Urban Health and Society: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Research and Practice - Part 11 potx

Notes 81
This work was partially supported by a fellowship from the College of Human Eco-
logy, Cornell University, the W. T. Grant Foundation, and the John D. and Catherine T.
MacArthur Foundation Network on Socioeconomic Status and Health. Many thanks to
Dr. Marianella Casasola, Dr. Barbara Lust, Dr. N ’ Dri Assie - Lumumba, and an anony-
mous reviewer for helpful comments on earlier versions of this manuscript.
NOTES
1. UNICEF. Child mortality. Available at www.childinfo.org/mortality.html . Updated
November 2007. Accessed April 25, 2008.
2. World Health Organization. What are the key health dangers for children? Available
at www.who.int/features/qa/13/en/index.html . Updated December 2008. Accessed
February 1, 2009.
3. World Health Organization. 10 facts on child health. Available at www.who.int/
features/factfi les/child_health2/en . Updated October 02007. Accessed April 25,
2008.
4. UNICEF. Malnutrition. Available at www.childinfo.org/undernutrition.html . Upda -
ted January 2009. Accessed February 1, 2009.
5. Fotso, J - C. Urban - rural differentials in child malnutrition: Trends and socio economic
correlates in sub - Saharan Africa. Health and Place, 13 (2007): 205 – 223.
6. Brockerhoff, M., and Brennan, E. The poverty of cities in developing regions.
Population and Development Review, 24 (1998): 75 – 114.
7. Panel on Urban Population Dynamics, Montgomery, M. R., Stren, R., Bohen, B.,
and Reed, H. E. Cities Transformed: Demographic Change and Its Implications
in the Developing World. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2003.
8. Brockerhoff, M. P. An urbanizing world. Population Bulletin, 55 (2000): 3 – 4.
9. Guidotti, T. L., de Kok, T., Kjellstrom, T., and Yassi, A. Basic Environmental
Health. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
10. Satterthwaite, D. Will most people live in cities? British Medical Journal, 321
(2000): 1143 – 1145.
11. Bartlett, S. Children ’ s experience of the physical environment in poor urban set-
tlements and the implications for policy, planning and practice. Environment and

Urbanization, 11 (1999): 63 – 73.
12. Stephens, C. Healthy cities of unhealthy islands? The health and social implica-
tions of urban inequality. Environment and Urbanization, 8 (1996): 9 – 30.
13. World Health Organization. World Health Report 1995: Bridging the Gaps.
Geneva: World Health Organization, 1995.
c04.indd 81c04.indd 81 6/3/09 11:59:58 AM6/3/09 11:59:58 AM
82 An Ecological Model of Urban Child Health
14. Boivin, M. J. Effects of early cerebral malaria on cognitive ability in Senegalese
children. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23, no. 5 (2002):
353 – 364.
15. Brooks - Gunn, J., Duncan, G. J., and Britto, P. R. Are socioeconomic gradients for
children similar to those for adults? Achievement and health of children in the
United States. In D. P. Keating and C. Hertzman, eds., Developmental Health and
the Wealth of Nations: Social, Biological, and Educational Dynamics, pp. 94 – 124.
New York: Guilford Press, 1999.
16. Carter, J. A., Murira, G. M., Ross, A., Mung ’ ala - Odera, V., and Newton, C. R. J. C.
Speech and language sequelae of severe malaria in Kenyan children. Brain Injury,
17 (2002): 217 – 224.
17. Carter, J. A., Munga ’ ala - Odera, V., Neville, B. G. R., Murira, G. M., Mturi, N.,
Musumba, C., and Newton, C. R. J. C. Persistent neurocognitive impairments asso-
ciated with severe falciparum malaria in Kenyan children. Journal of Neurology,
Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 76 (2004): 476 – 481.
18. Dougbartey, A. T., Spellacy, F. J., and Dougbartey, M. T. Somatosensory discrimi-
nation defi cits following pediatric cerebral malaria. American Journal of Tropical
Medicine and Hygiene, 59 (1998): 393 – 396.
19. Glewwe, P., Jacoby, H. G., and King, E. M. Early childhood nutrition and aca-
demic achievement: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Public Economics, 81
(2001): 345 – 368.
20. Holding, P. A., Stevenson, J., Peshu, N., and Marsh, K. Cognitive sequelae of
severe malaria with impaired consciousness. Royal Society of Troprical Medicine

and Hygiene, 93 (1999): 529 – 534.
21. Molteno, C., Woods, D., and Hollingshead, J. A 5 - year follow - up study of full term
small for gestational age infants in Cape Town. Developmental Brain Dysfunction,
8 (1995): 119 – 126.
22. Repetti, R. L., Taylor, S. E., and Seeman, T. E. Risky families: Family social envi-
ronments and the mental and physical health of offspring. Psychological Bulletin,
128 (2002): 330 – 366.
23. Sameroff, A. J. Environmental risk factors in infancy. Pediatrics, 102 (1998):
1287 – 1292.
24. Scrimshaw, N. S. Malnutrition, brain development, learning, and behavior. Nutrition
Research, 18 (1998): 351 – 379.
25. Saegert, S., and Evans, G. W. Poverty, housing niches, and health in the United
States. Journal of Social Issues, 59 (2003): 569 – 589.
26. World Health Organization. World Health Report 2005: Make Every Mother and
Child Count. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2005.
c04.indd 82c04.indd 82 6/3/09 11:59:58 AM6/3/09 11:59:58 AM
Notes 83
27. Ansari, Z., Carson, N. J., Ackland, M. J., Vaughan, L., and Serraglio, A. A public
health model of the social determinants of health. Sozial- und Präventivmedizin,
48 (2003): 242 – 251.
28. Green, L. W., and Krueter, M. W. Health Promotion Planning: An Education and
Ecological Approach, 3rd ed. Mountain View, Cal.: Mayfi eld, 1999.
29. Grzywacz, J. G., and Fuqua, J. The social ecology of health: Leverage points and
linkages. Behavioral Medicine, 26 (2000): 101 – 115.
30. Parker, E. A., Baldwin, G. T., Israel, B., and Salinas, M. Application of health pro-
motion theories and models for environmental health. Health Education and
Behavior, 31 (2004): 491 – 509.
31. Stokols, D. Social ecology and behavioral medicine: Implications for training,
practice, and policy. Behavioral Medicine, 26 (2000): 129 – 138.
32. Lawrence, R. J. Urban health: An ecological perspective. Reviews on Environ-

mental Health, 14 (1999): 1 – 10.
33. Lawrence, R. J. Inequalities in urban areas: Innovative approaches to complex
issues. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 30 (2002): 34 – 40.
34. Bronfenbrenner, U. Developmental research, public policy, and the ecology of
childhood. Child Development, 45 (1974): 1 – 5.
35. Bronfenbrenner, U. Toward an experimental ecology of human development.
American Psychologist, 32 (1977): 513 – 531.
36. Bronfenbrenner, U. The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature
and by Design. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979.
37. Bronfenbrenner, U., and Ceci, S. J. Nature - nurture reconceptualized in develop-
mental perspective: A bioecological model. Psychological Review, 101 (1994):
568 – 586.
38. Bronfenbrenner, U., and Crouter, A. C. The evolution of environmental models in
developmental research. In W. Kessen, series ed., and P. H. Mussen, vol. ed.,
Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol. 1. History, Theory, and Methods, 4th ed.,
pp. 357 – 414. New York: John Wiley, 1983.
39. Bronfenbrenner, U., and Evans, G. W. Developmental science in the 21st century:
Emerging questions, theoretical models, research designs and empirical fi ndings.
Social Development, 9 (2000): 115 – 125.
40. Bronfenbrenner, U., and Morris, P. A. The ecology of developmental processes. In
W. Kessen, series ed., and P. H. Mussen, vol. ed., Handbook of Child Psychology:
Vol. 1. Theoretical Models of Human Development, 5th ed., pp. 993 – 1028.
New York: John Wiley, 1998.
c04.indd 83c04.indd 83 6/3/09 11:59:58 AM6/3/09 11:59:58 AM
84 An Ecological Model of Urban Child Health
41. Bandura, A. Self - effi cacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psycho-
logical Review, 84 (1977): 191 – 215.
42. World Health Organization. Social Determinants of Health: The Solid Facts.
Copenhagen: World Health Organization, 1998.
43. Iezzoni, L. I., Ash, A. S., Shwartz, M., and Mackiernan, Y. D. Differences in

procedure use, in - hospital mortality, and illness severity by gender for acute myo-
cardial infarction patients. Medical Care, 35 (1997): 158 – 171.
44. El - Sheikh, M., Cummings, E., and Goetsch, V. Coping with adults ’ angry behav-
ior: Behavioral, physiological, and verbal responses in preschoolers. Developmental
Psychology, 25 (1989): 490 – 498.
45. Matthews, K, A., Gump, B., Block, D., and Allen, M. Does background stress
heighten or dampen children ’ s responses to acute stress? Psychological Medicine,
59 (1997): 488 – 496.
46. Evans, G. W. Child development and the physical environment. Annual Review of
Psychology, 57 (2006): 1 – 28.
47. Wachs, T. D., and Corapci, F. Environmental chaos, development and parenting
across cultures. In C. Raeff and J. Benson, eds., Social and Cognitive Development
in the Context of Individual, Social, and Cultural Processes, pp. 54 – 83. New York:
Routledge, 2003.
48. Fiese, B. H., Tomcho, T. J., Douglas, M., Josephs, K., Poltrock, S., and Baker, T.
A review of 50 years of research on naturally occurring family routines and ritu-
als: Cause for celebration? Journal of Family Psychology, 16 (2002): 381 – 390.
49. Galea, D., and Vlahov, D. Urban health: Evidence, challenges, and directions.
Annual Review of Public Health, 26 (2005): 341 – 365.
50. Leventhal, T., and Brooks - Gunn, J. The neighborhoods they live in: The effects
of neighborhood residence on child and adolescent outcomes. Psychological
Bulletin, 126 (2000): 309 – 337.
51. Wandersman, A., and Nation, M. Urban neighborhoods and mental health: Psy-
chological contributions to understanding toxicity, resilience, and interventions.
American Psychologist, 53 (1998): 647 – 656.
52. Evans, G. W., and Saegert, S. Residential crowding in the context of inner city
poverty. In D. Wapner, J. Demick, T. Yamamoto, and H. Minami, eds., Theoretical
Perspectives in Environment - Behavior Research, pp. 247 – 267. New York: Kluwer
Academic/Plenum Press, 2000.
53. Dunn, J. R., and Hayes, M. V. Social inequality, population health, and housing:

A study of two Vancouver neighborhoods. Social Science & Medicine, 51 (2000):
563 – 587.
c04.indd 84c04.indd 84 6/3/09 11:59:58 AM6/3/09 11:59:58 AM
Notes 85
54. Evans, G. W., Wells, N. M., and Moch, A. Housing and mental health: A review
of the evidence and a methodological and conceptual critique. Journal of Social
Issues, 59 (2003): 475 – 500.
55. Bradley, R. H., and Corwyn, R. F. Socioeconomic status and child development.
Annual Review of Psychology, 53 (2002): 371 – 399.
56. Evans, G. W. The environment of childhood poverty. American Psychologist, 59
(2004): 77 – 92.
57. Agnew, R. Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency.
Criminology, 30 (1992): 47 – 87.
58. Hoffman, M., Pick, W. M., Cooper, D., and Myers, J. E. Women ’ s health status
and use of health services in a rapidly growing peri - urban area of South Africa.
Social Science & Medicine, 45 (1997): 149 – 157.
59. Wan, T. T. H., and Gray, L. C. Differential access to preventive services for young
children in low - income urban areas. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 19
(1978): 312 – 324.
60. Jones, G., Steketee, R. W., Black, R., Bhutta, Z. A., and Morris, S. Bellagion
Child Survival Study Group. How many child deaths can we prevent this year?
Lancet, 362 (2003): 65 – 71.
61. Grumbach, K., Vranizan, K., and Bindman, A. B. Physician supply and access to
care in urban communities. Health Affairs, 16 (1997): 71 – 86.
62. Williams, D. R., and Rucker, T. D. Understanding and addressing racial dispari-
ties in health care. Health Care Financing Review, 21 (2000): 75 – 90.
63. Wells, N. M., and Evans, G. W. Nearby nature: A buffer of life stress among rural
children. Environment and Behavior, 35 (2003): 311 – 330.
64. Dockery, D. W., Pope, C. A., 3rd, Xu, X., et al. An association between air pollu-
tion and mortality in six U.S. cities. New England Journal of Medicine, 329

(1993): 1753 – 1759.
65. Samet, J. M., Dominici, F., Curreriro, F. C., Coursac, I., and Zeger, S. L. Fine par-
ticulate air pollution and mortality in 20 U.S. cities, 1987 – 1994. New England
Journal of Medicine, 343 (2000): 1742 – 1749.
66. Dietrich, K., Ris, M. D., Succop, P., Berger, O., and Bornschein, R. Early expo-
sure to lead and juvenile delinquency. Neurotoxicology Teratology, 23 (2001):
511 – 518.
67. Mendelsohn, A. L., Dreyer, B. P., Fierman, A. H., et al. Low - level lead exposure
and behavior in early childhood. Pediatrics, 101, no. e10 (1998): 1 – 7.
c04.indd 85c04.indd 85 6/3/09 11:59:59 AM6/3/09 11:59:59 AM
86 An Ecological Model of Urban Child Health
68. Vrijheid, M. Health effects of residence near hazardous waste landfi ll sites:
A review of the epidemiologic literature. Environmental Health Perspectives,
108, Suppl 1 (2000): 101 – 112.
69. Evans, G. W. Environmental stress and health. In A.B.T. Revenson, ed., Handbook
of Health Psychology, pp. 365 – 385. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 2001.
70. Macpherson, A., Roberts, I., and Pless, I. B. Children ’ s exposure to traffi c and
pedestrian injuries. Journal of Public Health, 88 (1998): 1840 – 1843.
71. Huttenmoser, M. Children and their living surroundings: Empirical investigations
into the signifi cance of living surroundings for the everyday life and development
of children. Children’s Environments, 12 (1995): 403 – 413.
72. Appleyard, D., and Lintell, M. The environmental quality of city streets. Journal
of the American Institute of Planners, 38 (1972): 84 – 101.
73. Awasthi, S., Glick, H. A., and Fletcher, R. H. Effect of cooking fuels on respira-
tory diseases in school children in Lucknow, India. American Journal of Tropical
Medicine and Hygiene, 55 (1996): 48 – 51.
74. Evans, G. W., and Kantrowitz, E. Socioeconomic status and health: The potential
role of environmental risk exposure. Annual Review of Public Health, 23 (2002):
203 – 231.
75. Evans, G. W., Wells, N. M., Chan, E., and Saltzman, H. Housing and mental

health. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68 (2000): 526 – 530.
76. Matte, T. D., and Jacobs, D. E. Housing and health: Current issues and implica-
tions for research programs. Journal of Urban Health, 77 (2000): 7 – 25.
77. Northridge, M. E., Sclar, E. D., and Biswas, P. Sorting out the connections between
the built environment and health: A conceptual framework for navigating path-
ways and planning healthy cities. Journal of Urban Health, 80 (2003): 556 – 568.
78. Oie, L., Nafstad, P., Botten, G., Magnus, P., and Jaakkola, J. K. Ventilation in
homes and bronchial obstruction in young children. Epidemiology, 10 (1999):
294 – 299.
79. Warner, M., Barnes, P. M., and Fingerhut, L. A. Injury and poisoning episodes and
conditions: National Health Interview Survey, 1997. Vital Health Statistics, 10
(2000): 202.
80. Ackerman, B. P., Kogos, J., Youngstream, E., Schoff, K., and Izzard, C. Family
instability and problem behaviors of children from economically disadvantaged
families. Developmental Psychology, 35 (1999): 258 – 268.
c04.indd 86c04.indd 86 6/3/09 11:59:59 AM6/3/09 11:59:59 AM
Notes 87
81. Evans, G. W., Gonnella, C., Marcynyszyn, L. A., Gentile, L., and Salpekar, N.
The role of chaos in poverty and children ’ s socioemotional adjustment. Psycho-
logical Science, 16 (2005): 560 – 565.
82. Satterthwaite, D., Hart, R., Levy, C., et al. The Environment for Children. London:
Earthscan, 1996.
83. Kawachi, I., and Berkman, L. F. Social ties and mental health. Journal of Urban
Health, 78 (2001): 458 – 467.
84. Kawachi, I., Kennedy, B. P., and Glass, R. Social capital and self - rated health: A
contextual analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 89 (1999): 1187 – 1193.
85. McLeod, L., and Kessler, R. Socioeconomic status differences in vulnerability
to undesirable life events. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 31 (1990):
162 – 172.
86. Acevedo - Garcia, D. Residential segregation and the epidemiology of infectious

diseases. Social Science & Medicine, 51 (2000): 1143 – 1161.
87. Fiscella, K., and Williams, D. R. Health disparities based on socioeconomic
inequities: Implications for urban health care. Academic Medicine, 79 (2004):
1139 – 1147.
88. Leventhal, T., and Brooks - Gunn, J. Poverty and child development. International
Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 3, Article 78 (2002):
11889 – 11893.
89. McLoyd, V. C. Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American
Psychologist, 53 (1998): 185 – 204.
90. Williams, D. R., and Collins, C. Racial residential segregation: A fundamental
cause of racial disparities in health. Public Health Reports, 116 (2001): 404 – 416.
91. Kaplan, G. A., Pamuk, E. R., Lynch, J. W., Cohen, R. D., and Balfour J. L.
Inequality in income and mortality in the United States: Analysis of mortality and
potential pathways. British Medical Journal, 312 (1996): 999 – 1003.
92. Lynch, J., Smith, G. D., Hillemeier, M., Shaw, M., Raghunathan, T., and Kaplan,
G. A. Income inequality, the psychosocial environment and health: Comparisons
of wealthy nations. Lancet, 358 (2001): 1285 – 1287.
93. Ross, N. A., Wolfson, M. W., Dunn, J. R., Berthelot, J. M., Kaplan, G., and
Lynch, G. W. Income inequality and mortality in Canada and the United States.
British Medical Journal, 320 (2000): 898 – 902.
94. Henderson, C., Diez Roux, A. V., Jacobs, D. R., Kiefe, C. I., West, D., and
Williams, D. R. Neighborhood characteristics, individual level socioeconomic
factors, and depressive symptoms in young adults: The CARDIA study. Journal
of Epidemiology and Community Health, 59 (2005): 322 – 328.
c04.indd 87c04.indd 87 6/3/09 11:59:59 AM6/3/09 11:59:59 AM
88 An Ecological Model of Urban Child Health
95. Haan, M., Kaplan, G. A., and Camacho, T. Poverty and health: Prospective evi-
dence from the Alameda County Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 125
(1987): 989 – 998.
96. Leventhal, T., and Brooks - Gunn, J. Moving to Opportunity: An experimental

study of neighborhood effects on mental health. American Journal of Public
Health, 93 (2003): 1576 – 1582.
97. Garbarino, J., and Crouter, A. Defi ning the community context for parent - child
relations: The correlates of child maltreatment. Child Development, 49 (1978):
604 – 616.
98. Garbarino, J., and Sherman, D. High - risk neighborhoods and high - risk families:
The human ecology of child maltreatment. Child Development, 51 (1980):
188 – 198.
99. Eskenazi, B., Bradman, A., and Castorina, R. Exposures of children to organo-
phosphate pesticides and their potential adverse health effects. Environmental
Health Perspectives, 107, Suppl 3 (1999): 409 – 419.
100. Thompson, B., Coronado, G. D., Grossman, J. E., Puschel, K., Solomon, C. C.,
Islas, I., et al. Pesticide take - home pathway among children of agricultural work-
ers: Study design, methods, and baseline fi ndings. Journal of Occupational
Environmental Medicine, 45 (2003): 42 – 53.
101. Parcel, T. L., and Menaghan, E. G. Parents ’ Jobs and Children ’ s Lives. Edison,
N.J.: Aldine Transaction, 1994.
102. Crouter, A. C., Bumpus, M. F., Maguire, M. C., and McHale, S. M. Linking
parents ’ work pressure and adolescents ’ well - being: Insights into dynamics in
dual - earner families. Developmental Psychology, 35 (1999): 1453 – 1461.
103. Whitbeck, L. B., Simons, R. L., Conger, R. D., Wickrama, K. A. S., Ackley, K. A.,
and Elder, G. H., Jr. The effects of parents ’ working conditions and family eco-
nomic hardship on parenting behaviors and children ’ s self-effi cacy. Social
Psychology Quarterly, 60 (1997): 291 – 303.
104. Kohn, M. L. Social Class and Conformity. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1977.
105. Evans, G. W., Lercher, P., and Kofl er, W. W. Crowding and children ’ s mental
health: The role of house type. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 22 (2002):
221 – 231.
106. Bradley, R. H., Whiteside, L., Mundfrom, D. J., Casey, P. H., Kelleher, K., et al.

Early indications of resilience and their relation to experiences in the home envi-
ronments of low birth weight, premature children living in poverty. Child
Development, 65 (1994): 346 – 360.
c04.indd 88c04.indd 88 6/3/09 11:59:59 AM6/3/09 11:59:59 AM
Notes 89
107. Maxwell, L. Multiple effects of home and day care crowding. Environment and
Behavior, 28 (1996): 494 – 511.
108. Shaw, M. Housing and public health. Annual Review of Public Health, 25 (2004):
397 – 418.
109. Kreiger, J., and Higgins, D. L. Housing and health: Time again for public health
action. American Journal of Public Health, 92 (2002): 758 – 768.
110. Saegert, S. Environment and children ’ s mental health: Residential density and
low - income children. In E. Baum and J. E. Singer, eds., Handbook of Psychology
and Health, Vol. II, Issues in Child Health and Adolescent Health, pp. 247 – 271.
Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1982.
111. Goduka, I. N., Poole, D. A., and Aotaki - Phenice, L. A comparative study of
black South African children from three different contexts. Child Development,
63 (1992): 509 – 525.
112. Widmayer, S., Peterson, L., Larner, M., Carnahan, S., Calderon, A., Wingerd, J.,
and Marshall, R. Predictors of Haitian - American infant development at twelve
months. Child Development, 61 (1990): 410 – 415.
113. Evans, G. W. Environmental stress and health. In A.B.T. Revenson, ed., Handbook
of Health Psychology, pp. 365 – 385. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 2001.
114. Campbell, T. L. Family ’ s impact on health: A critical review. Family Systems
Medicine, 4 (1986): 135 – 200.
115. Denham, S. A. Family routines: A construct for considering family health.
Holistic Nursing Practice, 9 (1995): 11 – 23.
116. Doherty, W. J., and McCubbin, H. I. Families and health care: An emerging arena
of theory, research, and clinical intervention. Family Relations, 34 (1985): 5 – 11.
117. Litman, T. J. The family as a basic unit in health and medical care: A social

behavior overview. Social Science & Medicine, 8 (1974): 495 – 519.
118. Pollitt, E., Golub, M., Gorman, K., et al. A reconceptualization of the effects of
undernutrition on children ’ s biological, psychosocial, and behavioral development.
SRCD Social Policy Report No. X5. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Society for Research in
Child Development, 1996.
119. Richter, L. The Importance of Caregiver - Child Interactions for the Survival and
Healthy Development of Young Children: A Review. Geneva: World Health
Organization, 1994.
120. Richter, L., and Griesel, D. Malnutrition, low birthweight and related infl uences
on psychological development. In A. Dawes and D. Donald, eds., Childhood and
c04.indd 89c04.indd 89 6/3/09 11:59:59 AM6/3/09 11:59:59 AM
90 An Ecological Model of Urban Child Health
Adversity: Psychological Perspectives from South African Research, pp. 66 – 91.
Cape Town, South Africa: David Philips, 1994.
121. Rutter, M., Yule, B., Quinton, D., Rowlands, O., Yule, W., and Berger, M.
Attainment and adjustment in two geographic areas: III — Some factors account-
ing for area differences. British Journal of Psychiatry, 125 (1974): 520 – 533.
122. Taylor, S. E., Repetti, R. L., and Seeman, T. Health psychology: What is an
unhealthy environment and how does it get under your skin? Annual Review of
Psychology, 48 (1997): 411 – 447.
123. Stein, A., Wooley, H., Cooper, S. D., and Fairburn, C. G. An observational study
of mothers with eating disorders and their infants. Journal of Child Psychology
and Psychiatry, 35 (1994): 733 – 748.
124. Cohen, S., Evans, G. W., Stokols, D., and Krantz, D. S. Behavior, Health, and
Environmental Stress. New York: Plenum Press, 1986.
125. Aber, J. L., Bennett, N. G., Conley, D. C., and Li, J. The effects of poverty on
child health and development. Annual Review of Public Health, 18 (1997):
463 – 483.
126. Adler, N. E., Boyce, T., Chesney, M. A., et al. Socioeconomic status and health:
The challenge of the gradient. American Psychologist, 49 (1994): 15 – 24.

127. Chen, E., Matthews, K. A., and Boyce, T. W. Socioeconomic differences in
children ’ s health: How and why do these relationships change with age? Psycho-
lo gical Bulletin, 128 (2002): 295 – 329.
128. Grant, K. E., Compas, B. E., Stuhlmacher, A. F., Thurm, A. E., McMahon, S. D.,
and Halpert, J. A. Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: Moving
from markers to mechanisms of risk. Psychological Bulletin, 129 (2003): 447 – 466.
129. Evans, G. W., and English, K. The environment of poverty: Multiple stressor
exposure, psychophysiological stress, and socioemotional adjustment. Child
Development, 73 (2002): 1238 – 1248.
130. Felner, R. D., Brand, S., DuBois, D. L., Adan, A. M., Mulhall, P. F., and Evans,
E. G. Socioeconomic disadvantage, proximal environmental experiences, and
socioemotional and academic adjustment in early adolescence: Investigation of
a mediated effects model. Child Development, 66 (1995): 774 – 792.
131. Evans, G. W., Maxwell, L. R., and Hart, B. Parental language and verbal respon-
siveness to children in crowded homes. Developmental Psychology, 35 (1999):
1020 – 1023.
132. Cummins, S., and Macintyre, S. The price and availability of food in Glasgow:
A systematic study of an urban foodscape. Urban Studies, 39, no. 11 (2002):
2115 – 2130.
c04.indd 90c04.indd 90 6/3/09 12:00:00 PM6/3/09 12:00:00 PM