Năng lực tự học vai trò của giáo viên và bạn bè LEARNER AUTONOMY: THE ROLES OF TEACHERS AND PEERS

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

LE HA TO QUYEN

LEARNER AUTONOMY: THE ROLES OF TEACHERS AND PEERS

PHILOSOPHY IN TEACHING ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER
LANGUAGES DOCTORAL DISSERTATION

HO CHI MINH CITY, 2023


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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

LE HA TO QUYEN

LEARNER AUTONOMY: THE ROLES OF TEACHERS AND PEERS

Major: Philosophy in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
Code: 91 40 111

DOCTORAL DISSERTATION

HO CHI MINH CITY, 2023


STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

The Doctoral Dissertation titled “Learner Autonomy: The Roles of Teachers and
Peers” has been submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Teaching English
to Speakers of Other Languages.
Except for the references cited in this dissertation, I hereby declare that the whole or
parts of this dissertation have not been published or used to obtain the degree elsewhere.
No other person's work/research may be used in this thesis that is not properly cited.
This thesis has never been submitted for any degree at any other university or training
institution.
Ho Chi Minh City, …/…/ 2023.

Le Ha To Quyen


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ACKNOWLEDGEMNENTS

“Learner Autonomy: The Roles of Teachers and Peers” Doctoral Dissertation has been
completed at Ho Chi Minh City Open University.
I take this opportunity to extend my heartfelt thanks and deep gratitude to all those who
have contributed to the successful completion of this thesis. Their continuous support,
guidance, and encouragement have been instrumental in my academic journey.
First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my scientific
supervisors, Ms. Bui Thi Thuc Quyen, Ph.D. and Mr. Dang Tan Tin, Ph.D. Their
comprehensive knowledge, unwavering support, and enthusiastic guidance have been
the cornerstone of my research. Their insights and intellectual stimulation have been
invaluable to my growth and understanding of the subject matter. I am forever indebted
to them for their roles in my achievement.
I am also deeply thankful to the Graduate Lecturers at Ho Chi Minh City Open

University. Their extensive expertise and generous provision of background knowledge
have significantly enriched my study activities.
I must also extend my appreciation to my family, relatives, colleagues, classmates, and
friends. Their belief in me and constant encouragement have fortified me during the
challenges and pressures of this endeavor. Without their support and love, this journey
would have been far more arduous.
Finally, I acknowledge all others who have contributed in any way to this project,
whether directly or indirectly. The collaborative spirit I have experienced will stay with
me as cherished memories.
In closing, I reflect on this journey with profound appreciation for the collective wisdom,
guidance, and support that have made this thesis a reality. It is my hope that the work
presented here honors the efforts and contributions of all those mentioned above.
Ho Chi Minh City, … ./…/2023


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ABSTRACT

Learner autonomy has been considered the central aim of education because of its
significant role in enabling students to develop into successful lifelong learners. In
modern times, students have many opportunities to learn outside the classroom, the ideal
context for learner autonomy development. Therefore, research about the development
of learner autonomy in the out-of-class learning context needs to receive more focus.
Based on sociocultural theory as the theoretical framework, the current research
explores the situation of EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in the out-of-class
context and the potential of promoting it through teachers’ and peers’ roles in the
classroom. With the explanatory sequential mixed methods designs, the study collected
data from answers to a questionnaire on learner autonomy and teachers’ and peers’ roles
(N=709) and semi-structured in-depth group interviews (N=35). The findings pointed

out that although students had a moderate capacity to control the situational,
behavioural, and psychological dimensions of learner autonomy, they still faced many
challenges when learning independently. In addition, there were significant correlations
between factors of the situational, behavioural, and psychological dimensions of learner
autonomy and the roles of teachers as a resource, an evaluator, a controller, an instructor,
a facilitator, and a co-learner in the classroom. The mediating factors of these
correlations were the students’ motivation, role model, trust, and care. In addition, the
correlations between learner autonomy and the four perceived peers’ roles in the
classroom: a co-learner, an encourager, an assessor, and a supporter were also
significant. The mediating factors of these correlations were positive emotions,
interdependence, responsibilities, and face value. The research findings have provided
empirical data about EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in the out-of-class context
and the connection between in-class and out-of-class learning. These findings provide
pedagogical implications for learners, teachers, and peers to foster learner autonomy
development in the out-of-class learning context.


TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................. i
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................... vii
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................................................................. xi
Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................1
1.1. General context of the study .................................................................................1
1.1.1. The history of English teaching and learning in Vietnam ..............................2
1.1.2. The vital role of English in Vietnamese context ............................................3
1.1.3. The challenges of English training in Vietnamese context ............................5

1.1.4. English training in Vietnam higher education ................................................8
1.2. Rationale of the research .....................................................................................11
1.3. Research aims, objectives and research questions ..............................................13
1.4. Significance of the research ................................................................................14
1.5. Scope of the research ..........................................................................................14
1.6. Definition of key terms .......................................................................................15
1.7. Thesis organisation..............................................................................................15
1.8. Chapter overview ................................................................................................17
Chapter 2 ......................................................................................................................18
LITERATURE REVIEW ...........................................................................................18
2.1. Learner autonomy ...............................................................................................18
2.1.1. Conceptualisation of learner autonomy ........................................................18
2.1.1.1. General conceptions of learner autonomy in language teaching ...........18
2.1.1.2. Models of learner autonomy ..................................................................21
2.1.1.3. Operational definition of learner autonomy ...........................................25


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2.1.2. The importance of learner autonomy ............................................................26
2.1.3. Degrees of learner autonomy ........................................................................28
2.1.4. Factors that influence the development of learner autonomy.......................29
2.1.5. Approaches to foster learner autonomy ........................................................32
2.1.6. Learner autonomy in out-of-class learning ...................................................34
2.2. Perceived teachers’ roles in the language classroom ..........................................38
2.2.1. A controller ...................................................................................................40
2.2.2. An instructor .................................................................................................42
2.2.3. A facilitator ...................................................................................................43
2.2.4. A co-learner ..................................................................................................44
2.2.5. A resource .....................................................................................................45

2.2.6. An evaluator ..................................................................................................46
2.2.7. An explorer ...................................................................................................47
2.3. Perceived peers’ roles in the language classroom ...............................................48
2.3.1. A co-learner ..................................................................................................49
2.3.2. A supporter ...................................................................................................50
2.3.3. An encourager ...............................................................................................51
2.3.4. An assessor ...................................................................................................52
2.4. Theoretical framework ........................................................................................53
2.4.1. Constructivism and social constructivism ....................................................53
2.4.2. SCT ...............................................................................................................54
2.4.3. CoP................................................................................................................57
2.5. Learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles................................................59
2.5.1. Perceived teachers’ roles in learner autonomy development activity ..........59
2.5.2. Mediating factors of learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles .........60
2.6. Learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles ....................................................61
2.6.1. Perceived peers’ roles in learner autonomy development activities ............61
2.6.2. Mediating factors between learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles ...62
2.7. Previous studies and research gap .......................................................................64
2.8. The conceptual framework of the study ..............................................................67
2.9. Chapter overview ................................................................................................69


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Chapter 3 ......................................................................................................................70
METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................70
3.1. Research paradigm ..............................................................................................70
3.2. Research design ...................................................................................................71
3.3. The quantitative research ....................................................................................75
3.3.1. Objectives .....................................................................................................75

3.3.2. Participants....................................................................................................75
3.3.2.1. Rationale for choosing English majors ..................................................75
3.3.2.2. Sample size .............................................................................................76
3.3.2.3. Sampling method ....................................................................................76
3.3.3. Instrument development ...............................................................................78
3.3.3.1. Rationale for choosing the questionnaire format ...................................78
3.3.3.2. Questionnaire design ..............................................................................79
3.3.3.3. Questionnaire proofreading ....................................................................86
3.3.3.4. Translating the questionnaire .................................................................87
3.3.3.5. Piloting the questionnaire .......................................................................88
3.3.4. Quantitative data collection procedure .........................................................89
3.3.5. Quantitative data management .....................................................................90
3.3.6. Quantitative analysis .....................................................................................92
3.3.7. Issues of reliability and validity of the quantitative research .......................96
3.4. The qualitative research ......................................................................................96
3.4.1. Objectives .....................................................................................................97
3.4.2. Rationale for adopting semi-structured in-depth group interview ...............97
3.4.3. Participants and the recruitment process ......................................................97
3.4.4. Instrument ...................................................................................................100
3.4.4.1. Instrument design .................................................................................100
3.4.4.2. Piloting the interview protocol .............................................................101
3.4.5. Qualitative data collection procedure .........................................................101
3.4.6. Qualitative data analysis .............................................................................102
3.4.7. The trustworthiness of qualitative data .......................................................103
3.5. Ethical considerations .......................................................................................105


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3.6. Chapter summary ..............................................................................................107

Chapter 4 ....................................................................................................................108
DATA ANALYSIS.....................................................................................................108
4.1. Results of the quantitative phase .......................................................................108
4.1.1. Demographic information ...........................................................................108
4.1.2. EFL students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning ..........................109
4.1.2.1. Internal consistency reliability measure of learner autonomy scale ....109
4.1.2.2. Descriptive statistics of learner autonomy ...........................................110
4.1.3. Perceived teachers’ roles in the language classroom..................................115
4.1.3.1. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) of the Perceived teachers’ roles
scale ...................................................................................................................115
4.1.3.2. Descriptive statistics of perceived teachers’ roles ...............................119
4.1.4. Perceived peers’ roles in the classroom ......................................................122
4.1.4.1. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Perceived peers’ roles scale ...............122
4.1.4.2. Descriptive statistics of perceived peers’ roles ....................................125
4.1.5. Correlations between learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles .....127
4.1.5.1. Pearson correlations between learner autonomy and perceived teachers’
roles ...................................................................................................................127
4.1.5.2. Canonical correlation between learner autonomy and perceived
teachers’ roles ....................................................................................................130
4.1.6. Correlations between learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles ..........133
4.1.6.1. Pearson correlations between learner autonomy and perceived peers’
roles ...................................................................................................................133
4.1.6.2. Canonical correlation between learner autonomy and perceived peers’
roles ...................................................................................................................137
4.2. Results of the qualitative research ....................................................................140
4.2.1. Mediating factors of learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles .......141
4.2.2.1. Motivation as a mediating factor ..........................................................141
4.2.2.2. Trust as a mediating factor ...................................................................143
4.2.2.3. Role model as a mediating factor .........................................................145
4.2.2.4. Care as a mediating factor ....................................................................146

4.2.2. Mediating factors of learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles ...........147


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4.2.2.1. Positive emotions as a mediating factor ...............................................148
4.2.2.2. Interdependence as a mediating factor .................................................149
4.2.2.3. Responsibilities as a mediating factor ..................................................150
4.2.2.4. Face value as a mediating factor ..........................................................151
4.3. Chapter overview ..............................................................................................153
Chapter 5 ....................................................................................................................154
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................................................154
5.1. EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning ....................154
5.1.1. The situational dimension ...........................................................................154
5.1.2. The behavioural dimension.........................................................................157
5.1.3. The psychological dimension .....................................................................160
5.2. Perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom .......................................................161
5.3. Perceived peers’ roles in the classroom ............................................................164
5.4. Learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles..............................................166
5.4.1. Correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and
perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom. ..........................................................166
5.4.2. Mediating factors of correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class
learning and perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom ......................................167
5.5. Learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles ..................................................171
5.5.1. Correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class learning and
perceived peers’ roles in the classroom ................................................................171
5.5.2. Mediating factors of correlations between learner autonomy in out-of-class
learning and perceived peers’ roles in the classroom ...........................................173
5.6. Finalising the research model ...........................................................................176
5.7. Chapter overview ..............................................................................................177

Chapter 6 ....................................................................................................................178
CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS .................................................................178
6.1. Summary ...........................................................................................................178
6.1.1. EFL tertiary students’ learner autonomy in out-of-class learning ..............179
6.1.2. Correlations between learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles and
their mediating factors ..........................................................................................180


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6.1.3. Correlations between learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles and their
mediating factors...................................................................................................181
6.2. Contributions of the study .................................................................................181
6.3. Pedagogical implications ..................................................................................183
6.3.1. Policy makers..............................................................................................183
6.3.2. Institutions ..................................................................................................183
6.3.3. Teachers ......................................................................................................185
6.3.3.1. Autonomy support in the classroom.....................................................185
6.3.3.2. Peer collaboration .................................................................................186
6.3.4. Learners ......................................................................................................187
6.4. Limitations ........................................................................................................188
6.5. Directions for further research ..........................................................................189
6.6. Concluding sentence .........................................................................................189
REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................191
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................223


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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CEFR

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages

CoP

Community of Practice

EFL

English as a Foreign Language

HCMC

Ho Chi Minh City

IELTS

International English Language Testing System

L1

First Language

LBC

Learning Beyond the Classroom

LMS

Learning Management System

MoET

Ministry of Education and Training

SAC(s)

Self-Accessed Centre(s)

SCT

Sociocultural Theory

TOEIC

Test of English for International Communication

ZPD

Zone of Proximal Development


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2. 1 The operational definition of learner autonomy .......................................26
Figure 2. 2 The conceptual framework of the study .....................................................68

Figure 4. 1 Scree plot test with Eigenvalues greater than 1 of the second EFA run on
perceived teachers’ roles .............................................................................................117
Figure 4. 2 Scree plot test with Eigenvalues greater than 1 of second EFA run on
perceived peers’ roles ..................................................................................................123
Figure 4. 3 Canonical Correlation Analysis between perceived teachers’ roles and
learner autonomy .........................................................................................................133
Figure 4. 4 Canonical Correlation Analysis between perceived peers’ roles and
learner autonomy .........................................................................................................139
Figure 5.1 Research final model.................................................................................176


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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2. 1 Roles of teachers in the language classroom ...............................................40
Table 3. 1 Research design ...........................................................................................74
Table 3. 2 Overview of the questionnaire .....................................................................80
Table 3. 3 Detailed information of the scales with the adapted sources ......................85
Table 3. 4 Extract of the descriptive statistics of quantitative data ..............................94
Table 3. 5 Description of participants in the qualitative research ................................99
Table 4. 1 Demographic information of the participants ............................................109
Table 4. 2 Cronbach’s alpha values of nine constructs of learner autonomy scale ...109
Table 4. 3 Descriptive statistics of the situational dimension of learner autonomy ..110
Table 4. 4 Extract of the descriptive statistics of the behavioural dimension ...........112
Table 4. 5 Extract of the descriptive statistics of the psychological dimension ........114
Table 4. 6 KMO and Bartlett’s Test of the second EFA run on perceived teachers’
roles .............................................................................................................................116
Table 4. 7 Extract of the total variance explained of the second EFA run on perceived
teachers’ roles ..............................................................................................................117

Table 4. 8 Extract of factor loadings of the second EFA run on perceived teachers’
roles .............................................................................................................................118
Table 4. 9 Cronbach’s Alpha values of perceived teachers’ roles constructs ...........119
Table 4. 10 Extract of the descriptive statistics of perceived teachers’ roles ............121
Table 4. 11 KMO and Bartlett’s Test of the second EFA run on perceived peers’ roles
.....................................................................................................................................123
Table 4. 12 Extract of the total variance explained of second EFA run on perceived
peers’ roles ...................................................................................................................123
Table 4. 13 Extract of factor loadings of the second EFA run on perceived peers’
roles .............................................................................................................................124
Table 4. 14 Cronbach’s Alpha values of perceived peers’ roles ...............................125
Table 4. 15 Descriptive statistics of perceived peers’ roles.......................................126
Table 4. 16 Pearson correlations between factors of learner autonomy in the
situational dimension and perceived teachers’ roles ...................................................128
Table 4. 17 Extract of Pearson correlations between factors of learner autonomy in
the behavioural dimension and perceived teachers’ roles ...........................................129
Table 4. 18 Pearson correlations between factors of learner autonomy in the
psychological dimension and perceived teachers’ roles..............................................130


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Table 4. 19 Canonical correlations between factors of perceived teachers’ roles and
learner autonomy .........................................................................................................131
Table 4. 20 Variables of Canonical Variate 1 ............................................................132
Table 4. 21 Proportion of variance explained of Canonical Variate 1 ......................132
Table 4. 22 Pearson correlations between factors of learner autonomy in the
situational dimension and perceived peers’ roles ........................................................134
Table 4. 23 Pearson correlations between factors of learner autonomy in the
situational dimension and perceived peers’ roles ........................................................136

Table 4. 24 Pearson correlations between factors of learner autonomy in the
psychological dimension and perceived peers’ roles ..................................................137
Table 4. 25 Canonical correlations of perceived peers’ roles and learner autonomy .137
Table 4. 26 Canonical Variate 1 loadings ...................................................................138
Table 4. 27 Proportion of variance explained of Canonical Variate 1 .....................138
Table 4. 28 Summary of themes and sub-themes generated from data analysis ........140
Table 4. 29 Extract of Summary table of Motivation as a mediating factor sub-theme
.....................................................................................................................................142
Table 4. 30 Extract of Summary of Trust as a mediating factor sub-theme ...............144
Table 4. 31 Extract of Summary of Role model as a mediating factor sub-theme .....145
Table 4. 32 Extract of Summary of Care as a mediating factor sub-theme ................147
Table 4. 33 Extract of Summary of Positive emotions as a mediating factor sub-theme
.....................................................................................................................................149
Table 4. 34 Extract of Summary of Interdependence as a mediating factor sub-theme
.....................................................................................................................................150
Table 4. 35 Extract of Summary of Responsibilities as a mediating factor sub-theme
.....................................................................................................................................151
Table 4. 36 Extract of Summary of Face value as a mediating factor sub-theme .....152


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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 3A University participant invitation letter .................................................223
Appendix 3B List of questionnaire items and adapted sources ..................................225
Appendix 3C Questionnaire in English ......................................................................230
Appendix 3D Questionnaire in Vietnamese ...............................................................236
Appendix 3E Interview protocol ................................................................................243
…………………………………………………………………………………………..

Appendix 3F Descriptive statistics of learner autonomy, perceived teachers’ roles, and
perceived peers’ roles ..................................................................................................246
Appendix 4A Perceived teachers’ roles in the classroom ..........................................253
Appendix 4B Perceived peers’ roles in the classroom ...............................................261
Appendix 4C Correlations between learner autonomy and perceived teachers’ roles
.....................................................................................................................................266
Appendix 4D Correlations between learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles ...268
Appendix 4E Mediating factors between learner autonomy and perceived teachers’
roles .............................................................................................................................268
Appendix 4F Mediating factors between learner autonomy and perceived peers’ roles
.....................................................................................................................................268
Appendix 4G Interview transcript – Group Interview 1 (in English) ........................271


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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Learner autonomy has been a central aim of education because students with
higher learner autonomy can accomplish better and be more confident in their life-long
learning. In language training, learner autonomy has also been in the mainstream of
research for more than three decades. However, it remains a complicated concept that
requires more empirical data to strengthen the understanding of itself and its
relationships with other factors.
Research into students’ learner autonomy is of even greater importance in the context
of Vietnam, a developing country whose education is under the influence of
Confucianism which requires obedience to regulators’ dictation and challenges for
students’ independence. The current study is designed to understand EFL (English as a
Foreign Language) students’ learner autonomy in the out-of-class context by exploring
the correlations between it and two influcing factors, teachers and peers, contributing to

the knowledge of this dynamic construct. The following section of this chapter presents
an overview of the study, starting with a description of the study context, then proposing
the research rationale and pointing out the research’s objectives and questions. It also
highlights the study’s significance before addressing the study’s limitations and the
organization of the thesis.
1.1. General context of the study
Vietnam is a developing country whose history was heavily related to fighting for
independence. Its turbulent history explained why different foreign languages were
taught in the country. This section describes English’s role in society, the learning and
teaching process of English, especially at the tertiary level, and the challenges that
educators and learners face. This piece of information will set up the context of the
study.


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1.1.1. The history of English teaching and learning in Vietnam
The foreign languages taught in Vietnam throughout history have reflected its
socio-political and economic frameworks (Le, 2013). English has been held in high
regard since the country embarked on its economic reform known as Doi Moi
(Renovation) in 1986 (Ngo, 2021). The history of English language teaching in Vietnam
undergoes these main milestones: before 1954, 1954-1975, 1975-1986, and from 1986
to the present.
In the first period, foreign language teaching was under the influence of controlled
countries. Mandarin Chinese was the first foreign language in Vietnam during the
Chinese occupation and influence period. After that, the six decades of French
colonialism from 1884 to 1945 made French the second primary foreign language taught
in schools in Vietnam. English also made its first presence in Vietnam as a minor foreign
language (Hoang, 2020a).
After the end of the French colonization and from 1954 to 1975, Vietnam was divided

into two parts – the North and the South, and each part was allied with different world
superpowers. The Soviet Union provided economic assistance to North Vietnam;
meanwhile, the United States began to replace France as the principal foreign power in
South Vietnam. The support from the Soviet Union and American involvement in
Vietnam added Russian and English to the choices of foreign languages taught in
schools besides Chinese and French. Notably, the North promoted learning Russian and
Chinese, and the South emphasized the study of English and French as the main foreign
languages in secondary and post-secondary education (Hoang, 2010).
After the end of the Vietnam War and the independence of the country from 1975 to
1986, Russian was the language that dominated the foreign language scene in Vietnam;
other foreign languages, such as Chinese, French, and especially English, were relegated
to an inferior status (Hoang, 2020a). In 1986, Vietnam initiated an overall economic
reform commonly known as Doi Moi (Renovation), opening the door of Vietnam to the
world, especially to Western and non-Communist Asian countries. The implementation
of the open-door policy has strongly supported the teaching and learning of English as


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a significant foreign language, turning it to become the key to international
communication. Additionally, Vietnam joined different international organizations in
the region and all over the world, such as the United Nations (UN) in 1977, the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1995, the Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation (APEC) in 1998, the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2007, the TransPacific Strategic Economic Partnership Agreement (TPP) in 2015. In 2009, ASEAN
formally made English the sole working language for the group.
It can be said that this economic renovation has elevated English competence to a
crucial interlink within the global economy, transforming language skills into economic
capital (Holec, 1981). This transformation has positioned English proficiency not just
as a linguistic skill but as a strategic asset in global economic participation. Singh et al.
(2002, pp.53-54) underscore this by stating that enhancing citizens’ competence in

English is viewed as “a way of securing economic advancement, elevated status and
prestige, and trans-national mobility of a country.” Consequently, in Vietnam,
proficiency in English is not only a widespread aspiration but is also integral to the
nation’s economic development, modernisation, and global integration. Post-1986, with
the onset of the Doi Moi reforms, English has become the dominant foreign language in
the Vietnamese education system, playing a pivotal role in shaping the country's
educational landscape and its international engagements.
1.1.2. The vital role of English in Vietnamese context
Good English has become the passport to well-paid jobs in Vietnam and the
advanced education systems of prestigious universities worldwide. A qualified
workforce with good English skills is the condition for the nation’s economic
development in the era of industrialization and globalization. Because of its vital role,
many legal documents from the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) stressed
the importance of improving students’ English levels. The Government’s Vietnamese
Education Strategies document stated that one of the essential attributes that Vietnamese
students must possess is English competency (Vietnamese Government, 2005). The


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Vietnamese Education Law required that the foreign language taught in the national
education system be “widely used in international communication” (Vietnamese
National Assembly, 2005, p. 2). In 2008, the approval of the National Foreign Language
Project entitled “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Education
System, Period 2008-2020” (with a budget of up to 450 million US dollars) proved that
English teaching and learning is one of the priorities in the government’s investment
strategies and education policies (Vietnamese Government, 2008). The Project specified
English as the foreign language taught at all education levels in Vietnam. It stated that
Vietnamese students need to acquire a certain level of English after completing each
education level to communicate and work in a global working environment (Vietnamese

Government, 2008). Even though in the framework of the Vietnamese Constitution
2013, English was a foreign language with six other foreign languages, it has a special
status, second only to Vietnamese - the national language - in terms of time and training
outcomes. The vital role of English is displayed in its dominant status in a student’s
learning process in Vietnam.
Vietnamese people try to improve their English as early as possible. The age to start
learning English is getting younger and younger for Vietnamese children. They typically
enter preschool from three to five years old and can have their first contact with English
during this time, depending on the parent’s needs. English is an optional part of the
training program in certain kindergartens in affluent areas of big cities. After preschool,
children transfer to primary school, where they attend from age six to eleven. On
December 26, 2018, MoET issued the two-year optional curriculum entitled General
School Education Introductory English Curriculum for Grades 1 and 2, with two periods
per week and seventy periods per year (MoET, 2018c). Secondary school years are
divided into lower secondary and higher secondary education. Lower secondary lasts
four years, whereas higher secondary lasts three years. The General School Education
Curriculum (GSEC) required English to be taught nationally as a compulsory subject
for seven years from lower school through upper secondary school with a total number
of seven hundred periods (four hundred periods more than it was from 1982 to 2002


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(Hoang, 2020a). The regulation stated that English is taught four periods per week at the
primary level, three periods per week at the lower secondary level, and three periods at
the upper secondary level; the time allocated to English accounts for over 10 percent of
the total time designed for all general school education subjects in Vietnam (MoET,
2018a, 2018b). Further, English is one of the three compulsory examinations
(Mathematics, Vietnamese, and English) that an upper-secondary student must take to
get an upper-secondary school graduation certificate. With the certificate, students

proceed to higher education at colleges and universities.
Overall, the effort allocation for helping the students to have good English has proven
the vital role of English in the Vietnamese context. However, over the past decades, the
country’s English teaching sector has consistently been underperforming (Ngo, 2021),
which is one of the reasons leading to students failing to achieve the required language
level to graduate as well as meet the requirements of the workplace’s standard (Nguyen,
2017). The challenges that the English training process faces are the factors that
contribute to the limitation of the teaching quality.
1.1.3. The challenges of English training in Vietnamese context
The challenges of the language training process come from the characteristics of the
Vietnamese education system, its teaching conditions, and its learners.
The first challenge is the high centralism of the educational system in Vietnam
(Hoang, 2020a). MoET takes the initiative for curriculum design, development, revision
and review, and textbook writing and assessment. MoET adopts a one-size-fits-all
approach to centrally mandated curricular changes, and teachers are expected to
implement those changes in their classroom teachings faithfully. Besides the possibility
of reaching a consensus in the teaching process, this approach leads to the fact that most
of the teaching focuses on dealing with the content of the coursebook rather than the
specific conditions of students or the ability to use English for real-life communication
(Ton & Pham, 2010).


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The second challenge comes from its test-oriented characteristic (Hoang, 2018;
Nguyen, 2017). Even though MoET stresses developing practical communication skills,
the crucial exams do not reflect that. As a result, the training activities in the classroom
focus on developing reading comprehension, vocabulary, and structural patterns to
prepare students to pass those exams. Teacher training and development programs have
been updated and designed to help teachers to teach communicatively; however,

classroom reality does not promote opportunities to develop students’ communicative
competence.
The third difficulty is from the training force. There is a disproportionate demandsupply for English teachers and learners. The number of English teachers, both native
and competent non-native speakers, is far less than the number of learners who have an
ardent desire to learn English. Moreover, teachers of English’s professional training and
retraining are limited, which require much more resources and investment. Teachers are
having difficulties meeting MoET’s requirement to have an English-level proficiency of
CEFR B2 for primary and lower secondary school teachers and CEFR C1 for upper
secondary and high school teachers and tertiary level teachers as part of the National
Foreign Languages Project 2020. Furthermore, most teachers have minimal chance to
study in an English-speaking country. These limitations have caused teachers, in
general, not usually to communicate in English and cannot sustain teaching that depends
on communicative interactions (Hoang, 2020a). When the teachers are qualified, it is
easier for them to implement the curriculum and fulfil their roles, leading to the problem
of L1 (Vietnamese) overuse and misuse in the language classroom (Nguyen, 2017). As
Vietnam has moved towards an entire market-driven economy, traditional teacher
values are increasingly in conflict with the quasi-marketisation of the educational
system. Teachers, therefore, must face even more challenges, such as the demanding
attitudes of students and parents.
The next difficulty is the limited teaching conditions regarding class size and
resources. Classes usually have forty to sixty students with fixed tables and chairs and a
blackboard in a small room in noisy places with poor ventilation. Large classes lead to


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difficulties in classroom management, such as the need for teacher-student interactions
(Nguyen, 2017). The unattractive textbooks and the lack of supplementary resources fail
to engage students to learn. Textbook writing for the new program has been completed
with significant modifications; however, using the new textbooks effectively requires

time and investment (Hoang, 2020a). Facilities outside the classroom, such as libraries,
labs, and self-study areas, could be better equipped and maintained in most learning
situations, which can demotivate students to learn outside the classroom (Hoang, 2018).
Finally, students’ passiveness in learning is the most crucial factor that makes the
training process ineffective. This reactive response was blamed for the influence of
Confucianism over the long time of Chinese domination in Vietnam (Tran, 2013).
Confucianism is a philosophical and ethical system that originated in ancient China and
is associated with the teachings of Confucius (Kong Fuzi or Kongzi). Confucianism
emphasizes social hierarchy and respects the role of teachers in the classroom.
Confucianism views teachers as important figures who impart knowledge, moral values,
and social etiquette to students. In Confucian-based cultures, teachers are highly
respected, and their role extends beyond academic instruction to include character
development and ethical guidance. Confucianism also insists on collectivism, social
harmony, and the community’s well-being over individual interests. In educational
settings, collaborative learning and group cohesion should always be maintained.
Despite the increasing modern influence, Confucianism is deeply embedded in the
learning practices of Vietnamese students (Nguyen, 2018). These influences explain
students’ lack of flexibility and obedience to teachers’ arrangements in classroom
learning, especially for students at low levels of training (Bui, 2018). As a result, when
students enter higher education, they still need detailed guidance or even teacher
dictation to conduct their learning (Phan, 2015), which can hinder them from taking
control of their learning.
To conclude, English training in the Vietnamese context contains challenges for the
effectiveness of teaching and learning. These challenges have made the quality of
English teaching and learning quality lower than expected, even though students have


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started the English learning journey at an early age. Unlike only sitting on a classroomlevel or national exam to go to the next class, students in higher education need to have

an international certificate or an equivalent and be ready to use English at work to
graduate. This fact has made English training at tertiary receive much attention and is
also why the researcher chose it as the study context.
1.1.4. English training in Vietnam higher education
Tertiary education is a valuable period for students to be nurtured, supported, and
matured in knowledge and generic skills. Therefore, it is a rip period for students to
round up their knowledge and skills and prepare for their future jobs. The government
has invested much more money in tertiary-level training than other levels, expecting
students to adapt to and then create modern technologies and business conditions (World
Bank, 2020). Once higher education training is successful, the quality of the workforce
is improved, which contributes to the sustainable growth of the country’s economy.
Vietnamese students have various higher education options in Vietnam, such as
universities, senior colleges, junior colleges, professional secondary schools, vocational
schools, and research institutes. Higher education training in Vietnam has specific
characteristics.
Firstly, most students tend to study away from home when they go to university,
being attracted to universities in big cities such as Ha Noi, Ho Chi Minh, and Can Tho
for better training quality, forming the knowledge clusters in the North and South of
Vietnam (Evers & Bauer, 2011). Hence, classes at university typically consist of
students from different provinces with different educational backgrounds, even though
they have achieved similar scores in the upper secondary school graduation exams.
Secondly, training at the tertiary level follows the central credit-based system. When
students select the course they want, they can exercise their active role in learning. The
students’ freedom to make selections also maximizes the flexibility of teachers’ teaching
methodologies to meet the programs’ objectives and the learners’ demands. Next,
technology is gradually being applied in the training process in Vietnam, and the digital


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transformation of education has sped up through the pandemic of COVID-19. Educators
fully know the importance of ICT (Information and Communication Technology)
implementation, but the ICT facilities and instruction on ICT use were underinvested
(Nguyen, 2021).
At the tertiary level, the role of English is even more stressed. There are two main
categories of English language training in tertiary education in Vietnam. The first
division is the training program for students who choose English as their major. They
can study at departments or faculties of the English language in universities and
colleges. The training program lasts four years, and the requirement for graduation is
advanced English level – level 5 as defined in MoET’s Six-level Foreign Language
Competency Framework for Vietnam (equivalent to CEFR Level C1) (MoET, 2014).
The second category is a program for students who study English as a compulsory
subject from undergraduate through doctoral level. The amount of time allocated to
English teaching may vary in universities and colleges, but in general, undergraduate
students must accumulate 14 over 120 credit hours (equivalent to 630 learning periods);
at 7 out of 50 credits (equivalent to 315 learning periods) at graduate (master) level and
four credit hours (equivalent to 180 learning periods). One of the requirements for nonEnglish major students’ graduation is English at Level 3 for undergraduate students as
defined in MoET’s Six-level Foreign Language Competency Framework for Vietnam
(equivalent to CEFR Level B1) or Level 4 (equivalent to CEFR Level B2) for doctoral
level (MoET, 2014). Non-English major students can submit international English
certificates such as TOEIC and IELTS to shorten the time of English training at the
institution. Non-English majors whose teachers use English as a means of instruction
may need to achieve a higher level of English to graduate.
With the high employment rate after graduation, English major has attracted many
students to enroll, requiring them to have high scores in high school graduation exams
(Vnexpress news, 2023). English majors with a passion for education can pursue careers
in teaching and training. Others can find jobs in translating and interpreting sections or
work for jobs that require Business English. The training program follows the