Tools for Business Decision Management Makers_9 docx

smoothly ahead. Managers will need to manage the project actively through to com-
pletion. This, in turn, will require further information-gathering exercises.
Management should receive progress reports at regular intervals concerning the pro-
ject. These reports should provide information relating to the actual cash flows for each
stage of the project, which can then be compared against the forecast figures provided
when the proposal was submitted for approval. The reasons for significant variations
should be ascertained and corrective action taken where possible. Any changes in the
expected completion date of the project or any expected variations from budget in
future cash flows should be reported immediately; in extreme cases, managers may
even abandon the project if circumstances appear to have changed dramatically for the
worse. We saw in Real World 8.12, on p. 289, that Rolls-Royce undertakes this kind of
reassessment of existing projects. No doubt most other well-managed businesses do
this too.
Project management techniques (for example, critical path analysis) should be
employed wherever possible and their effectiveness reported to senior management.
An important part of the control process is a post-completion audit of the project.
This is, in essence, a review of the project’s performance to see if it lived up to expecta-
tions and whether any lessons can be learned from the way that the investment
process was carried out. In addition to an evaluation of financial costs and benefits,
non-financial measures of performance such as the ability to meet deadlines and levels
of quality achieved should also be reported. We should recall that total life-cycle
costing, which we discussed in Chapter 5, is based on similar principles.
The fact that a post-completion audit is an integral part of the management of the
project should also encourage those who submit projects to use realistic estimates. Real
World 8.15 provides some evidence of a need for greater realism.
CHAPTER 8 MAKING CAPITAL INVESTMENT DECISIONS
306
‘
REAL WORLD 8.15
Looking on the bright side

McKinsey and Co, the management consultants, surveyed 2,500 senior managers world-
wide during the spring of 2007. The managers were asked their opinions on investments
made by their businesses in the previous three years. The general opinion is that estimates
for the investment decision inputs had been too optimistic. For example, sales levels had
been overestimated in about 50 per cent of cases, but underestimated in less than 20 per
cent of cases. It is not clear whether the estimates were sufficiently inaccurate to call into
question the decision that had been made.
The survey went on to ask about the extent to which investments made seemed, in the
light of the actual outcomes, to have been mistakes. Managers felt that 19 per cent of
investments that had been made should not have gone ahead. On the other hand, they felt
that 31 per cent of rejected projects should have been taken up. Managers also felt that
‘good money was thrown after bad’ in that existing investments that were not performing
well were continuing to be supported in a significant number of cases.
Source: ‘How companies spend their money: a McKinsey global survey’, www.theglobalmarketer.com, 2007.
Other studies confirm a tendency among managers to use overoptimistic estimates
when preparing investment proposals. (See reference 1 at the end of the chapter.) It
seems that sometimes this is done deliberately in an attempt to secure project approval.
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Where overoptimistic estimates are used, the managers responsible may well find
themselves accountable at the post-completion audit stage. Such audits, however,
can be difficult and time-consuming to carry out, and so the likely benefits must be
weighed against the costs involved. Senior management may feel, therefore, that only
projects above a certain size should be subject to a post-completion audit.
Real World 8.16 describes how two large retailers, Tesco plc and Kingfisher plc, use
post-completion audit approaches to evaluating past investment projects.
MANAGING INVESTMENT PROJECTS
307
REAL WORLD 8.16
Looking back

In its 2008 corporate governance report, Tesco plc, the supermarket chain, stated:
All major initiatives require business cases to be prepared, normally covering a minimum period of
five years. Post-investment appraisals, carried out by management, determine the reasons for any
significant variance from expected performance.
In its 2007/8 financial review, Kingfisher plc, the home improvement retailer, stated:
An annual post-investment review process will continue to review the performance of all projects
above £0.75 million which were completed in the prior year. The findings of this exercise will be
considered by both the new Retail Board and the main Board and directly influence the assump-
tions for similar project proposals going forward.
Sources: The websites of Tesco plc (www.tescocorporate.com) and Kingfisher plc (www.kingfisher co.uk).
As a footnote to our discussion of business investment decision making, Real World
8.17 looks at one of the world’s biggest investment projects, which has proved to be a
commercial disaster, despite being a technological success.
REAL WORLD 8.17
Wealth lost in the chunnel
The tunnel, which runs for 31 miles between Folkestone in the UK and Sangatte in
Northern France, was started in 1986 and opened for public use in 1994. From a techno-
logical and social perspective it has been a success, but from a financial point of view it
has been a disaster. The tunnel was purely a private sector venture for which a new busi-
ness, Eurotunnel plc, was created. Relatively little public money was involved. To be a
commercial success the tunnel needed to cover all of its costs, including interest charges,
and leave sufficient to enhance the shareholders’ wealth. In fact the providers of long-term
finance (lenders and shareholders) have lost virtually all of their investment. Though the
main losers were banks and institutional investors, many individuals, particularly in France,
bought shares in Eurotunnel.
Key inputs to the pre-1986 assessment of the project were the cost of construction and
creating the infrastructure, the length of time required to complete construction and the
level of revenue that the tunnel would generate when it became operational.
‘
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The main points of this chapter may be summarised as follows:
Accounting rate of return (ARR) is the average accounting profit from the project
expressed as a percentage of the average investment.
l Decision rule – projects with an ARR above a defined minimum are acceptable; the
greater the ARR, the more attractive the project becomes.
l Conclusion on ARR:
– Does not relate directly to shareholders’ wealth – can lead to illogical conclusions.
– Takes almost no account of the timing of cash flows.
– Ignores some relevant information and may take account of some that is
irrelevant.
– Relatively simple to use.
– Much inferior to NPV.
Payback period (PP) is the length of time that it takes for the cash outflow for the
initial investment to be repaid out of resulting cash inflows.
l Decision rule – projects with a PP up to a defined maximum period are acceptable;
the shorter the PP, the more attractive the project.
l Conclusion on PP:
– Does not relate to shareholders’ wealth.
– Ignores inflows after the payback date.
– Takes little account of the timing of cash flows.
– Ignores much relevant information.
– Does not always provide clear signals and can be impractical to use.
– Much inferior to NPV, but it is easy to understand and can offer a liquidity
insight, which might be the reason for its widespread use.
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 8 MAKING CAPITAL INVESTMENT DECISIONS
308
Real World 8.17 continued
In the event

l Construction cost was £10 billion – it was originally planned to cost £5.6 billion.
l Construction time was seven years – it was planned to be six years.
l Revenues from passengers and freight have been well below those projected – for
example, 21 million annual passenger journeys on Eurostar trains were projected; the
numbers have consistently remained at around 7 million.
The failure to generate revenues at the projected levels has probably been the biggest
contributor to the problem. When preparing the projection, planners failed to take adequate
account of two crucial factors:
1 Fierce competition from the ferry operators. At the time (pre-1986), many thought that
the ferries would roll over and die.
2 The rise of no-frills, cheap air travel between the UK and the continent.
The commercial failure of the tunnel means that it will be very difficult in future for projects
of this nature to be funded by private funds.
Sources: Annual reports of Eurotunnel plc; Randall, J., ‘How Eurotunnel went wrong’, BBC news, 13 June 2005,
www.newsvote.bbc.co.uk.
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Net present value (NPV) is the sum of the discounted values of the net cash flows
from the investment.
l Money has a time value.
l Decision rule – all positive NPV investments enhance shareholders’ wealth; the
greater the NPV, the greater the enhancement and the greater the attractiveness of
the project.
l PV of a cash flow = cash flow × 1/(1 + r)
n
, assuming a constant discount rate.
l Discounting brings cash flows at different points in time to a common valuation
basis (their present value), which enables them to be directly compared.
l Conclusion on NPV:
– Relates directly to shareholders’ wealth objective.

– Takes account of the timing of cash flows.
– Takes all relevant information into account.
– Provides clear signals and is practical to use.
Internal rate of return (IRR) is the discount rate that, when applied to the cash flows
of a project, causes it to have a zero NPV.
l Represents the average percentage return on the investment, taking account of
the fact that cash may be flowing in and out of the project at various points in
its life.
l Decision rule – projects that have an IRR greater than the cost of capital are accept-
able; the greater the IRR, the more attractive the project.
l Cannot normally be calculated directly; a trial and error approach is often necessary.
l Conclusion on IRR:
– Does not relate directly to shareholders’ wealth. Usually gives the same signals as
NPV but can mislead where there are competing projects of different size.
– Takes account of the timing of cash flows.
– Takes all relevant information into account.
– Problems of multiple IRRs when there are unconventional cash flows.
– Inferior to NPV.
Use of appraisal methods in practice:
l All four methods identified are widely used.
l The discounting methods (NPV and IRR) show a steady increase in usage over time.
l Many businesses use more than one method.
l Larger businesses seem to be more sophisticated in their choice and use of appraisal
methods than smaller ones.
Investment appraisal and strategic planning
It is important that businesses invest in a strategic way so as to play to their strengths.
Dealing with risk
l Sensitivity analysis (SA) is an assessment, taking each input factor in turn, of how
much each one can vary from estimate before a project is not viable.
– Provides useful insights to projects.

– Does not give a clear decision rule, but provides an impression.
– It can be rather static, but scenario building solves this problem.
l Expected net present value (ENPV) is the weighted average of the possible outcomes
for a project, based on probabilities for each of the inputs:
– Provides a single value and a clear decision rule.
– The single ENPV figure can hide the real risk.
SUMMARY
309
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– Useful for the ENPV figure to be supported by information on the range and
dispersion of possible outcomes.
– Probabilities may be subjective (based on opinion) or objective (based on evidence).
l Reacting to the level of risk:
– Logically, high risk should lead to high returns.
– Using a risk-adjusted discount rate, where a risk premium is added to the risk-free
rate, is a logical response to risk.
Managing investment projects
l Determine investment funds available – dealing, if necessary, with capital rationing
problems.
l Identify profitable project opportunities.
l Evaluate the proposed project.
l Approve the project.
l Monitor and control the project – using a post-completion audit approach.
CHAPTER 8 MAKING CAPITAL INVESTMENT DECISIONS
310
Accounting rate of return (ARR)
p. 261
Payback period (PP) p. 265
Net present value (NPV) p. 269

Risk p. 270
Risk premium p. 272
Inflation p. 272
Discount factor p. 276
Cost of capital p. 277
Internal rate of return (IRR) p. 279
Relevant costs p. 283
Sensitivity analysis p. 292
Scenario building p. 295
Expected net present value (ENPV)
p. 296
Objective probabilities p. 299
Subjective probabilities p. 301
Risk-adjusted discount rate p. 302
Post-completion audit p. 306
Key terms
‘
1 Linder, S., ‘Fifty years of research on accuracy of capital expenditure project estimates: a review
of findings and their validity’, Otto Beisham Graduate School of Management, April 2005.
If you would like to explore the topics covered in this chapter in more depth, we recommend the
following books:
McLaney, E., Business Finance: Theory and Practice, 8th edn, Financial Times Prentice Hall, 2009,
chapters 4, 5 and 6.
Pike, R. and Neale, B., Corporate Finance and Investment, 5th edn, Prentice Hall, 2006, chapters 5,
6 and 7.
Arnold, G., Corporate Financial Management, 3rd edn, Financial Times Prentice Hall, 2005, chap-
ters 2, 3 and 4.
Drury, C., Management and Cost Accounting, 8th edn, Thomson Learning, 2009, chapters 13
and 14.
Further reading

References
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EXERCISES
311
REVIEW QUESTIONS
EXERCISES
Answers to these questions can be found in Appendix C at the back of the book.
Why is the net present value (NPV) method of investment appraisal considered to be theoretic-
ally superior to other methods that are found in practice?
The payback method has been criticised for not taking the time value of money into account.
Could this limitation be overcome? If so, would this method then be preferable to the NPV method?
Research indicates that the IRR method is extremely popular even though it has shortcomings
when compared to the NPV method. Why might managers prefer to use IRR rather than NPV
when carrying out discounted cash flow evaluations?
Why are cash flows rather than profit flows used in the IRR, NPV and PP methods of investment
appraisal?
8.4
8.3
8.2
8.1
Exercises 8.3 to 8.8 are more advanced than 8.1 and 8.2. Those with a coloured number
have answers in Appendix D at the back of the book. If you wish to try more exercises, visit
the students’ side of the Companion Website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/atrillmclaney.
The directors of Mylo Ltd are currently considering two mutually exclusive investment projects.
Both projects are concerned with the purchase of new plant. The following data are available for
each project:
Project 1 Project 2
£000 £000
Cost (immediate outlay) 100 60

Expected annual operating profit (loss):
Year 1 29 18
2 (1) (2)
324
Estimated residual value of the plant 7 6
The business has an estimated cost of capital of 10 per cent, and uses the straight-line method
of depreciation for all non-current (fixed) assets when calculating operating profit. Neither pro-
ject would increase the working capital of the business. The business has sufficient funds to
meet all capital expenditure requirements.
Required:
(a) Calculate for each project:
(1) The net present value.
(2) The approximate internal rate of return.
(3) The payback period.
8.1
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312
(b) State which, if either, of the two investment projects the directors of Mylo Ltd should
accept, and why.
C. George (Controls) Ltd manufactures a thermostat that can be used in a range of kitchen
appliances. The manufacturing process is, at present, semi-automated. The equipment used
cost £540,000, and has a written-down (balance sheet) value of £300,000. Demand for the
product has been fairly stable, and output has been maintained at 50,000 units a year in recent
years.
The following data, based on the current level of output, have been prepared in respect of
the product:
Per unit
££
Selling price 12.40

Labour (3.30)
Materials (3.65)
Overheads: Variable (1.58)
Fixed (1.60)
(10.13)
Operating profit 2.27
Although the existing equipment is expected to last for a further four years before it is sold for
an estimated £40,000, the business has recently been considering purchasing new equipment
that would completely automate much of the production process. The new equipment would
cost £670,000 and would have an expected life of four years, at the end of which it would be
sold for an estimated £70,000. If the new equipment is purchased, the old equipment could be
sold for £150,000 immediately.
The assistant to the business’s accountant has prepared a report to help assess the viability
of the proposed change, which includes the following data:
Per unit
££
Selling price 12.40
Labour (1.20)
Materials (3.20)
Overheads: Variable (1.40)
Fixed (3.30)
(9.10)
Operating profit 3.30
Depreciation charges will increase by £85,000 a year as a result of purchasing the new machinery;
however, other fixed costs are not expected to change.
In the report the assistant wrote:
The figures shown above that relate to the proposed change are based on the current level of output
and take account of a depreciation charge of £150,000 a year in respect of the new equipment. The
effect of purchasing the new equipment will be to increase the operating profit to sales revenue ratio from
18.3% to 26.6%. In addition, the purchase of the new equipment will enable us to reduce our invent-

ories level immediately by £130,000.
In view of these facts, I recommend purchase of the new equipment.
The business has a cost of capital of 12 per cent.
8.2
CHAPTER 8 MAKING CAPITAL INVESTMENT DECISIONS
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EXERCISES
313
Required:
(a) Prepare a statement of the incremental cash flows arising from the purchase of the new
equipment.
(b) Calculate the net present value of the proposed purchase of new equipment.
(c) State, with reasons, whether the business should purchase the new equipment.
(d) Explain why cash flow forecasts are used rather than profit forecasts to assess the viability
of proposed capital expenditure projects.
Ignore taxation.
The accountant of your business has recently been taken ill through overwork. In his absence
his assistant has prepared some calculations of the profitability of a project, which are to be
discussed soon at the board meeting of your business. His workings, which are set out below,
include some errors of principle. You can assume that the statement below includes no arith-
metical errors.
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6
£000 £000 £000 £000 £000 £000
Sales revenue 450 470 470 470 470
Less Costs
Materials 126 132 132 132 132
Labour 90 94 94 94 94
Overheads 45 47 47 47 47
Depreciation 120 120 120 120 120

Working capital 180
Interest on working capital 27 27 27 27 27
Write-off of development costs 30 30 30
Total costs 180 438 450 450 420 420
Operating profit/(loss) (180) 12 20 20 50 50
==Return on investment (4.7%)
You ascertain the following additional information:
l The cost of equipment contains £100,000, being the carrying (balance sheet) value of an old
machine. If it were not used for this project it would be scrapped with a zero net realisable
value. New equipment costing £500,000 will be purchased on 31 December Year 0. You
should assume that all other cash flows occur at the end of the year to which they relate.
l The development costs of £90,000 have already been spent.
l Overheads have been costed at 50 per cent of direct labour, which is the business’s normal
practice. An independent assessment has suggested that incremental overheads are likely to
amount to £30,000 a year.
l The business’s cost of capital is 12 per cent.
Required:
(a) Prepare a corrected statement of the incremental cash flows arising from the project. Where you
have altered the assistant’s figures you should attach a brief note explaining your alterations.
(b) Calculate:
(1) The project’s payback period.
(2) The project’s net present value as at 31 December Year 0.
(c) Write a memo to the board advising on the acceptance or rejection of the project.
Ignore taxation in your answer.
(£28,000)
£600,000
Total profit (loss)
Cost of equipment
8.3
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Arkwright Mills plc is considering expanding its production of a new yarn, code name X15. The
plant is expected to cost £1 million and have a life of five years and a nil residual value. It will
be bought, paid for and ready for operation on 31 December Year 0. £500,000 has already been
spent on development costs of the product, and this has been charged in the income statement
in the year it was incurred.
The following results are projected for the new yarn:
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5
£m £m £m £m £m
Sales revenue 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4
Costs, including depreciation 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1
Profit before tax 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Tax is charged at 50 per cent on annual profits (before tax and after depreciation) and paid one
year in arrears. Depreciation of the plant has been calculated on a straight-line basis. Additional
working capital of £0.6m will be required at the beginning of the project and released at the
end of Year 5. You should assume that all cash flows occur at the end of the year in which they arise.
Required:
(a) Prepare a statement showing the incremental cash flows of the project relevant to a deci-
sion concerning whether or not to proceed with the construction of the new plant.
(b) Compute the net present value of the project using a 10 per cent discount rate.
(c) Compute the payback period to the nearest year. Explain the meaning of this term.
Newton Electronics Ltd has incurred expenditure of £5 million over the past three years
researching and developing a miniature hearing aid. The hearing aid is now fully developed, and
the directors are considering which of three mutually exclusive options should be taken to
exploit the potential of the new product. The options are as follows:
1 The business could manufacture the hearing aid itself. This would be a new departure, since
the business has so far concentrated on research and development projects. However, the
business has manufacturing space available that it currently rents to another business for
£100,000 a year. The business would have to purchase plant and equipment costing £9 mil-
lion and invest £3 million in working capital immediately for production to begin.

A market research report, for which the business paid £50,000, indicates that the new
product has an expected life of five years. Sales of the product during this period are pre-
dicted as follows:
Predicted sales for the year ended 30 November
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5
Number of units (000s) 800 1,400 1,800 1,200 500
The selling price per unit will be £30 in the first year but will fall to £22 in the following three
years. In the final year of the product’s life, the selling price will fall to £20. Variable produc-
tion costs are predicted to be £14 a unit, and fixed production costs (including depreciation)
will be £2.4 million a year. Marketing costs will be £2 million a year.
The business intends to depreciate the plant and equipment using the straight-line method
and based on an estimated residual value at the end of the five years of £1 million. The busi-
ness has a cost of capital of 10 per cent a year.
2 Newton Electronics Ltd could agree to another business manufacturing and marketing the
product under licence. A multinational business, Faraday Electricals plc, has offered to
undertake the manufacture and marketing of the product, and in return will make a royalty
payment to Newton Electronics Ltd of £5 per unit. It has been estimated that the annual
8.5
8.4
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number of sales of the hearing aid will be 10 per cent higher if the multinational business,
rather than Newton Electronics Ltd, manufactures and markets the product.
3 Newton Electronics Ltd could sell the patent rights to Faraday Electricals plc for £24 million,
payable in two equal instalments. The first instalment would be payable immediately and the
second at the end of two years. This option would give Faraday Electricals the exclusive right
to manufacture and market the new product.
Required:

(a) Calculate the net present value (as at 1 January Year 1) of each of the options available to
Newton Electronics Ltd.
(b) Identify and discuss any other factors that Newton Electronics Ltd should consider before
arriving at a decision.
(c) State what you consider to be the most suitable option, and why.
Ignore taxation.
Chesterfield Wanderers is a professional football club that has enjoyed considerable success in
both national and European competitions in recent years. As a result, the club has accumulated
£10 million to spend on its further development. The board of directors is currently considering
two mutually exclusive options for spending the funds available.
The first option is to acquire another player. The team manager has expressed a keen inter-
est in acquiring Basil (‘Bazza’) Ramsey, a central defender, who currently plays for a rival club.
The rival club has agreed to release the player immediately for £10 million if required. A decision
to acquire ‘Bazza’ Ramsey would mean that the existing central defender, Vinnie Smith, could
be sold to another club. Chesterfield Wanderers has recently received an offer of £2.2 million for
this player. This offer is still open but will only be accepted if ‘Bazza’ Ramsey joins Chesterfield
Wanderers. If this does not happen, Vinnie Smith will be expected to stay on with the club
until the end of his playing career in five years’ time. During this period, Vinnie will receive an
annual salary of £400,000 and a loyalty bonus of £200,000 at the end of his five-year period with
the club.
Assuming ‘Bazza’ Ramsey is acquired, the team manager estimates that gate receipts will
increase by £2.5 million in the first year and £1.3 million in each of the four following years. There
will also be an increase in advertising and sponsorship revenues of £1.2 million for each of the
next five years if the player is acquired. At the end of five years, the player can be sold to a club
in a lower division and Chesterfield Wanderers will expect to receive £1 million as a transfer fee.
During his period at the club, ‘Bazza’ will receive an annual salary of £800,000 and a loyalty
bonus of £400,000 after five years.
The second option is for the club to improve its ground facilities. The west stand could
be extended and executive boxes could be built for businesses wishing to offer corporate
hospitality to clients. These improvements would also cost £10 million and would take one year

to complete. During this period, the west stand would be closed, resulting in a reduction of gate
receipts of £1.8 million. However, gate receipts for each of the following four years would be
£4.4 million higher than current receipts. In five years’ time, the club has plans to sell the exist-
ing grounds and to move to a new stadium nearby. Improving the ground facilities is not
expected to affect the ground’s value when it comes to be sold. Payment for the improvements
will be made when the work has been completed at the end of the first year. Whichever option
is chosen, the board of directors has decided to take on additional ground staff. The additional
wages bill is expected to be £350,000 a year over the next five years.
The club has a cost of capital of 10 per cent. Ignore taxation.
Required:
(a) Calculate the incremental cash flows arising from each of the options available to the club.
(b) Calculate the net present value of each of the options.
(c) On the basis of the calculations made in (b) above, which of the two options would you
choose and why?
8.6
EXERCISES
315
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(d) Discuss the validity of using the net present value method in making investment decisions
for a professional football club.
Simtex Ltd has invested £120,000 to date in developing a new type of shaving foam. The
shaving foam is now ready for production and it has been estimated that the new product will
sell 160,000 cans a year over the next four years. At the end of four years, the product will be
discontinued and replaced by a new product.
The shaving foam is expected to sell at £6 a can and the variable cost is estimated at £4 per
can. Fixed cost (excluding depreciation) is expected to be £300,000 a year. (This figure includes
£130,000 in fixed cost incurred by the existing business that will be apportioned to this new
product.)
To manufacture and package the new product, equipment costing £480,000 must be

acquired immediately. The estimated value of this equipment in four years’ time is £100,000. The
business calculates depreciation using the straight-line method, and has an estimated cost of
capital of 12 per cent.
Required:
(a) Deduce the net present value of the new product.
(b) Calculate by how much each of the following must change before the new product is no
longer profitable:
(i) the discount rate;
(ii) the initial outlay on new equipment;
(iii) the net operating cash flows;
(iv) the residual value of the equipment.
(c) Should the business produce the new product?
Kernow Cleaning Services Ltd provides street-cleaning services for local councils in the far
south west of England. The work is currently labour-intensive and few machines are used.
However, the business has recently been considering the purchase of a fleet of street-cleaning
vehicles at a total cost of £540,000. The vehicles have a life of four years and are likely to
result in a considerable saving of labour costs. Estimates of the likely labour savings and their
probability of occurrence are set out below.
Estimated savings Probability of
£ occurrence
Year 1 80,000 0.3
160,000 0.5
200,000 0.2
Year 2 140,000 0.4
220,000 0.4
250,000 0.2
Year 3 140,000 0.4
200,000 0.3
230,000 0.3
Year 4 100,000 0.3

170,000 0.6
200,000 0.1
Estimates for each year are independent of other years. The business has a cost of capital of 10
per cent.
Required:
(a) Calculate the expected net present value (ENPV) of the street-cleaning machines.
(b) Calculate the net present value (NPV) of the worst possible outcome and the probability of
its occurrence.
8.8
8.7
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Strategic management
accounting
Businesses are increasingly being managed along strategic lines. By this we mean
that strategies adopted by a business are increasingly providing the basis for both
long-term and short-term decisions. If management accounting is to help guide
decision making within a strategic framework, the reports provided and techniques
used must align closely with the framework that has been put in place. Conventional
management accounting has been criticised, however, for failing to address fully the
strategic aspects of managing a business. This criticism does not mean that the
management accounting techniques discussed so far are obsolete, but it does mean
that the subject must continue to develop if it is to retain a high degree of relevance
for decision makers.
Strategic management accounting is still a fairly new topic and there is no
generally agreed set of concepts and techniques that can help us define precisely
what is meant by this term. Nevertheless, some key features of this new topic can
be identified, and new accounting techniques which are seen as useful for strategic

decision making have emerged.
We shall begin the chapter by discussing the nature of strategic management
accounting and then go on to look at some of the techniques and methods of
analysis that fall within its scope. In this chapter we shall draw on the understanding
of topics covered in many of the preceding chapters of the book, particularly
Chapters 1, 5 and 8.
INTRODUCTION
9
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Strategic management accounting is concerned with providing information that will
support the strategic plans and decisions made within a business. We saw in Chapter 1
that strategic planning involves five steps:
1 Establishing the mission and objectives of a business.
2 Undertaking a position analysis, such as a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportun-
ities and threats) analysis, to establish how the business is placed in relation to its
environment.
3 Identifying and assessing the possible strategic options that will lead the business
from its present position (identified in Step 2) to the achievement of its objectives
(identified in Step 1).
4 Selecting the most appropriate strategic options (from those identified in Step 3) and
formulating long- and short-term plans to pursue them.
5 Reviewing business performance and exercising control by assessing actual perform-
ance against planned performance (identified in Step 4).
To some extent, conventional management accounting already supports this stra-
tegic process. We have seen in Chapter 7, for example, how budgets can be used to
compare actual performance with earlier planned performance. We have also seen in
Chapter 8 the role of investment appraisal techniques in evaluating long-term plans.
Nevertheless, there is scope for further development. It can be argued that if manage-
ment accounting is fully to support the strategic planning process, it must develop in

three broad areas:
l It must become more outward looking. There is general agreement that the conven-
tional approach to management accounting does not give enough consideration to
external factors affecting the business. These factors, however, are vitally important
to strategic planning and decision making. For example, we need to understand
the environment within which the business operates when we are undertaking
a position analysis or when we are formulating plans for the future. Management
What is strategic management accounting?
CHAPTER 9 STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
318
LEARNING OUTCOMES
When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to:
l Discuss the nature and role of strategic management accounting.
l Explain how management accounting information can help a business gain a
better understanding of its competitors and customers.
l Describe the techniques available for gaining competitive advantage through
cost leadership.
l Explain how the balanced scorecard can help monitor and measure progress
towards the achievement of strategic objectives.
l Discuss the role of shareholder value analysis and economic value added in
strategic decision making.
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accounting can play a useful role here by providing information relating to the envir-
onment, such as the performance of the business’s competitors and the profitability
of its customers.
l There must be greater concern for developing and implementing methods through which a
business can outperform the competition. In a competitive environment, a business
must be able to gain an advantage over its rivals, so that it can survive and prosper
over the longer term. Competitive advantage can be gained in various ways and one

important way is through cost leadership: that is, the ability to produce products or
services at a lower cost than that of other businesses. Although conventional manage-
ment accounting provides a number of cost determination and control techniques
to help a business operate more efficiently, these techniques are not always enough.
Rather than seeking simply to count and manage the costs incurred, costs and cost
structures may need to be transformed. Thus, management accounting has a role to
play in helping to shape the costs of the business to fit the strategic objectives.
l There must be a concern for monitoring the strategies of the business and for bringing these
strategies to a successful conclusion. This means that management accounting should
place greater emphasis on long-term planning issues and on developing a compre-
hensive range of performance measures to try to ensure that the objectives of the
business are being met. The objectives of a business are often couched in both finan-
cial and non-financial terms and so the measures developed must reflect this fact.
Let us now turn our attention to the ways in which management accounting can
help in each of the three areas identified.
If a business is to thrive, it needs to have a good understanding of the environment
within which it operates. In particular, it should have a good understanding of the
threat posed by its competitors and the benefits obtained from its customers. There is
a strong case for reporting certain information relating to competitors and customers,
frequently and routinely to managers. By so doing, managers can respond more
quickly to any changes in the environment that may occur. In this section we consider
some of the techniques and measures that may help managers gain a better under-
standing of these two important groups.
Competitor analysis
To compete effectively, a business needs to acquire a sound knowledge of its main
competitors. As well as helping in strategic planning, this knowledge can also help in
pricing and business acquisition decisions. When appraising competitors, a business
needs to understand
l what strategies and plans they have developed;
l how they may react to the plans the business has developed; and

l whether they have the capability to pose a serious threat to the business.
To gain this understanding, a careful analysis of each main competitor should be
carried out.
To illustrate the benefits of competitor analysis, let us say that a business proposes
to reduce its sales prices by 10 per cent. What would be the reaction of competitors?
Facing outwards
FACING OUTWARDS
319
‘
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Would this reduction be matched by them and thereby cancel out any advantage to be
gained? Would it lead to a price war where sales prices follow a downward spiral? If
competitors could not match the price reduction, would they be able to continue to
supply, given the likely sales volume reduction that they would suffer? We can see that
the proposal to reduce prices cannot be fully evaluated until competitors’ likely reac-
tion to the proposal is known.
Real World 9.1 provides an example of how one business came to realise that it had
to pay more attention to the competition.
To find out what drives a competitor and how it might act, four key aspects of its
business must be analysed. These are:
1 Objectives. Where is the competitor going? In particular, what are its profit objec-
tives, what rate of sales growth is it trying to achieve, what market share does it seek?
2 Strategies. How does the competitor expect to achieve its objectives? What invest-
ments are being made in new technology? What alliances and joint ventures are
being created? What new products are to be launched? What mergers and acquisi-
tions are planned? What cost reduction strategies are being developed?
3 Assumptions. How do the competitor’s managers view the world? What assumptions
are held about
l future trends within the industry;

l the competitive strengths of other businesses; and
l the feasibility of launching into new markets?
4 Resources and capabilities. How serious is the potential threat? What is the compet-
itor’s scale and size? Does it have superior technology? Is it profitable? Does it have
a strong liquidity position? What is the quality of its management?
These four features provide the framework for analysing competitors, as shown in
Figure 9.1.
Gathering information to answer the questions posed above is not always easy.
Businesses are understandably reluctant to release information that may damage their
competitive position. Nevertheless, there are sources of information that can be used.
We shall now consider some of these and, given the management accounting focus of
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320
REAL WORLD 9.1
Angling for recovery
House of Hardy is a world-famous manufacturer of fishing rods and tackle. It enjoys an
unrivalled reputation for its products and has a highly skilled workforce. In recent years,
however, it has experienced problems, which have been partly caused by global competi-
tion. The business is trying to recover and, in analysing its past mistakes, has recognised
that it has been rather too complacent in its approach to competitors. As part of its recov-
ery plan it is now paying much more attention to what they are doing. It is now analysing
the products offered by competitors and reviewing its own pricing policies in an attempt
to compete more effectively.
Source: Based on information from ‘How Hardy lost the lure of heritage’, ft.com, 1 December 2003.
FT
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this book, will concentrate on those sources providing information about the financial
resources and capabilities of competitors.
A useful starting point is to examine a competitor’s annual report. In the UK, all lim-

ited companies are legally obliged to provide information about their business in an
annual report that is available to the public. Similar provisions relate to limited com-
panies in most countries in the world. The income statement, cash flow statement and
statement of financial position (balance sheet) found in the annual report of a com-
petitor can be examined to gain insights about its financial performance and position.
Financial ratios may be used to help gain an impression of the profitability, liquidity,
efficiency and financing arrangements of the business. Trends may be detected over
time and particular strengths and weaknesses identified.
Where the competitor is not the whole business, but simply an operating division,
the annual reports are likely to be less helpful. This is because the results of the relev-
ant division will normally be obscured as a result of its aggregation with the rest of
the competitor’s operations. Though large businesses operating as limited companies
must publish some information about the sales revenues and profits of their various
operating divisions, this is often not enough to enable a full picture of the competitor
to be built up. Nonetheless, a competitor’s annual report should still offer some
useful information. Furthermore, a business will have detailed knowledge of its own
profitability, liquidity, efficiency and so on, which may well help in compiling a pic-
ture of the competitor’s position.
It may be possible to gain other information from both published and unpublished
sources. This could be from
l press coverage of the competitor’s business;
l statements by managers made at conferences or on the competitor’s website;
FACING OUTWARDS
321
Framework for competitor analysis
Figure 9.1
There are four key aspects of a competitor that should be examined.
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l house journals, brochures and catalogues produced by the competitor;

l market share data and discussions with financial analysts;
l discussions with customers who trade both with the business and with the competitor;
l discussions with suppliers to both the business and its competitor;
l physical observation, such as insights from ‘mystery shopping’;
l detailed inspection of the competitor’s products and prices;
l industry reports; and
l government statistics on such matters as the total size of the market.
By examining such sources, it may be possible to deduce likely capital investments,
acquisitions, promotional campaigns, new products and prices, cost structures and
so on. It is worth mentioning that specialist agencies can be employed to provide a
profile of competitors. These agencies normally rely on the kind of information sources
described above.
Of particular value to the business is knowledge of its competitors’ cost structures
in terms of the extent to which costs are fixed and variable. This would enable the
business to make some estimate of the effect on the competitors’ profit of an increase
or decrease in sales volume. This might, in turn, enable the business to assess how well
placed each competitor might be to react to a change in sales volume and/or sales
price. For example, a competitor with a high level of fixed costs (high operating gear-
ing) and, consequently, a low margin of safety may not be able to withstand a down-
turn in sales volume as comfortably as another business with lower operating gearing.
Real World 9.2 concludes this section by revealing that many businesses are not alert
to the moves made by competitors and so fail to gain competitive advantage.
CHAPTER 9 STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
322
REAL WORLD 9.2
Too little, too late
A global survey of 1,825 business executives by McKinsey, the management consultants,
found that businesses were not as active as they should be in responding to competitive
threats or monitoring the behaviour of competitors. The survey asked executives how their
businesses responded to either a significant change in prices or to a significant change in

innovation. The answers of executives were strikingly similar across regions and industries.
A majority of executives stated that their businesses found out about the competitive
move too late to respond before it hit the market. Thirty-four per cent of those facing an
innovation threat and 44 per cent of those facing a pricing change said that they found out
about the competitors’ moves either when they were announced or when they actually hit
the market. An additional 20 per cent of the respondents facing a price change didn’t find
out until it had been in the market place for at least one or two reporting periods.
These findings suggest that businesses are not conducting an ongoing, sophisticated
analysis of their competitors’ potential actions. That view was supported by the execu-
tives’ responses to questions on how they gather information about what competitors
might do. Executives most often said that they track information using news reports,
industry groups, annual reports, market share data and pricing data. Far fewer respon-
dents obtained information from more complex sources such as detailed examination of
the products or mystery shopping.
Source: Adapted from ‘How companies respond to competitors: a McKinsey global survey’, mckinseyquarterly.com, May 2008.
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Customer profitability analysis
Businesses wish to attract and retain customers that produce profitable sales orders. It
is, therefore, important to know whether a particular customer, or type of customer,
generates profits for the business. Modern businesses are likely to find that much of the
cost incurred is not related to the products sold but to the selling and distribution costs
associated with those sales. This has led to a shift in emphasis from product profitabil-
ity to customer profitability.
Customer profitability analysis (CPA) assesses the profitability of each customer or
type of customer. In order for CPA to be undertaken, the total costs associated with sell-
ing and distributing goods or services to particular customers must be identified. These
include the cost of
l Handling orders from the customer. This covers the costs involved with receiving the
order and activities relating to it up to the point where the goods are despatched,

or the service rendered, including the costs of raising invoices and other accounting
work.
l Visiting the customer by the business’s sales staff. Many businesses have a member of
staff visit customers, perhaps to take orders, but often to keep the customer up to
date with the latest developments in the business’s products.
l Delivering goods to the customer, using either a delivery service provided by another
business, or the business’s own transport. Naturally, the distance involved and the
size and fragility of the goods will have an effect on this cost.
l Inventories holding. Some customers may require a particular level of inventories
to be held by the business: for example, a customer operating a ‘just-in-time’ raw
material delivery policy. This can require deliveries to be made frequently and at
short notice, in effect putting pressure on the supplier to hold higher inventories
levels. (We shall discuss ‘just-in-time’ inventories management in more detail in
Chapter 11.)
l Offering credit. The business will have to finance any credit allowed to its customers.
This could vary from customer to customer, depending on how promptly they pay.
l After-sales support. Technical assistance or servicing may be offered as part of the
sales agreement.
These customer-related costs are probably best determined using an activity-based
costing approach to cost allocation. This means that, once customer-related costs are
identified, cost drivers must be established and appropriate cost driver rates deduced.
FACING OUTWARDS
323
‘
Imam plc identified the following costs relating to its customers:
l Order handling
l Invoicing and collection
l Shipment processing
l Sales visits
l After-sales service.

Suggest a possible cost driver for each of the items identified.
Activity 9.1
‘
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Once customer-related costs are derived, a CPA statement, which is essentially an
abbreviated income statement, can be produced for each customer and/or type of
customer. The CPA statement will show the relevant sales revenues and, in addition
to the customer-related costs identified earlier, will include the basic cost of creating
or buying-in the goods or services supplied (that is, cost of goods sold) and any
general selling and administration costs of the business. Example 9.1 illustrates a CPA
statement.
CHAPTER 9 STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
324
Imam plc – CPA statement for December
Customer
A plc B plc C plc D plc
£000 £000 £000 £000
Sales revenue 125 75 80 145
Cost of goods sold (87) (52) (56) (101)
Gross profit 38 23 24 44
General selling and administrative costs (19) (11) (12) (22)
Customer-related costs
Order handling (4) (2) (2) (4)
Invoicing and collection (4) (2) (2) (4)
Shipment processing (6) (4) (4) (8)
Sales visits (7) (1) (1) (2)
After-sales service (6) – (1) –
Profit/(loss) for the month (8) 3 2 4
Where all customers are sold products at the same price, the top part of the CPA

statement, which is concerned with deducing the gross profit, may be viewed as
relating to product profitability. The bottom part of the CPA statement, which is
the part below the gross profit figure, may be viewed as relating to customer
profitability.
To analyse customer profitability, we can express each of the costs found in this
part as a percentage of gross profit. The following table provides the results.
Example 9.1
We thought of the following:
Customer-related cost Possible cost driver
Order handling Number of orders placed
Invoicing and collection Number of invoices sent
Shipment processing Number of shipments made
Sales visits Number of sales visits made
After-sales service Number of technical support visits made
These are only suggestions. Other factors may be found that drive each cost.
Activity 9.1 continued
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FACING OUTWARDS
325
Customer
A plc B plc C plc D plc
%%%%
Gross profit 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
General selling and administrative costs 50.0 47.8 50.0 50.0
Customer-related costs
Order handling 10.5 8.7 8.3 9.1
Invoicing and collection 10.5 8.7 8.3 9.1
Shipment processing 15.8 17.4 16.7 18.2
Sales visits 18.4 4.3 4.2 4.5

After-sales service 15.8 – 4.2 –
Profit/(loss) for the month (21.0) 13.0 8.3 9.1
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
The information generated shows that one customer, A plc, is generating a loss.
To find out whether this is a persistent problem, trend analysis can be undertaken
which plots the customer-related costs as a percentage of gross profit over time.
An example of a trend analysis for A plc is shown in Figure 9.2.
Trend analysis for A plc
Figure 9.2
The trend in customer-related costs is shown as a percentage of gross profit for A plc,
the loss-making customer.
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In practice, it is often the case that a small proportion of customers generate a large
proportion of total profit. Where this occurs, the business may decide to focus its mar-
keting and customer support efforts on these customers. The less profitable customers
may then be targeted for price increases or, perhaps, reduced customer support, as we
saw in Activity 9.2 above.
Where a business has many customers, the analysis of individual customers’
profitability may not be feasible. In such a situation, it may be better to categorise cus-
tomers according to particular attributes and then to assess the profitability of each cat-
egory. Thus, the support services division of one large computer business divides its
customers into three categories based on technical capabilities, how they use the prod-
uct and the type of service contract they have (see reference 1 at the end of the chapter).
However, identifying appropriate categories for customers can sometimes be difficult.
Real World 9.3 provides some impression of the extent and frequency to which cus-
tomer profitability is assessed in practice.
CHAPTER 9 STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
326
What steps might be taken to deal with the problem of A plc?

The problem appears to be the cost of both sales visits and technical support visits for A
plc. They are much higher than for those of other customers, whereas other customer-
related costs, when expressed as a percentage of gross profit, are broadly in line with the
other three customers. The cost of sales visits and technical support visits have shown a
persistent rise over time and do not appear to be due to a unique factor such as the sale
of faulty goods. In view of this, the managers may decide to cut down on the number of
sales and technical visits or to charge for them, perhaps through increased prices.
Activity 9.2
REAL WORLD 9.3
CPA in practice
A survey by Tayles and Drury, which elicited responses from 185 management account-
ants in UK businesses, gives some insight into the extent and frequency of customer pro-
fitability analysis. The key findings are shown in Figure 9.3.
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Many businesses try to compete on price: that is, they try to provide goods or services
at prices that compare favourably with those of their competitors. To do this success-
fully over time, they must also compete on costs: lower prices can only normally be
sustained by lower costs. A strategic commitment to competitive pricing must there-
fore be accompanied by a strategic commitment to managing the cost base.
In Chapter 5 we saw that, to manage costs in an active way, new forms of costing
have been devised. Some of these new costing techniques reflect a concern for long-
term cost management and so fall within the broad scope of strategic management
accounting. Total life-cycle costing, target costing and kaizen costing provide three
examples. In this section, we shall briefly review these forms of costing and then go on
to consider other ways in which costs may be strategically managed.
Competitive advantage through cost leadership
COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE THROUGH COST LEADERSHIP
327
We can see that there are wide variations to be found in practice. Whereas nearly half

the respondents undertake CPA on a monthly basis, nearly a quarter do not undertake
CPA analysis at all.
Source: Based on information in Tayles, M. and Drury, C., ‘Profiting from profitability analysis?’, University of Bradford Working Paper
series No. 03/18, June 2003, p. 8.
Extent and frequency of customer profitability analysis
Figure 9.3
Approximately three-quarters of respondents indicated that CPA was undertaken, with a
monthly analysis being the most common.
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Total life-cycle costing
We saw in Chapter 5 that total life-cycle costing draws management’s attention to the
fact that it is not only during the production phase that costs are incurred. Costs begin
to accumulate at earlier phases, such as design, development and setting up the pro-
duction process. (For some businesses, such as pharmaceutical businesses, these early-
phase costs may represent a high proportion of the total costs incurred.) Furthermore,
costs continue to accumulate after production, such as those relating to distribution
and after-sales service. In certain cases there may also be abandonment costs, such as
the costs of decommissioning an oil rig operating in the North Sea.
Total life-cycle costing is concerned with tracking and reporting all costs relating to
a product from the beginning to the end of its life. If the revenues generated over the
life cycle of the product are also tracked, we can assess its profitability. Conventional
accounting reports do not attempt to do this and so it is difficult for managers to know
whether the decision to launch a new product will ultimately generate profits or losses.
Total life-cycle costing can be used to manage costs. Managers will be able to see, at
an early stage, the cost consequences of incorporating particular designs or particular
elements into products. Where the costs are unacceptable, changes may be made. Where
a number of equally acceptable designs for a particular product are being considered,
knowledge of the total life-cycle costs of each may help decide the final outcome.
Real World 9.4 shows how one well-known business operates a life-cycle approach

to both costing and environmental issues.
CHAPTER 9 STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
328
REAL WORLD 9.4
Life cycle
Rolls-Royce provides engines for use in the air, at sea and on land, and is concerned with
the environmental impact as well as the costs over the whole life of its products. Rolls-
Royce states:
The environmental performance of our products has always been a priority for Rolls-Royce. A large
part of our research and development has been directed towards new products with increased
efficiency, together with reduced emissions and noise.
Our products typically remain in service for many years and consequently much of our busi-
ness is directed towards the whole life cycle of the product. Our product development processes
have evolved to address issues associated with manufacturing, assembly, operation, repair and
overhaul. This approach has much in common with the concept of Design for Environment (DfE)
which is a process for designing to minimise the overall impact of the product during its whole
life. . . .
We are also using Life Cycle Analysis techniques to benchmark the total environmental impact
associated with our products and ultimately to inform our decision-making processes. This
approach has proved the importance of the ‘in service’ phase of the life cycle for our products,
when the vast majority of the environmental impacts occur. Rolls-Royce has long applied life-cycle
management in the form of life-cycle costing to products. We incorporate environmental life-cycle
thinking into our design processes alongside cost measurement to ensure that our products are
the most cost-effective solutions while protecting the environment as far as possible.
Source: rolls-royce.com.
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Target costing
Target costing is a market-based approach to managing costs. We saw in Chapter 5 that
the starting point is to set the target price of a product on the basis of market research,

which may include an analysis of competitors’ prices. The target price, less the required
profit from the product, will be the target cost of the product. Target costing places
demands on managers because the target cost is usually lower than the current full cost
of the product. Thus, to achieve the target cost, a systematic approach to cost reduc-
tion is often required.
A team of managers, drawn from each of the main functional areas, such as design,
production, purchasing and marketing, will normally be charged with achieving the
target cost. Together they will examine all aspects of the product and the production
process to try to eliminate anything that does not add value. This can place consider-
able pressure on designers, as they are likely to be asked to redesign the product to a
specification that is more acceptable.
Kaizen costing
Once the product design and the production process have been agreed, the production
phase can begin. Kaizen costing may be used to manage the efficiency of this phase.
We saw in Chapter 5 that kaizen costing aims at continual and gradual incremental
improvements to the product design and the production process. Like target costing,
it also involves target setting: a cost reduction rate will be specified for a period and
actual performance will be compared against it. To achieve the required cost reduction,
the involvement of employees is normally essential. The suggestions they make can often
lead to significant savings. Kaizen costing is closely associated with lean manufacturing,
which is committed to the elimination of waste through continuous improvement.
Figure 9.4 shows the phases of the product life cycle covered by the three forms of
costing discussed.
COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE THROUGH COST LEADERSHIP
329
‘
The relationship between the three types of costing
Figure 9.4
Total life-cycle costing covers all three phases of the product life cycle, whereas target costing
and Kaizen costing are each concerned with only a single phase.

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Value chain analysis
To secure competitive advantage, a business must be able to perform key activities
more successfully than its competitors. This means that it must either obtain some cost
advantage over its competitors, or differentiate itself in some way from them. To help
identify particular ways in which competitive advantage may be achieved, it is useful
to analyse a business into a sequence of value-creating activities. This sequence is
known as the value chain, and value chain analysis examines the potential for each
link in the chain to add value.
For a manufacturing business, the value-creating sequence begins with the acquisi-
tion of inputs, such as raw materials and energy, and ends with the sale of completed
goods and after-sales service. Figure 9.5 sets out the main ‘links’ in the value chain for
a manufacturing business. We can see that five primary activities are supported by four
secondary activities.
Value chain analysis applies as much to service-providing businesses as it does to
manufacturers. Service providers similarly have a sequence of activities leading to pro-
vision of the service to their customers. Analysing these activities in an attempt to
identify and eliminate non-value-added activities is very important.
Each link in the value chain represents an activity that will incur costs and affect
profits. Ideally, each will add value – that is, the customer will be prepared to pay more
for the activity than it costs to carry out. If, however, a business is to outperform its
rivals, it must ensure that the value chain is configured in such a way that it leads
either to a cost advantage or to differentiation.
To achieve a cost advantage, the costs associated with each link in the chain must
be identified and then examined to see whether they can be reduced or eliminated.
For example, a business may identify a non-value-added activity, such as the inspec-
tion of the completed product by a quality controller. The introduction of a ‘quality’
culture in the business could lead to all output being reliable. As a result, inspection
would no longer be needed and therefore this cost can be eliminated. To achieve

CHAPTER 9 STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
330
‘
The main links in the value chain of a manufacturing business
Figure 9.5
The five primary activities which form the links in the value chain, are underpinned by four sup-
port activities.
Source: Adapted from Porter, M., Competitive Advantage, The Free Press, 1985, pp. 11–15.
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