An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology part 1 potx

AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF THE
HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY

AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA
OF THE
HISTORY OF
TECHNOLOGY
EDITED BY
IAN McNEIL
ROUTLEDGE
LONDON AND NEW YORK
First published 1990
by Routledge
11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2002.

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
a division of Routledge, Chapman and Hall, Inc.
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001

© Routledge 1990

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by
any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known
or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
An Encyclopaedia of the history of technology
1. Technology—History
I. McNeil, Ian
609 T15
ISBN 0-415-01306-2 (Print Edition)

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
An Encyclopaedia of the history of technology/edited by Ian McNeil.
p. cm.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-415-01306-2 (Print Edition)
1. Technology—History. I. McNeil, Ian.
T15.E53 1989
609—dc20 89–10473
CIP
ISBN 0-203-19211-7 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-19214-1 (Glassbook Format)
CONTENTS

Preface xiv
Introduction: Basic Tools, Devices and Mechanisms 1
Ian McNeil
The place of technology in history 1
Science and technology 2
The archaeological ages 4
The seven technological ages of man 5
The first age: man, the hunter, masters fire 5
The second age: the farmer, the smith and the wheel 11

The third age: the first machine age 22
The fourth age: intimations of automation 27
The fifth age: the expansion of steam 31
The sixth age: the freedom of internal combustion 37
The seventh age: electrons controlled 40
PART ONE: MATERIALS 45
1. Non-Ferrous Metals 47
A.S.Darling
Neolithic origins 47
Copper 48
Tin and bronze 57
Metallurgy in the Roman world 66
Brass and zinc 73
The emergence of nickel 96
The light metals, aluminium and magnesium 102
Age hardening alloys 121
Development of high temperature alloys 124
CONTENTS
vi
Powder metallurgy 128
Sintered carbide cutting tools 135
Titanium and the newer metals 141
Niobium 144
2. Ferrous Metals 146
W.K.V.Gale
Introduction 146
Wrought iron: the prehistoric era to AD 1500 147
Cast iron: 1500–1700 149
Mineral fuels 153
Steam power and early industrialization 154

Steel 159
The industrial iron age: 1800–1850 160
The steel age 167
Modern steelmaking 176
3. The Chemical and Allied Industries 186
Lance Day
Introduction 186
Pottery, ceramics, glass 190
Textile chemicals 199
Fuels 206
Polymers: rubbers, plastics and adhesives 216
Heavy inorganic chemicals 220
PART TWO: POWER AND ENGINEERING 227
4. Water, Wind and Animal Power 229
F.Kenneth Major
Water power 229
Water turbines 242
Wind power 245
Animal power 260
5. Steam and Internal Combustion Engines 272
E.F.C.Somerscales
Introduction 272
Steam engines 273
Steam turbines 288
Internal combustion engines 303
Gas turbines 329
CONTENTS
vii
External combustion engines 341
Appendix 342

6. Electricity 350
Brian Bowers
Static electricity 350
Current electricity 351
Michael Faraday 354
Generators 356
Arc lighting 362
The filament lamp 365
Central power stations 369
Transmission: AC v DC 370
Economics: off-peak loads 372
Measurement 373
Electromagnetic engines 377
Practical electric motors 381
Modern electric motors 384
The steam turbine 385
Electricity today 385
7. Engineering, Methods of Manufacture and Production 388
A.K.Corry
Introduction 388
Bronze and iron age tools 388
Early machines 390
Measurement 391
General machine tools 392
Mass production 404
Twentieth-century organization of production 412
Welding, electro-forming and lasers 417
Wartime advances 420
Control revolution and electronic metrology 422
Flexible manufacturing systems 424

The automatic factory 427
PART THREE: TRANSPORT 429
8. Roads, Bridges and Vehicles 431
Ian McNeil
Road construction 431
Early road transport 438
CONTENTS
viii
Powered road transport: initial experiments 439
Bicycles 442
Motor cycles 447
The motor car 449
Automotive engines 453
Trams and trolleybuses 456
Buses 457
Electrically operated vehicles 458
Road transport ancillaries 459
Road maps 461
Bridges 462
Tunnels 467
Earthmoving and roadbuilding machinery 470
9. Inland Waterways 474
John Boyes
The ancient world 474
The British Isles 475
France 482
The Low Countries 489
Germany 494
The Rhine 499
Italy 500

Greece 501
Sweden 501
The Soviet Union 502
Eastern Europe 504
Spain and Portugal 505
The Suez Canal 505
Japan 506
Canada 506
The United States 509
The Panama Canal 514
Canal and river craft 514
The contemporary scene 515
10. Ports and Shipping 519
A.W.H.Pearsall
Oar and sail 519
Steamships 527
Merchant shipping 529
Warships 532
Submarines 537
Hovercraft and hydrofoils 538
Lifeboats and lifesaving 539
CONTENTS
ix
Anchors and cables 540
Lights and buoys 541
Navigation 543
Charts and sailing directions 546
Ports and harbours 547
Shipbuilding and dockyards 551
Diving 553

11. Rail 555
P.J.G.Ransom
Railways before locomotives 555
The first steam locomotives 558
The railway at work 562
The first trunk lines 565
Railway promotion 567
Main line motive power and operation 568
Early railway development in the United States 572
Continental Europe 574
Narrow gauge 575
Japan and China 576
Pullman and wagons-lit 577
Larger locomotives 579
Compounds 581
Specialized railways 583
Early electrification 584
Monorails 586
The peak years 586
The aftermath of war 593
Internal combustion 594
Late steam 596
Diesel take-over in the United States 598
Post-War Europe 598
British Railways 599
Freight containers and bulk freight 601
New high-speed lines 603
Surviving steam 605
Railway preservation 606
12. Aeronautics 609

J.A.Bagley
Early attempts at flight 609
Balloons 609
Airships 614
Heavier-than-air flying machines: the pioneers 617
Steam power 619