for screening chemical substances
and technologies
Soil micro- and mesocosms for modeling environmental processes
in bio- and ecotechnologies
3.1 Testing the effects of environmental and anthropogenic
interventions in a small volume
3.2 Testing biodegradation and bioavailability
3.3 Testing long-term pollution processes in the environment

401
402
407
412
412
413


Table of contents xiii

4

5

6

7

8

9

3.4 Testing microbial activity and plant growth in
contaminated soil
3.5 Technological pre-experiments
Biodegradation and biodegradation-based remediation studies
in soil microcosms
4.1 Testing natural and enhanced biodegradation
4.2 Integrated monitoring and evaluation of the biodegradation
experiments
4.3 Scaled-up technological micro- and mesocosms
4.4 Summary of biodegradation testing for technological purposes
Testing technologies based on contaminant stabilization
5.1 Experiment design
5.2 Microcosm set-up and implementation
5.3 Monitoring of the microcosms
5.4 Evaluation, interpretation and use of the stabilization
microcosm results
5.5 Summary and conclusions of stabilization microcosm
application
Testing and utilizing the complex leaching process
6.1 Flow-through soil microcosm for studying bioleaching
6.2 Microcosm set-up
6.3 Monitoring the leaching microcosms
6.4 Evaluation and interpretation of the results
6.5 Summary and conclusions about leaching microcosm

application
Transport processes studied in soil columns
7.1 Test set-up
7.2 Monitoring the soil column microcosm
7.3 Evaluation
7.4 Summary
Modeling secondary sodification
8.1 Modeling sodification in microcosms
8.2 Sodification microcosm set-up
8.3 Technological microcosms for reducing risk of sodification
8.4 Evaluation and interpretation of results
8.5 Summary of sodification modeling

Data evaluation and interpretation in environmental
toxicology

413
414
416
416
418
421
422
422
423
424
425
427
427
428

430
431
432
432
433
434
435
436
437
437
438
438
439
440
440
440

445

K. GRUIZ, CS. HAJDU & T. MEGGYES

1
2
3
4

Introduction
Inhibition rate
Concentration/dose–response relationship
Evaluation of the response based on the growth curves of

cultured organisms

446
451
453
456


xiv Table of contents

5

Evaluation of the effect of contaminants on heat production:
A special case
6 Evaluation of biodegradation of chemicals in water and soil
6.1 Monitoring the depletion of the chemical substance
6.2 Evaluation of biodegradation based on CO2 production
6.3 Substrate induction
7 Attenuation rate method for environmental samples
8 Toxic equivalency of contaminated environmental samples for
exploration and screening
8.1 Toxic equivalency for organic and inorganic contaminants
8.2 Graphical determination of equivalent toxic concentrations
from measured data
8.3 Numerical determination of the toxicity equivalent
concentration
8.4 Equivalent toxicity of contaminated water: examples
and validation
8.4.1 4CP equivalent of selected organic contaminants
in water: examples

8.4.2 Copper equivalent of cadmium-contaminated water
8.5 Toxicity equivalent of soil: examples and validation
8.5.1 4CP equivalent of selected organic contaminants in soil:
examples
8.5.2 Copper equivalent of soils contaminated with cadmium
and a mixture of metals
9 Statistical evaluation of toxicity data
9.1 Statistics in general
9.2 Statistical evaluation and analysis in environmental toxicology
9.3 Hypothesis testing
9.3.1 Hypothesis testing for the determination of NOEC
9.3.2 Reporting hypothesis testing
9.4 Regression and regression analysis
9.4.1 The use of regression and regression analysis in
toxicology
9.4.2 Evaluation of quantal data
9.4.3 Choice of the models
9.4.4 Evaluation of continuous data
9.4.5 Choice of the models
9.4.6 Reporting regression statistics
9.5 A comparative study on statistical evaluation of dose–response
data
9.6 Biology-based methods
9.6.1 Parameters
9.7 IT tools for statistical evaluation
10 Environmental hazard and risk assessment using toxicity data
10.1 Extrapolation
10.2 Hazard assessment

458

460
461
461
462
464
467
469
470
472
473
475
477
477
478
480
484
484
490
492
493
497
497
498
500
500
501
501
503
504
505

507
508
513
513
515


Table of contents

10.2.1 Hazard identification
10.2.2 Hazard quantification
10.3 Validation of toxicity tests
10.4 Exposure assessment
10.5 Risk assessment
10.6 Summary comments on risk assessment and risk management
based on toxicity data
11 Conclusions
Subject index

xv

515
516
522
524
525
531
533
545

Preface

This is the second volume of the five-volume book series “Engineering Tools for
Environmental Risk Management’’. The book series deals with the following topics:
1
2
3
4
5

Environmental deterioration and pollution, management of environmental
problems
Environmental toxicology – a tool for managing chemical substances and contaminated environment
Assessment and monitoring tools, risk assessment
Risk reduction measures and technologies
Case studies for demonstration of the application of engineering tools
The authors aim to describe interactions and options in risk management by

•
•
•
•
•
•

providing a broad scientific overview of the environment, its human uses and the
associated local, regional and global environmental problems;
interpreting the holistic approach used in solving environmental protection issues;
striking a balance between nature’s needs and engineering capabilities;

understanding interactions between regulation, management and engineering;
obtaining information about novel technologies and innovative scientific and
engineering tools;
providing a broader perspective for engineers and explaining engineering solutions
to environmental managers, owners and other decision makers

This second volume provides an overview on environmental toxicology, the main
concepts, methods and applications, focusing on environmental knowledge and its
conscious and structured application in environmental engineering, management and
decision making.
The main topics of this second volume include
•
•
•
•
•

the legal and managerial context of environmental toxicology;
the chemical and biological as well as in silico models for toxicology;
fate and behavior of chemical substances in the environment and their influence
on the actual effects;
human, aquatic and terrestrial toxicology – test organisms and test methods;
ecotoxicology and ecological assessment;


xviii

•
•
•

•
•
•
•
•

Preface

alternative test methods to reduce the use of animals in research and testing;
new trends in environmental analytics;
bioaccessibility and bioavailability of chemical substances;
interactive and dynamic testing of environmental solid phases;
developments of soil ecotoxicology;
microcosm models and experiments;
evaluation and interpretation of environmental fate and effect data;
statistics of environmental toxicology.


Abbreviations

2-D GC
–
3R
–
4CP
–
AA-EQS
–
ADE
–

ADI
–
ADME
–
AF
–
AMD
–
ANCOVA –
ANOVA
–
APHA
–
ARD
–
ATO
–
ATP
–
AS
–
ASTM
–
ASTM
–
AVS
–
AWWA
–
BAF

–
BAFK
–
BALB/c 3T3 –
BAT
BCC
BCF
BCOP
BCR
BCR
Bhas42
BIOWIN

–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

BLOBs
BMD

–
–

two-dimensional gas chromatography
replacement, reduction and refinement in animal testing

4-chlorophenol, a chlorinated pesticide/biocide
annual average environmental quality criterion
absorption, distribution and elimination
acceptable daily intake
absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination
assessment factor
acid mine drainage
analysis of covariance
analysis of variance
American Public Health Association
acid rock drainage
aquatic test organism
adenosine triphosphate
allometric scaling factor
American Society for Testing and Materials
International the new name of ASTM
acid-volatile sulfide
American Water Works Association
bioaccumulation factor
kinetic bioaccumulation factor
albino mouse fibroblast cell line for cytotoxicity testing;
the standard fibroblast cell line
best available technology
bioaccumulative chemicals of concern
bioconcentration factor
bovine corneal opacity and permeability test
Commission of the European Communities Bureau of Reference
extraction sequential extraction method for soil/sediment
immortalized rodent cells line
biodegradation probability program for estimating aerobic and

anaerobic biodegradability of organic chemicals
binary large objects
benchmark dose


xx Abbreviations

BMD10 –
BMDL –
BMDL10 –
BMF
BMR
BOD
BPA
BSAF
BTEX
CA
Caco-2
CAS
Cb
CB
CBR
cDNA
CDT

–
–
–
–
–

–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

CE
CEC
CECs
CEN
CFU
C3H
cl
CLH

–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

CLP

–

CMR

–

CR
–
CSA
–
CSIRO –
CTA
Cx
CZE
DBALM

–
–
–
–

DBNPA
DBP
D
DBNPA
DDE

–
–
–

–
–

benchmark dose, associated with a 10% response in
animal tests
lower limit of BMD
lower limit of the benchmark dose expected to produce
a 10% reduction in the response
biomagnification factor
benchmark response
biological oxygen demand
bisphenol-A
biota-sediment accumulation factor
benzene, toluene, xylenes, alkyl benzenes
correspondence analysis
human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma cells
Chemical Abstracts Service
background concentration
closed-bottle test
critical body residue (theory)
DNA sequences synthetized in vitro from messenger RNA
cyclodextrin technology (cyclodextrin-enhanced
bioremediation of contaminated soil)
capillary electrophoresis
cation exchange capacity
contaminants of emerging concern
European Committee for Standardization
colony-forming units
a mouse strain used as an animal model for research
confidence limits

European counterpart of Globally Harmonized System of
Classification and Labeling of Chemicals (GHS)
European regulation on classification, labeling and
packaging of substances and mixtures
chemical substances with carcinogenic, mutagenic and
reprotoxic effects
cancer risk
chemical safety assessment
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organization, Australia
cell transformation assay
the concentration causing x% reduction in the response
capillary zone electrophoresis
DataBase service on ALternative Methods to animal
experimentation
2,2-dibromo-3-nitril-propionamide, a biocide
dibutyl phthalate, an industrial chemical
dose
2,2-dibromo-3-nitrilopropionamide, a quick-kill biocide
dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane, a toxic breakdown
product of DDT


Abbreviations

DDT
–
DEB
–
DEH

–
DGT
–
DNA
–
DNA-SIP –
DNAPL
–
DMEL
–
DNEL
–
DOC
–
DOM
–
DSD
–
DT50
–
DTA
–
EAMD
–
EBTC
–
EC
–
EC
–

ECHA
–
ECVAM –
ECx
–
EC20
–
–
EC50
EDx
–
–
ED20
ED50
–
ED
–
EDCs
–
EDSP
–
EDTA
–
ED-XRF –
EFDB
–
EFSA
–
EPH
–

EPH GC –
EQC
–
EQS
–
ERA
–
ERAPharm –
Er C20
–
Er C50

–

ERDC
EROD
ESAC
ESIS
EsD
EsD20

–
–
–
–
–
–

xxi

dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, a persistent CMR pesticide
dynamic energy budget
dehydrogenase enzyme activity
diffusive gradients in thin films
deoxyribonucleic acid
stable isotope probing, a PCR method utilizing 13 C isotopes
dense non-aqueous phase liquides
derived minimal effect level
derived noeffect level
dissolved organic carbon
dissolved organic matter
Dangerous Substance Directive in Europe
half-life of a chemical substance
direct toxicity testing
Ecological Assessment Methods Database, USA
Evidence-Based Toxicology Collaboration
effective concentration
European Commission
European Chemicals Agency
European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods
effective concentrations that cause x% decrease in the response
effective concentrations that cause 20% decrease in the response
effective concentrations that cause 50% decrease in the response
effective dose that causes x% decrease in the response
effective dose that causes 20% decrease in the response
effective dose that causes 50% decrease in the response
effective dose
endocrine disrupting chemicals
endocrine disruptor screening program
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, a chelating agent

energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence
environmental fate database
European Food Safety Authority
extractable petroleum hydrocarbons
extractable petroleum hydrocarbon content measured by GC-FID
environmental quality criteria
Environmental Quality Standards
environmental risk assessment
environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals
an effective concentration causing 20% reduction in the growth rate,
calculated from the slope of the growth curve
an effective concentration causing 50% reduction in the growth rate,
calculated from the slope of the growth curve
Engineer Research and Development Center, US Army
ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase, a biomarker for chemical exposure
ECVAM’s Scientific Advisory Committee
European Chemical Substances Information System
effective sample dose
effective sample dose causing 20% decrease in the measured response


xxii Abbreviations

EsD50

–

EsMx

–

EsVx

–

ETV
–
EU
–
EURL ECVAM –
FA
–
FAME
–
FDA
–
FETAX
–
FGETS
–
FID
–
FIFRA
–
FQAI
–
FRAME
–
GC
GC-FID

GC-MS
GEE
GFE
GFP
GHS

–
–
–
–
–
–
–

GIS
GJIC
GLM
GPL
GUI
H

–
–
–
–
–
–

Henry

–

H%
H
HA
HAC
HDPE
HEH GC

–
–
–
–
–
–

HEP
HepG2
HET-CAM
HHPN

–
–
–
–

effective sample dose causing 50% decrease in the measured
response
effective sample mass, causing x% decrease in the
measured response

effective sample volume causing x% decrease in the
measured response
electrothermal vaporization
European Union
EU Reference Laboratory for Alternatives to Animal Testing
fly ash
factorial extrapolation method
Food and Drug Administration (US)
frog embryo teratogenesis assay on Xenopus
food and gill exchange of toxic substances
flame ionization detection
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (US)
floristic quality assessment index
Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments
in the UK
gas chromatography
gas chromatography with flame ionization detector
gas chromatography with mass spectrometry detector
generalized estimating equations
gastric fluid extraction methods
green fluorescent protein
Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling
of Chemicals, UN
geographic information system
gap junction intercellular communication
generalized linear models for logistic regression
general public license
graphical user interface
dimensionless Henry’s law constant: the ratio of the
concentration of a chemical substance in water to the

concentration in the equilibrium gas phase (caq /cgas )
Henry’s law constant with the dimension of L × Pa/mol: the
ratio of the partial pressure of gas above the solution (in Pa) to
the concentration (molarity) of gas in solution (in mol/L)
inhibition rate of the luminescent light emission
null hypothesis in hypothesis testing
alternative hypothesis in hypothesis testing
hierarchical agglomerative clustering
high density polyethylene
hydrocarbons extracted by aqueous hydroxypropyl
beta-cyclodextrin solution and measured by GC-FID
habitat evaluation procedure
liver cell line (hepatoma) for testing cell growth and cytotoxicity
hen’s egg test – chorioallantoic membrane assay
hydraulic high pressure nebulizers


Abbreviations xxiii

HL-60
–
HPLC-MS –
HQ
–
HSDB
–
HTS
–
HxCDD –
I%

–
IBI
–
ICCVAM –
ICE
ICP-AES
ICP-OES
ICP-MS
IHCP
INT

–
–
–
–
–
–

IOBC
IPCS
IPPC
IR
IRE
IRIS
ISCO
ISO
IT
IVG
JaCVAM
JRC

Kd

–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

Kliquid-gas

–

Koc

–

Kow

–

Kp

–

LAD
LC20
LC50
LD20
LD50
LDPE
LE

–
–
–
–
–
–
–

human acute promyelocytic leukemia cell line
high-performance liquid chromatograph–mass spectrometer
human hazard quotient
hazardous substances database
high throughput screening
1,2,3,7,8,9-hexachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, persistent organic toxicant
inhibition rate: difference in response to the effect of a toxicant
compared to the control, given in the % of the control
index of biological integrity
Interagency Coordinating Committee on the Validation of
Alternative Methods
isolated chicken eye assay

inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy
inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry
inductively coupled plasma with mass spectrometry
Institute for Health and Consumer Protection, JRC, EC
2-(p-iodophenyl)-3-(p-nitrophenyl)-5-phenyl tetrazolium chloride,
an indicator dye for microbial respiration bioassays
International Organization for Biological Control
International Programme on Chemical Safety
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control, EU Directive
infrared light
isolated rabbit eye assay
Integrated Risk Information System US EPA
in-situ chemical oxidation
International Organization for Standardization
information technology
in vitro gastrointestinal digestion model
Japanese Center for the Validation of Alternative Methods
Joint Research Centre, EC
equilibrium partitioning of charged molecules / contaminants
between water and solid phases
equilibrium partitioning of the chemical substance between
liquid and gas
equilibrium partitioning of the contaminant between the soil’s organic
and water content
octanol-water partition coefficient, the ratio of the concentration
of a chemical in octanol to the concentration in water (co /cw )
at equilibrium
equilibrium partitioning of neutral contaminants between solid and
water phases
least sum of absolute deviations

lethal concentrations that cause 20% mortality of the test organisms
lethal concentrations that cause 50% mortality of the test organisms
lethal doses that cause 20% mortality of test organisms
lethal doses that cause 50% mortality of test organisms
low-density polyethylene
solution of ammonium lactate and acetic acid applied first by
Lakanen & Erviö for soil extraction to imitate plants’ uptake


xxiv Abbreviations

LLC-PK1
LNAPL
LOEAsD

– kidney proximal tubule cell line for testing cell damage
– light non-aqueous phase liquids
– lowest effective sample dose calculated from the area under
the growth curve
LOEC
– lowest observed effect concentration
LOEL
– lowest observed effect level
LOErsD
– growth ratebased lowest effect sample dose calculated from
the slope of the growth curve
LOEsD
– lowest tested sample dose showing an effect
LOEsV
– lowest tested sample volume or mass showing an effect

MAC
– maximum allowable concentration
MAE
– microwave assisted extraction
MANCOVA
– multivariate analysis of covariance
MANOVA
– multivariate analysis of variance
MATC
– maximum allowable toxicant concentration
MAWI
– multi-scale assessment of watershed integrity, ERDC,
US Army
MCA
– multiple correspondence analysis
MDCK
– (Madin-Darby) canine kidney epithelial cells
MDGC
– multidimensional gas chromatography
METI
– Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, before
2001: MITI
MFC
– mixed-flask culture mesocosm
MI
– maturity index
MINISSA
– Michigan-lsrael-Nijmegen lntegrated Smallest Space Analysis
MITI
– Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry,

from 2001: METI
ML
– maximum likelihood
MML
– marginal maximum likelihood
MNA
– mean number of class attributes
MNT
– mammalian cell micronucleus test
MoA
– mode of action
MoE
– margin of exposure
MPA
– maximum permissible addition
MPC
– maximum permissible concentration
MPN
– most probable number, a statistical method
mRNA
– messenger RNA
MS
– mass spectrometry
MTD
– maximum tolerated dose
MW
– microwave
NADPH
– the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate

NCBI
– National Center for Biotechnology Information, US
NEC
– no-effect concentration the concentration of a substance
that will not adversely affect the species or the community
exposed to it
NHK
– normal human keratinocyte cells
NICEATM NTP – Interagency Center for the Evaluation of Alternative
Toxicological Methods, National Toxicology Program,
National Institutes of Health, US


Abbreviations

xxv

NIH
– National institute of Health, US
NIST
– National Institute for Standardization and Technology US
NIST/SEMATECH – Working Group Elaborating an E-Handbook for Engineering
Statistics
NGO
– non-governmental organization
NOAEC
– no observed adverse effect concentration
NOAEL
– no observed adverse effect level
NOEC

– no-observed effect concentration
NOEL
– no observed effect level
NOEAsD
– no observed effect sample dose, based on the area under the
growth curve
NOEsV
– highest tested sample volume with no observed effect on
the response
NOEsD
– highest tested sample dose with no observed effect on
the response
NPDS
– National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System, US
NRU
– neutral red uptake test
NSAID
– non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug
NTP
– National Toxicology Program, US
OECD
– Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
PAHs
– polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, frequent environmental
CMR pollutants
PBASE
– sequential extraction of metals modeling the potential
bioavailability
PBET
– physiologically based extraction test for predicting metals

bioavailability
PBPKs
– physiologically based pharmacokinetic models
PBTs
– persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic chemicals
PCA
– principal components analysis
PCBs
– polychlorinated biphenyls
PCP
– pentachlorophenol
PCR
– polymerase chain reaction, a technique to amplify a piece
of DNA
PEC
– predicted environmental concentration
PICT
– pollution-induced community tolerance
PID
– photoionization detector
PLE
– pressurized liquid extraction
PLFA
– phospholipid fatty acid analysis
PNEC
– predicted no-effect concentration
POM
– polyoxymethylene membrane
POPs
– persistent organic pollutants

PPCPs
– pharmaceuticals and personal care products
PPY
– proteose peptone yeast extract
PSM
– primary biodegradation model
psRNAs
– putative sRNAs
PVC
– polyvinylchloride
QSAR
– quantitative structure–activity relationship


xxvi Abbreviations

QSPR
–
(Q)SAR –
RAMEB
RBALP
RBA
RBP
RC
RCR
RDA
REACH

–
–

–
–
–
–
–
–

REH GC –
RF
RfD
RHE
RIVM
RNA
ROC
RQ
RS
SA
SAM
SAR
SAS
SB
SBET
SCGE
sD
s.e.
SEM
SETAC
SFE
SHE
SHIME

SIFT
SIN
SIR
SIRC
SIT
SME
SOM
SPE
SPMD
SPSS
SQT
sRNAs
SS

–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

quantitative structure–permeability relationship
both methods of structure–activity relationship and
quantitative structure–activity relationship
randomly methylated beta-cyclodextrin
relative bioaccessibility leaching procedure
relative bioavailability
rapid bioassessment procedure
primary biodegradability
risk characterization ratio
redundancy analysis

Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals,
EU regulation
hydrocarbons extracted by aqueous RAMEB solution and measured
by GC-FID
radiofrequency
human oral reference dose
reconstructed human epidermis
Dutch National Institute for Public Health and the Environment
ribonucleic acid
rat keratinocyte organotypic culture
risk quotient
remote sensing
solubilizing agent
standardized aquatic microcosm
structure–activity relationship
Statistical Analysis System a software package
soil biota
simplified bioaccessibility extraction test
single cell gel electrophoresis
sample dose
standard error
solvent extractable mass
Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
supercritical fluid extraction
Syrian hamster embryo cell line
simulator of the human intestinal microbial ecosystem
mouse skin integrity function test
substrateinduced nitrification
substrate-induced respiration technique
rabbit corneal cells

skin irritation test
multi-step sequential extraction method
self-organizing map
solid–liquid extraction
semi-permeable membrane device
Statistical Package from IBM
sediment quality triad
small RNAs
sum of squares method for regression analysis


Abbreviations xxvii

SSC
SSD
SSE
STT
STTA
T25

–
–
–
–
–
–

TAM
–
TCDD

–
TCE
–
TD50
–
TDI
–
TECAM
–
TEF
–
Tenax TA beads –
TEQ4CP
–
TEQCu
–
TER
–
TG
–
TGD
–
THQ
–
TIE
–
TIM
–
TMC
–

TME
–
TO
–
ToA
–
TOFMS
–
TPF
–
TPH
–
TTC
–
TTO
UAE
UBA
UBM
UCLA
UDS
UMAM
UNECE
US EPA
USM
UV-VIS
vPvBs
VARMINT

–
–

–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

VMPs

–

soil screening concentration
species sensitivity distribution
selective sequential extraction
soil testing triad
stably transfected transactivation assay
carcinogenicity potency estimate the chronic dose rate which will
give tumors to 25% of the animals
thermo activity monitor
2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, persistent organic toxicant
trichloroethylene, a toxic solvent
50% toxic dose
tolerable daily intake
triolein-embedded cellulose acetate membrane
toxicant equivalent factor

porous polymer resin based on 2,6-diphenylene oxide
toxicity-equivalent value expressed in mg 4-chlorophenol/kg soil
toxicity-equivalent value expressed in mg Cu/kg soil
toxicity/exposure ratio
test guideline
technical guidance document
target hazard quotient
toxicity identification evaluation for sediments
TNO intestinal model
terrestrial microcosm chamber
terrestrial model ecosystem
transformer oil
Treaty of Amsterdam
time-of-flight mass spectrometer
triphenylformazan
total petroleum hydrocarbons
2,3,5-triphenyl-tetrazolium-chloride, an indicator dye, used
for microbial respiration bioassays
terrestrial test organism(s)
ultrasonic assisted extraction
Umweltbundesamt, the Federal Environment Agency in Germany
unified bioaccessibility method
University of California, Los Angeles
unscheduled DNA synthesis test
uniform mitigation assessment method
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
Environmental Protection Agency of the United States
ultimate biodegradation model
ultraviolet and visible light
very persistent and very bioaccumulative chemical substances

variables for assessing reasonable mitigation in
new transportation
veterinary medicinal products