The Oxford Companion to Philosophy Part 2 pdf

philosophers from all parts and inclinations of the subject. They agreed about
the large and indisputable core of the list, but not much more. They did not
much agree about their proposed additions to the rest of the list, or their pro-
posed deletions from it. No proposed inclusion or deletion got more than two
votes from the twelve good philosophers and true. Any contemporary who did
get two votes was added in. No deletions were made.
For this second edition, opinions were taken from thirty philosophers, of all
or anyway various persuasions, as to how to make the contemporaries in the
book representative of the new millennium well under way. The results of this
poll contained some biffs to my loyalties and sensibilities. But, being a true as
against merely a hierarchic democrat, I acted on the advice. Should you be cer-
tain, reader, that this little anointing is a very serious matter, remember David
Hume, Saint David, the greatest of British philosophers. He did not get elected
to professorships at Edinburgh and Glasgow, which accolades went instead to
Mr Cleghorn and Mr Clow.
Finally, my gratitude, of which there is a lot. I am grateful to many people,
first the 291 contributors. They did not do too much satisficing. Contributors to
the first edition put up with a change of mind about entry lengths. Many of
them put up with a lot more, including a lot of letters about revising their work
or making new starts. Some were stalwarts who did a goodly number of entries
very well. They rush to mind, and produce glows of gratitude there. Some were
philosophical about the sad fact that their prize entry, say the Frankfurt School
or the indeterminacy of translation, did not get into the book because the editor
had blundered and earlier assigned it to someone else. Some contributors and
others were decent or anyway silent when their proposed entries, say marital act
and Ayn Rand, did not penetrate my fortress of philosophical principle.
My special thanks to Peter Momtchiloff, doyen of the world’s philosophy
editors, the Philosophy Editor of Oxford University Press. This book is almost
as much his doing as mine, despite my sole responsibility for errors, infelicities,
and one or two judgements with which he is not in absolute agreement. I am
also grateful to the following fourteen philosophers who read all or parts of the

first manuscript and issued proposals for its improvement: Christopher Kirwan,
David Hamlyn, and Jonathan Lowe, above all, and also Simon Blackburn,
Alexander Broadie, Jonathan Cohen, Ross Harrison, Ronald Hepburn, Michael
Inwood, Nicola Lacey, David Miller, Richard Norman, Anthony O’Hear, and
Richard Swinburne.
My thanks as well to the jury of distinguished philosophers who cast an eye
over the initial list of their contemporaries, and then to the thirty advisers in this
matter for the second edition.
Thanks too to all of these: Ingrid Coggin Honderich; Jane O’Grady; Alan
Lacey, who did the Chronological Table of Philosophy and the Maps of
Philosophy; John Allen of the library at University College London; Helen
Betteridge, Vivien Crew, and Ann Wooldridge for some secretarial assistance;
Tim Barton, Laurien Berkeley, Angela Blackburn, and Frances Morphy of
Oxford University Press, all of whom were fortitudinous, and almost always
right.
t.h.
x Preface
Contents
list of portraits xii
list of contributors xiii
on using the book xix
The Companion: Alphabetical Entries 1
appendices
Logical Symbols 971
Maps of Philosophy 973
A Chronological Table of Philosophy 991
sources of illustrations 1003
index and list of entries 1005
List of Portraits
ancient philosophy

Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Socrates, Democritus 754
Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, Plotinus 35
late ancient and early medieval philosophy
Augustine, Boethius, Abelard, Anselm 344
medieval philosophy
Avicenna, Duns Scotus, Roger Bacon, Aquinas 580
founders of modern philosophy
Descartes, Leibniz, Spinoza, Kant 784
Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Hume 243
philosophy in britain
Francis Bacon, Reid, Sidgwick, Bradley 249
Bentham, Mill, Wollstonecraft, Burke 937
Moore, Russell, Wittgenstein, Collingwood 121
Ryle, Ayer, Strawson, Popper 676
french philosophy
Rousseau, Comte, Bergson, Merleau-Ponty 320
Sartre, de Beauvoir, Foucault, Althusser 278
continental european philosophy
Hegel, Marx, Lukacs, Croce 366
Fichte, Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche 334
Husserl, Frege, Ortega y Gasset, Heidegger 171
philosophy in america
Edwards, Peirce, James, Santayana 749
Dewey, Carnap, Quine, Goodman 25
Davidson, Putnam, Searle, Nagel 609
Rawls, MacIntyre, Kripke, Dennett 628
eastern philosophy
Confucius, Nishida, Tagore, Radhakrishnan 429
philosophy at the end of the twentieth century
Kuhn, Lewis, Rorty, Williams 483

Contributors
Almost all the contributors are or were members of the departments, faculties or
sub-faculties of philosophy at the mentioned universities.
A.C.A. Dr Alison Ainley
University College, Dublin
E.B.A. Prof. Edwin B. Allaire
University of Texas, Austin
H.E.A. Prof. Henry E. Allison
Boston University
M.A. Dr Milosˇ Arsenijevic´
University of Heidelberg
M.M.A. Prof. Marilyn McCord Adams
University of Oxford
S.R.A. Dr Sophie Allen
University of Oxford
W.E.A. Prof. William E. Abraham
University of California, Santa Cruz
A.B. Prof. Akeel Bilgrami
Columbia University
A.Bel. Mr Andrew Belsey
University of Wales, Cardiff
A.Bre. Prof. Andrew Brennan
University of Western Australia
A.Bro. Prof. Alexander Broadie
University of Glasgow
D.B. Mr David Bostock
University of Oxford
D.Bak. Prof. David Bakhurst
Queen’s University, Ontario
D.Ber. Prof. David Berman

Trinity College, Dublin
G.B. Prof. George Bozonis
University of Athens
G.H.B. Prof. Graham Bird
University of Manchester
H.A.B. Prof. Hugo Adam Bedau
Tufts University
H.I.B. Prof. Harold I. Brown
Northern Illinois University
I.B. Sir Isaiah Berlin
University of Oxford
J.B.B. Prof. James Bogen
Pitzer College
J.Ber. Prof. Jose Bermudez
Washington University, St Louis
J.Bish. Dr John Bishop
University of Auckland
J.Bro. Prof. Justin Broackes
Brown University
J.W.B. See Alvin Goldman
K.B. Prof. Kent Bach
San Francisco State University
K.Ber. See Pauza
L.W.B. Prof. Lewis W. Beck
University of Rochester
M.B. Prof. Myles Brand
Indiana University
N.B. Prof. Ned Block
New York University
R.L.B. Prof. Robert Bernasconi

Memphis State University
R.P.B. Prof. Richard Bellamy
University of Reading
S.B. Prof. Sissela Bok
Harvard University
S.W.B. Prof. Simon Blackburn
University of Cambridge
T.L.B. Prof. Tom L. Beauchamp
Georgetown University
T.R.B. Prof. Thomas Baldwin
University of York
W.B. Prof. Dr Wilhelm Baumgartner
University of Würzburg
A.C. Prof. Arindam Chakrabarti
University of Delhi
A.Car. Prof. Alisa Carse
Georgetown University
B.J.C. Prof. Jack Copeland
University of Canterbury,
New Zealand
C.A.J.C. Prof. C. A. J. Coady
University of Melbourne
C.C. Prof. Charles Crittenden
California State University,
Northridge
D.C. Dr David Charles
University of Oxford
D.E.C. Prof. David E. Cooper
University of Durhan
F.C. Prof. Frank Cioffi

University of Essex
F.Chr. Prof. Ferrell Christensen
University of Alberta
J.C. Prof. James Cargile
University of Virginia
J.Cot. Prof. John Cottingham
University of Reading
L.J.C. Mr L. Jonathan Cohen
University of Oxford
M.C. Mr Michael Cohen
University of Wales, Swansea
M.J.C. Prof. Max Cresswell
Victoria University, Wellington
N.C. Prof. Nancy Cartwright
London School of Economics and
Political Science
Associate contributors
T.Chi. Timothy Childers
R.F.H. Robin Findlay Hendry
T.U. Thomas E. Uebel
N.S.C. Prof. Norman S. Care
Oberlin College
Q.C. Prof. Quassim Cassam
University College London
R.Clif. Prof. Robert Clifton
University of Western Ontario
R.Cri. Dr Roger Crisp
University of Oxford
S.C. Prof. Steven Coutinho
Towson University

S.R.L.C. Prof. Stephen Clark
University of Liverpool
T.C. Prof. Tim Crane
University College London
T.Car. Prof. Terrell Carver
University of Bristol
T.Chi. See Cartwright
W.C. Mr William Charlton
University of Edinburgh
D.D. Prof. Donald Davidson
University of California, Berkeley
F.D. Prof. Fred Dretske
Stanford University
J.D. Prof. Jonathan Dancy
University of Reading
M.D. Sir Michael Dummett
University of Oxford
N.C.D. Mr N. C. Denyer
University of Cambridge
N.J.H.D. Prof. Nicholas Dent
University of Birmingham
R.D. Prof. Ronald Dworkin
University College London
R.De G. Prof. Richard T. De George
University of Kansas
R.S.D. Prof. R. S. Downie
University of Glasgow
W.A.D. Prof. Wayne A. Davis
Georgetown University
D.E. Prof. Dorothy Edgington

University of Oxford
J.D.G.E. Prof. J. D. G. Evans
Queen’s University, Belfast
P.E. Prof. Paul Edwards
Brooklyn College
E.J.F. Dr Elizabeth Frazer
University of Oxford
J.M.F. Prof. John Finnis
University of Oxford
N.F. Prof. Nicholas G. Fotion
Emory University
O.F. Prof. Owen Flanagan
Duke University
P.K.F. Prof. Paul K. Feyerabend
University of California,
Berkeley
P.R.F. Prof. Philippa Foot
University of Oxford
A.C.G. Dr Anthony Grayling
Birkbeck College, London
A.Gew. Prof. Alan Gewirth
University of Chicago
xiv Contributors
Contributors xv
A.Gom. Dr Antoni Gomila
University of Salamanca
A.Gup. Prof. Anil Gupta
Indiana University
A.H.G. Prof. Alan Goldman
University of Miami

A.I.G. Prof. Alvin Goldman
Rutgers University
Associate contributor
J.W.B. Prof. John Bender
B.G. Prof. Bernard Gert
Dartmouth College
D.G. Prof. Don Gustafson
University of Cincinnati
G.G. Prof. Gary Gutting
University of Notre Dame
J.C.A.G. Prof. J. C. A. Gaskin
Trinity College, Dublin
J.C.B.G. Mr J. C. B. Gosling
University of Oxford
J.G. Prof. Jorge J. E. Gracia
State University of New York, Buffalo
Associate contributors
M. G. Michael German
E. M. Elizabeth Millan
J.Gar. Dr James Garvey
Royal Institute of Philosophy
J.O.G. Prof. James O. Grunebaum
Buffalo State College
J.P.G. Prof. James P. Griffin
University of Oxford
L.E.G. Prof. Lenn E. Goodman
Vanderbilt University
L.P.G. Prof. Lloyd P. Gerson
St Michael’s College, Toronto
M.D.G. Dr Marcus Giaquinto

University College London
M.G. See Gracia
P.G. Prof. Paul Gilbert
University of Hull
P.Good. Prof. Peter Goodrich
Birkbeck College, London
P.G S. Prof. Peter Godfrey-Smith
Australian National University
P.L.G. Mr Patrick Gardiner
University of Oxford
R.G. Prof. Reinhardt Grossmann
Indiana University
R.M.G. Prof. Richard M. Gale
University of Pittsburgh
R.P.G. Prof. Robert P. George
Princeton University
S.A.G. Prof. S. A. Grave
University of Western Australia
S.G. Dr Stefan Gosepath
Hochschule der Künste, Berlin
S.Gard. Prof. Sebastian Gardner
University College, London
S.Gau. Prof. Stephen Gaukroger
University of Sydney
A.H. Prof. Alastair Hannay
University of Oslo
B.H. Prof. Brad Hooker
University of Reading
C.H. Prof. Colin Howson
London School of Economics and Political

Science
C.J.H. Prof. C. J. Hookway
University of Sheffield
D.W.H. Prof. D. W. Hamlyn
Birkbeck College, London
D.W.Has. Prof. D. W. Haslett
University of Delaware
E.L.H. Mr E. L. Hussey
University of Oxford
G.P.H. Mr Geoffrey Hawthorn
University of Cambridge
I.C.H. Ingrid Coggin Honderich
Royal Institute of Philosophy
J.Hal. Prof. John Haldane
University of St Andrews
J.Heil Prof. John Heil
Washington University, St Louis
J.Horn. Prof. Jennifer Hornsby
Birkbeck College, London
K.H. Prof. Karen Hanson
Indiana University
K.J.J.H. Prof. Jaakko Hintikka
Boston University
P.H. Prof. Paul Humphreys
University of Virginia
P.H.H. Prof. Peter H. Hare
State University of New York, Buffalo
P.M.S.H. Dr Peter Hacker
University of Oxford
R.B.H. Prof. R. Baine Harris

Old Dominion University
R.F.H. See Cartwright
R.H. Dr Ross Harrison
University of Cambridge
R.Har. Prof. Russell Hardin
New York University
R.J.H. Mr R. J. Hawkins
University of Oxford
R.W.H. Prof. R. W. Hepburn
University of Edinburgh
V.H. Mr Vincent Hope
University of Edinburgh
W.A.H. Prof. Wilfrid Hodges
Queen Mary and Westfield College, London
M.J.I. Mr M. J. Inwood
University of Oxford
C.J. Prof. C. Janaway
University of Southampton
E.R.J. Dr Roger Jones
Berea College, Kentucky
M.D.J. Prof. Mark D. Jordan
University of Notre Dame
O.R.J. Mr O. R. Jones
University of Wales, Aberystwyth
P.F.J. Prof. Paul F. Johnson
St Norbert College
S.J. Stuart Jeffries
The Guardian
S.P.J. Dr Simon James
University of Durham

A.J.P.K. Sir Anthony Kenny
University of Oxford
C.A.K. Mr Christopher Kirwan
University of Oxford
C.H.K. Prof. C. H. Koch
University of Copenhagen
H H.K. Prof. Hans-Herbert Kögler
University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign
J.A.K. Dr Jill Kraye
Warburg Institute, London
J.J.K. Prof. Joel J. Kupperman
University of Connecticut
J.K. Prof. Jaegwon Kim
Brown University
J.Kek. Prof. John Kekes
State University of New York, Albany
L.K. Prof. Leszek Kolakowski
University of Oxford
M.K. Dr Martha Klein
University of Oxford
P.K. Prof. Peter King
University of Toronto
R.K. Prof. Robert Kirk
University of Nottingham
S.T.K. Prof. Steven T. Kuhn
Georgetown University
W.K. Prof. Will Kymlicka
Queen’s University, Ontario
A.J.L. Mr Ardon Lyon
City University, London

A.R.L. Dr Alan Lacey
King’s College London
B.L. Prof. Brian Leiter
University of Texas, Austin
E.J.L. Prof. E. J. Lowe
University of Durham
H.L. Dr Hallvard Lillehammer
University of Cambridge
J.L. Dr James Logue
University of Oxford
J.Lac. Prof. John Lachs
Vanderbilt University
J.Lev. Prof. Jerrold Levinson
University of Maryland, College Park
K S.L. Prof. Kwang-Sae Lee
Kent State University
M.L. Prof. Margaret Little
Georgetown University
N.L. Prof. Noa Latham
University of Calgary
N.M.L. Prof. Nicola Lacey
London School of Economics
O.L. Prof. Oliver Leaman
University of Kentucky
R.Le P. Prof. Robin Le Poidevin
University of Leeds
W.G.L. Prof. William G. Lycan
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
A.M. Prof. Adam Morton
University of Alberta

A.MacI. Prof. Alasdair MacIntyre
University of Notre Dame
A.R.M. Prof. Alfred R. Mele
Florida State University
B.M. Dr Benjamin Morison
University of Oxford
C.McK. Prof. Catherine McKeen
SUNY Brockport
D.M. Dr Derek Matravers
Open University
D.McL. Prof. David McLellan
University of Kent, Canterbury
D.McN. Dr Mike McNamee
University of Wales, Swansea
xvi Contributors
E.J.M. Dr Elinor Mason
University of Edinburgh
E.M. See Gracia
F.MacB. Dr Fraser MacBride
Birkbeck College,
London
G.B.M. Prof. Gareth B. Matthews
University of Massachusetts,
Amherst
G.F.M. Prof. Gregory Mellema
Calvin College
G.I.M. Prof. George I. Mavrodes
University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor
G.W.McC. Prof. Gregory McCulloch

University of Nottingham
J.J.M. Prof. Jack Macintosh
University of Calgary
J.M. Prof. Joseph Margolis
Temple University
J.McM. Prof. Jeff McMahan
Rutgers University
K.M. Dr Kevin Magill
University of Wolverhampton
M.G.F.M. Prof. Michael Martin
University College London
N.M. Prof. Nenad Misˇcˇevicˇ
Central European University
P.J.M. Dr Penelope Mackie
University of Nottingham
P.N.M. Mr Peter Momtchiloff
Oxford University Press
R.B.M. Prof. Ruth Barcan Marcus
Yale University
R.D.M. Prof. Ronald D. Milo
University of Arizona
S.M. Prof. Susan Mendus
University of York
S.McC. Prof. Storrs McCall
McGill University
S.M G. Dr Saladin Meckled-Garcia
University College London
C.N. Prof. Christopher Norris
University of Wales, Cardiff
H.W.N. Prof. Harold Noonan

University of Nottingham
J.N. Prof. Jan Narveson
University of Waterloo
P.J.P.N. Dr Paul Noordhof
University of Nottingham
R.J.N. Prof. Richard Norman
University of Kent, Canterbury
S.N. Dr Svante Nordin
University of Lund
T.N. Prof. Thomas Nagel
New York University
A.D.O. Dr Alexander D. Oliver
University of Cambridge
A.O’H. Prof. Anthony O’Hear
University of Buckingham
J.O’G. Ms Jane O’Grady
Fine Arts College, London
D.P. Prof. David Papineau
King’s College London
D.Pri. Dr D. H. Pritchard
University of Stirling
G.P. Prof. Graham Priest
University of Melbourne
G.R.P. Prof. Graham Parkes
University of Hawaii, Manoa
I.S.P. Prof. Ingmar Persson
University of Lund
L.P. Dr Letizia Panizza
Royal Holloway College,
London

M.J.P. Prof. M. J. Petry
Erasmus University
M.P. Dr Miroslav Pauza
Institute of Philosophy, Prague
Associate contributors
K.Ber. Prof. Karel Berka
V.S. Dr Vera Soudilova
M.Pot. Prof. Matjazˇ Potrcˇ
University of Ljubljana
O.P. Dr Oliver Pooley
University of Oxford
P.P. Prof. Philip Pettit
Princeton University
S.P. Mr Stephen Priest
University of Oxford
T.P. Dr Thomas Pink
King’s College London
A.Q. The Rt. Hon. Lord Quinton
University of Oxford
P.L.Q. Prof. Philip L. Quinn
University of Notre Dame
W.V.Q. Prof. W. V. Quine
Harvard University
B.B.R. Mr Bede Rundle
University of Oxford
Contributors xvii
M.R. Prof. Michael Ruse
Florida State University
N.R. Prof. Nicholas Rescher
University of Pittsburgh

P.R. Prof. Peter Railton
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
S.D.R. Dr Sarah Richmond
University College London
S.L.R. Dr Stephen Read
University of St Andrews
B.C.S. Dr Barry C. Smith
Birkbeck College, London
D.H.S. Prof. David H. Sanford
Duke University
E.S. Prof. Ernest Sosa
Brown University
E.T.S. Prof. Edward Sankowski
University of Oklahoma
J.E.R.S. Mr Roger Squires
University of St Andrews
J.M.S. Prof. John Skorupski
University of St Andrews
J.P.S. Prof. James P. Sterba
University of Notre Dame
J.R.S. Prof. John Searle
University of California, Berkeley
J.S. Dr Jeremy Stangroom
The Philosophers’ Magazine
K l. S. Prof. Kwong-loi Shun
University of California, Berkeley
L.F.S. Mr Leslie F. Stevenson
University of St Andrews
L.S. Prof. Lawrence Sklar
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

M.S. Prof. Michael Slote
University of Miami
P.F.S. Professor Paul Snowdon
University College London
P.S. Prof. Peter Singer
Princeton University
R.A.K.S. Dr Rowland Stout
University College, Dublin
R.A.S. Prof. Robert Sharpe
University of Wales, Lampeter
R.C.Sle. Prof. R. C. Sleigh, Jr.
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
R.C.Sol. Prof. Robert C. Solomon
University of Texas, Austin
R.G.S. Prof. R. G. Swinburne
University of Oxford
R.M.S. Prof. Mark Sainsbury
University of Texas, Austin
R.S. Prof. Richard Schacht
University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign
R.W.S. Prof. R. W. Sharples
University College London
S.S. Prof. Stewart Shapiro
Ohio State University
T.S. Prof. Timothy Schroeder
University of Manitoba
T.L.S.S. Prof. T. L. S. Sprigge
University of Edinburgh
V.S. See Pauza
V.Such. Dr Victor Suchar

Bath Royal Literary and Scientific Institute
B.T. Prof. Bergeth Tregenza
California State University, Northridge
C.C.W.T. Prof. C. C. W. Taylor
University of Oxford
G.M.T. Prof. G. M. Tamas
Hungarian Academy of Sciences
I.T. Prof. Ivo Tretera
Charles University, Prague
L.S.T. Prof. Larry S. Temkin
Rutgers University
R.E.T. Prof. Robert Tully
St Michael’s College, Toronto
R.P.L.T. Dr Roger Teichmann
University of Oxford
T.U. See Cartwright
R.V. Mr. Ruediger Vaas
University of Giessen
A.D.W. Mr Andrew Williams
University of Reading
A.W.W. Prof. Allen Wood
Stanford University
Cath.W. Prof. Catherine Wilson
University of British Columbia
C.J.F.W. Prof. C. J. F. Williams
University of Bristol
C.W. Mr Colwyn Williamson
University of Wales, Swansea
D.N.W. Prof. Douglas Walton
University of Winnipeg

G.J.W. Sir Geoffrey Warnock
University of Oxford
I.P.W. Prof. John White
Institute of Education, London
J.Wol. Prof. Jan Wolen´ski
Jagiellonian University, Cracow
xviii Contributors
J.Woo. Prof. John Woods
University of British Columbia
K.W. Prof. Kwasi Wiredu
University of South Florida
K.Wuch. Prof. Dr Kurt Wuchterl
University of Stuttgart
M.W. Prof. Michael Wreen
Marquette University
M.Walz. Prof. Michael Walzer
Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton
M.Warn. Baroness Warnock
University of Cambridge
P.W. Ms Patricia Walsh
King’s College London
R.C.W. Prof. Roy C. Weatherford
University of South Florida
R.S.W. Prof. Roger Woolhouse
University of York
S.W. Dr Sybil Wolfram
University of Oxford
T.W. Prof. Timothy Williamson
University of Oxford
H.Z. Prof. Hossein Ziai

University of California, Los Angeles
Contributors xix