Encyclopedia of Global Resources part 20 potx

U.S. Geological Survey
Cadmium: Statistics and Information
/>commodity/cadmium
See also: Alloys; Canada; China; Kazakhstan; Metals
and metallurgy; Mexico; South Korea; Steel; United
States; Zinc.
Calcium compounds
Category: Mineral and other nonliving resources
Where Found
Calcium compounds are widely distributed. Naturally
occurring calcareous materials include calcite, ar-
agonite, chalk, marble, shell, and coral, all of which
are predominantly calcium carbonate (CaCO
3
); other
common calcium-bearing minerals include fluorite
(CaF
2
) and apatite(Ca[PO
4
,CO
3
]
3
[F, OH, C1]).Prin-
cipal calcium ores are limestone (predominantly cal-
cite), dolostone(chiefly dolomite,MgCa(CO
3
)
2
), and

gypsum rock (mostly the mineral gypsum, or calcium
sulfate, CaSO
4
), all widespread sedimentary rocks.
Calcium is present in all soil, most water, and all plant
and animal life.
Primary Uses
Calcium compounds are used for a variety of applica-
tions, includingchemical manufacture, construction,
and agriculture. Uses for elemental calcium include
metal refining, alloy manufacture, and uranium and
plutonium processing.
Technical Definition
Calcium (abbreviated Ca),atomic number 20,is a me-
tallic element belonging to Group IIA of the periodic
table of the elements (alkaline-earth metals). It is
chemically similar to strontium and barium. Its aver-
age molecular weight is 40.08. Its specific gravity is
1.55 at 20° Celsius, its melting point is approximately
850° Celsius, and its boiling point is 1,480° Celsius.
Description, Distribution, and Forms
Calcium has a cubic crystalline structure and is silver-
white in color. It is relatively soft, ductile, and mallea
-
ble. A chemically active element, it occurs in nature
only in combination with other elements. It tarnishes
readily in air, reacts with water to form a hydroxide,
and combines with oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, chlo-
rine, fluorine, phosphorus, sulfur, and other elements
to form many compounds.

Calcium is the fifth most abundant element in the
Earth’s crust, of which it makes up roughly 3.6 per-
cent. Calcium is not found uncombined in nature,
but it is widely distributed in its many naturally occur-
ring compounds. Calcium is found in all soil andmost
water, as well as in all plant and animal life. Bones and
teeth are composed mostly of calcium and phospho-
rus, with calcium predominant.
Calcium is widely distributed in its naturally occur-
ring compounds, which are found in many deposits
throughout the world in rocks of varying geologic
age. The chief ores of calcium—limestone, dolostone,
and gypsum—are sedimentary in origin and can be
found in thick, extensive beds. Limestone, largely or
entirely composed of calcium carbonate, is generally
formed by the deposition and consolidation of the
skeletons of invertebrate marine organisms, although
some limestones are the result of chemical precipita-
tion from solution. Dolostone, composed chiefly of
the mineral dolomite, originates from the partial
replacement of the calcium in limestone with magne-
sium. The mineralgypsum, or calcium sulfate, precip-
itates to form deposits as seawater evaporates. Cal-
cium incarbonate form isfound notonly inlimestone
and dolostone but also in chalk, marble, shell, and
coral. Fluorite is a calcium fluoride mineral found in
igneous deposits. Phosphate rock, which contains cal-
cium in the form of the mineral apatite, occurs in
both igneous and sedimentary deposits. Calcium is
also naturally present in soil and most water.

Calcium combines with other elements to form a
wide varietyof naturalcompounds, includingcalcium
carbonate, calcium sulfate, fluorite, and apatite. Some
of these compounds may take several forms: Calcium
carbonate, for instance, may exist as calcite (the pre-
dominant mineral in limestone, chalk, and most mar-
ble), Iceland spar, aragonite, shell, or coral, while cal-
cium sulfate occurs in nature as gypsum rock, gypsite,
alabaster, satin spar, and selenite.
History
In general, the earliest known uses of calcium com-
pounds were as construction materials. From calcare-
ous substances such as limestone, dolostone, marble,
gypsum, andlime (calcium oxide, CaO, madeby heat
-
ing limestone or other calcium-rich materials), an
-
160 • Calcium compounds Global Resources
cient peoples and the civilizations to follow made
mortar, plaster, cement, stucco, building stone, and
ornamental carvings. Limestone, lime, gypsum, and
other calcareous materials also have been used for
centuries as soil conditioners. Beginning in the late
eighteenth century, calcium compounds were increas-
ingly employed in industrial processes and chemical
manufacture: Limestone, for example, found use as a
key ingredient in the Leblanc and Solvay processes,
two early commercial processes for manufacturing
soda ash from salt. Elemental calcium was not isolated
until 1808, when English chemist Sir Humphry Davy

produced it as a mercury amalgam by electrolysis of
calcium chloride in the presence of a mercury cath-
ode. By 1904 calcium was obtained commercially by
electrolysis of molten calcium chloride in the pres-
ence of an iron cathode. The advent of World War II
necessitated greater quantities of calcium. To meet
the increased demand, an aluminothermic reduction
process was developed for commercial use.
Obtaining Calcium
Calcium is obtained from lime through the alumi-
nothermic reduction process. Limestone or a similar
calcareous materialis heated to produce limeand car-
bon dioxide. After lime is ground finely, it is heated
with finely divided aluminum in a retort under a high
vacuum to produce calcium metal.
Uses of Calcium
Natural and manufactured calcium compounds are
used for a variety of applications. Limestone serves
as a flux in iron smelting, a key component in port-
land cement, a building stone, and a raw material for
lime production. Lime, an essential industrial com-
pound, is used in chemical manufacture, construc-
tion, water softening, industrial waste treatment, and
soil deacidification. Gypsum is widely used in agri-
culture as a soil conditioner and in the construction
industry in plaster, wallboard, cement, and tiles. Cal-
cium chloride is employed as a filler in rubber, plas-
tics, and ceramics. Calcium hypochlorite is a disinfec-
tant used in swimming pools and in municipal and
industrial bleaching and sanitation processes. Cal-

cium nitrate is used as a concrete additive to reduce
setting time and minimize the corrosion of steel rein-
forcement bars. Calcium carbide is used in the pro-
duction of acetylene gas and calcium cyanamide, a
fertilizer. Arsenate and cyanide compounds of cal
-
cium are used as insecticides. Elemental calcium is a
component of alloys used in maintenance-free batter
-
ies. It is used in lead refining to remove bismuth and
in steel refining to remove sulfur and oxygen. Its role
in uranium and plutonium processing makes calcium
a strategic resource. Elemental calcium is also used in
the preparation of vitamin B and chelated calcium
supplements.
Karen N. Kähler
Further Reading
Boynton, Robert S. Chemistry and Technology of Lime
and Limestone. 2d ed. New York: Wiley, 1980.
Greenwood, N. N.,and A.Earnshaw.“Beryllium, Mag-
nesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, and Ra-
dium.” In Chemistry of the Elements. 2d ed. Boston:
Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997.
Henderson, William. “The Group 2 Elements: Beryl-
lium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium,
and Radium.”In MainGroup Chemistry.Cambridge,
England: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2000.
Jensen, Mead L., and Alan M.Bateman. Economic Min-
eral Deposits. 3d ed. New York: Wiley, 1979.
Krebs, Robert E. The History and Use of Our Earth’s

Chemical Elements: A Reference Guide. Illustrations by
Rae Déjur. 2d ed. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood
Press, 2006.
Myers, Richard L. The One Hundred Most Important
Chemical Compounds: A Reference Guide. Westport,
Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2007.
Web Sites
Natural Resources Canada
Canadian Minerals Yearbook, Mineral and Metal
Commodity Reviews
/>indu/cmy-amc/com-eng.htm
U.S. Geological Survey
Fluorspar: Statistics and Information
/>commodity/fluorspar/index.html#myb
U.S. Geological Survey
Gypsum: Statistics and Information
/>commodity/gypsum/index.html#myb
U.S. Geological Survey
Lime: Statistics and Information
/>commodity/lime/index.html#myb
Global Resources Calcium compounds • 161
U.S. Geological Survey
Phosphate Rock: Statistics and Information
/>commodity/phosphate_rock/index.html#myb
See also: Cement and concrete; Feldspars; Fluorite;
Gypsum; Lime; Limestone; Marble; Phosphate.
Canada
Categories: Countries; government and resources
Canada is one of the most important countries in the
world in terms of resources. Ranking third in reserves of

both oil and uranium, Canada stands in a position of
prime importance as a supplier of energy. Its vast hy-
dropower resources add even greater importance to its
role as an energy supplier. Canada’s forest resources, par-
ticularly in combination with its hydropower resources,
make the country a major source of clean, renewable en-
ergy for the future. Canada is also a significant pro-
ducer of metals, including nickel and copper, which are
essential in the manufacturing of goods worldwide.
The Country
Canada is located in the northernmost part of the
North American continent. The country is primarily
bordered by water, with the north Atlantic Ocean to
the east, the north Pacific Ocean to the west, and the
Arctic Ocean to the north. It shares its southern bor-
der with the United States and a portion of its western
border with the state of Alaska. Canada primarily
comprises plains but does have mountain ranges in
the west and lowlands in the south. Canada’s key re-
sources are oil, natural gas, potash, uranium, zinc,
hydropower, and forests. Canada ranks fifteenth in
purchasing powerparity and tenth in competitiveness
in the global economy. The country is the fifteenth
richest country in the world based on gross domestic
product (GDP) per capita.
Oil
Oil isa form of petroleum composedof hydrogen and
carbon compounds. It is a liquid form of fossilized
biomass contained in underground reservoirs in sedi-
mentary basins both on land areas and in seabeds.

Crude oil is refined and used for fuel, lubricants, and
various petrochemical feedstocks.
Oil is an abundant resource in Canada. Approxi
-
mately 47 percent of Canada’s land is covered by sedi-
mentary basins. Only a small number of these land
basins are exploited. The major basin is the Western
Canadian Sedimentary Basin, which has an area of
181.6 million hectares. The major oil fields of the ba-
sin—including the LeDuc oil field, Norman Wells,
and Redwater—are all located in the province of Al-
berta. However, Canada’s greatest resources for oil
production in the future are located in basins in the
Beaufort Sea and in the waters off the east coast. The
Hibernia oil field in theAtlantic Ocean is a majorpro-
ducer of oil. The Canadian government, in coopera-
tion with private companies, is developing many of
these basins, including those under the Beaufort Sea.
All leasesto explore andextract oil andthe manner in
which it is extracted are regulated by the Canadian
government.
The oil sands located in the Athabasca basin in Al-
berta constitute another rich source of oil for Canada.
However, oil sands require unconventional means of
extraction and processing that threaten the environ-
ment with increased greenhouse-gas emissions. The
oil in oil sands is bitumen, a heavy, viscous crude oil. It
is encased in sand and water and requires consider-
able processing to be converted into gasoline and jet
fuel.

Oil isimportant to theCanadian economyboth do-
mestically and globally. Canada has ranked tenth in
the world in the consumption of oil and eighth in the
production of oil. In 2005, Canada was the ninth larg-
est exporter of oil in theworld and ranked fourteenth
in oil imports. Estimates of proven oil reserves for
2008 placed Canada third in the world. Thus, Canada
is an important source for the production of oil in the
global economy of the future.
Natural Gas
Natural gas, a highly combustible odorless and color-
less liquid, is found with crude oil and in separate de-
posits. Natural gas is composed of methane, butane,
ethane, and propane and, like oil, is a form of petro-
leum. Natural gas is extracted from wells dug deep
into the Earth and also from coal-bed methane and
from tight sandstone and shale. The methane ex-
tracted from the last two sources is referred to as tight
gas.
Natural gas is found in various areas in Canada.
The extraction of natural gas by drilling wells is the
conventional means of retrieval but is expected to de
-
162 • Canada Global Resources
Global Resources Canada • 163
Canada: Resources at a Glance
Official name: Canada
Government: Parliamentary democracy, federation, and
Commonwealth realm
Capital city: Ottawa

Area: 3,855,383 mi
2
; 9,984,670 km
2
Population (2009 est.): 33,487,208
Languages: English and French
Monetary unit: Canadian dollar (CAD)
Economic summary:
GDP composition by sector (2008 est.): agriculture, 2%; industry, 28.4%; services, 69.6%
Natural resources: iron ore, nickel, zinc, copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, potash, diamonds, silver, fish, timber,
wildlife, coal, petroleum, natural gas, hydropower, uranium
Land use (2005): arable land, 4.57%; permanent crops, 0.65%; other, 94.78%
Industries: transportation equipment, chemicals, processed and unprocessed minerals, food products, wood and
paper products, fish products, petroleum and natural gas
Agricultural products: wheat, barley, oilseed, tobacco, fruits, vegetables, dairy products, forest products, fish
Exports (2008 est.): $459.1 billion
Commodities exported: motor vehicles/parts, industrial machinery, aircraft, telecommunications equipment,
chemicals, plastics, fertilizers, wood pulp, timber, petroleum, natural gas, electricity, aluminum, uranium,
hydropower
Imports (2008 est.): $415.2 billion
Commodities imported: machinery and equipment, motor vehicles and parts, crude oil, chemicals, electricity, durable
consumer goods
Labor force (2008 est.): 18.22 million
Labor force by occupation (2006): agriculture, 2%; manufacturing,13%; construction, 6%; services, 76%; other, 3%
Energy resources:
Electricity production (2007 est.): 612.6 billion kWh
Electricity consumption (2006 est.): 530 billion kWh
Electricity exports (2007 est.): 50.12 billion kWh
Electricity imports (2007 est.): 19.66 billion kWh
Natural gas production (2007 est.): 187 billion m

3
Natural gas consumption (2007 est.): 92.9 billion m
3
Natural gas exports (2007 est.): 107.3 billion m
3
Natural gas imports (2007 est.): 13.2 billion m
3
Natural gas proved reserves ( Jan. 2008 est.): 1.648 trillion m
3
Oil production (2007 est.): 3.425 million bbl/day
Oil imports (2005): 1.229 million bbl/day
Oil proved reserves ( Jan. 2008 est.): 178.6 billion bbl
Source: Data from The World Factbook 2009. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 2009.
Notes: Data are the most recent tracked by the CIA. Values are given in U.S. dollars. Abbreviations: bbl/day = barrels per day;
GDP = gross domestic product; km
2
= square kilometers; kWh = kilowatt-hours; m
3
= cubic meters; mi
2
= square miles.
Ottawa
Greenland
Iceland
United States
Canada
Baffin Bay
Hudson
Bay
Labrador

Sea
Arctic
Ocean
Pacific
Ocean
Atlantic
Ocean
cline as unconventional methods of extraction (from
coal-bed methane and from shale and tight sand-
stone) increase. The Western Sedimentary basin lo-
cated in southwestern Canada contains the majority
of theestimated Canadian natural gas reserves. There
are also known reserves off the east coast near Nova
Scotia and inOntario. The Arctic Ocean is believed to
contain a large amount of gas hydrates, methane en-
closed in frozen water on the ocean floor and under
areas of permafrost. These potential reserves are not
included in the estimated Canadian reserves because
the technology necessary to extract them has not
been developed.
Natural gasplays an importantrole in the economy
in both the domestic and global markets. In Canada,
natural gas is an important resource because it is used
by all sectors: residential, commercial, industrial, and
power-generation. In 2007, Canada ranked fifth in
the world in the production of natural gas and eighth
in consumption. The United States, Canada’s major
trading partner, plays a significant role in the Cana-
dian natural gas industry. The two nations participate
in an integrated marketplace that unifies the two

countries’ regulation of the industry at all stages. In
2007, Canadaexported morethan one-half ofthe nat-
ural gas that it produced to the United States and
earned $28 billion in revenues. In global trade, Can-
ada ranked third as an exporter of natural gas and fif-
teenth as an importer. The country’s proved reserves
of natural gas placed it twenty-first in the world.
Potash
Potash, the seventh most abundant element in the
Earth’s crust, includes potassium compounds and
any material containing potassium. The major use of
potash is in the making of fertilizer. Potash was first
discovered in Canada in 1943 in the province of Sas-
katchewan by workers drilling oil wells. In 1951, ex-
ploration for potash deposits began. The major pot-
ash deposits are in the Middle Devonian Prairie
Evaporite, which is located in central and south-cen-
tral Saskatchewan and extends south into Manitoba
and into the United States.Canada possesses approxi-
mately 68 billion metric tons of potash reserves. The
first company to produce potash in Canada was the
Potash Company of America; the firm was founded in
1958 withunderground minesat PatienceLake. From
1960 to 1985, extensive development of potash min
-
ing took place in Saskatchewan and New Brunswick.
In 1964, Kalium Chemical Ltd. established a potash
solution mine near Regina, Saskatchewan. This was
the world’s first mine of this type. The Canadian pot-
ash industry is composed of nine underground mines

located in Saskatchewan and three solution mines,
two in Saskatchewan and one in New Brunswick. In
the 1990’s, Canada became the largest exporter of
potash in the world and has 43 percent of the world
trade in potash. Canada exports potash to forty differ-
ent countries. The United States, China, and Brazil
are its greatest markets for potash.
Uranium
Canada is the world’s leading producer of uranium, a
radioactive metal. The exploited deposits of uranium
are all in Saskatchewan Province; the largest deposits
of high-grade uranium are located in the Athabasca
basin. The major operating uranium mines, all lo-
cated in Saskatchewan, are at Rabbit Lake, McClean
Lake, and McArthur Lake. The major use of uranium
is in commercial nuclear power plants in the produc-
tion of electricity. Canada exports 85 percent of its
uranium for this purpose. The majority of the ex-
ported uranium is sent to the United States, Japan,
and Western Europe. The remaining 15 percent is
used domestically in Canada’s CANDU reactors to
produce approximately 15 percent of Canada’s elec-
tricity. Canada produces almost one-third of the ura-
nium produced in the world and ranks third in re-
serves of uranium. The country is expected to
maintain itsposition as theleader in uraniumproduc-
tion.
Hydropower
Hydropower, a renewable resource, first became an
important source of energy in Canada in the late

1800’s. Hydroelectric plants were constructed at Ni-
agara Falls in Ontario and at Shawinigan Falls in Que-
bec. Afterward, hydropower continued to play an im-
portant rolein Canada’s economicdevelopment. The
number of hydroelectric plants in Canada has grown
to 475, and hydropower furnishes approximately two-
thirds ofCanada’selectricity.Although thenumber of
facilities using hydropower throughout Canada has
increased dramatically, the country has not begun to
utilize fully its resources of potential hydropower.
Globally, Canada is a leader both in the production
of hydropower-generated electricity and in the devel-
opment of hydroelectric power-plant technology.
France is the only country that exports more electric
-
ity than Canada. The United States, Canada’s major
164 • Canada Global Resources
trading partner, imports about $2.5 billion of electric
-
ity from Canada every year. The majority of this elec-
tricity is generated with hydropower. As global con-
cerns about greenhouse-gas emissions and air
pollution become ever greater, Canada’s role as a de-
veloper of clean, renewable energy resources and
technology continues to grow in importance.
Aluminum
Aluminum is not a metal native to Canada; neverthe-
less, as the major refiner of aluminum, Canada plays
an importent role in supplyingaluminum to theworld.
The metal is shipped from all over the world to Can-

ada’s refineries in Quebec, where a vast amount of
hydroelectric power is available for processing. The
refined aluminum is exported globally.
Forests
Ten percent of the world’s forests are in Canada, cov-
ering 901 million hectares. Canada’s forest area also
accounts for 30 percent of the boreal forest of the
world. Forests play a key role in Canada’s economy.
Globally, Canada isthe largestexporter offorest prod-
ucts. The United States, the European Union, and
China are the major markets for Canadian forest
products. In 2008, the housing crisis in the United
States caused a decline in both the quantity and the
dollar value of soft-wood lumber exports. The popu-
larity of electronic media throughout the world has
brought about a decline in the amount of newsprint
exported. However, the demand for pulp has be-
come greater, with a significant increase in pulp ex-
port to Asia. Canada exports a wide variety of forest
Global Resources Canada • 165
Glacier Park in British Columbia, Canada, houses a wide array of wildlife and highlights the striking beauty of the country. (©Jay Beiler/
Dreamstime.com)
products, bothwood and nontimberproducts. Christ
-
mas trees and maple products account for the major-
ity of nontimber products. Logs, paper products, and
pulp constitute the largest dollar value of timber
product exports; however, Canada also exports a sub-
stantial amount of wood-fabricated products such as
fiberboard, both soft-and hard-wood lumber, and ply-

wood. Although Canada imports some forest prod-
ucts, the country is primarily an exporter of forest
products, with exports far exceeding imports.
The forest-products industry accounts for approxi-
mately 3 percent of Canada’s GDP. Forest-based food
products, such as wild mushrooms and berries, and
secondary manufacturing of wood products from res-
idues of timber harvesting make a significant contribu-
tion to Canada’s economy. Both are also important in
that theycontributeto theeconomy withoutincreasing
the number of trees harvested. Canada is not only the
world leader in forest products but also one of the na-
tions most concerned with forestconservationand re-
newal. The annual forest harvest is less than 1 percent
of the total Canadian forest. Canada has a number of
programs toprotect its forestlands andassure their re-
generation. Approximately 40 percent of the forest is
covered by various programs of land-use planning or
is designated as certified forest. Legislation provides
protection to approximately 8 percent of the forest.
Canada is actively working to increase the economic
benefits derived from its forest area and, at the same
time, preserve and renew this resource. In 2008, Can-
ada enacted its sixth program of strategies to manage
its forests in a responsible manner. A Vision for Cana-
dian Forests: 2008 and Beyond provides guidelines
through 2018. One of the major components of the
plan is to increase the number of forest-derived prod-
ucts and of forest uses without increasing actual tree
harvest. Innovations in bioenergy, bioplastics, and bio-

chemicals are being developedto accomplishthis goal.
Fisheries
Fisheries as a resource have experienced consider-
able difficulties throughout the world because of cli-
mate changes. Coupled with the decline in numbers
in various species of fish because of climate changes,
specifically warming ocean temperatures, the over-
exploitation of this resource has resulted in the col-
lapse of some segments of the industry. Canada’s
fishing industry has not escaped this problem. While
fisheries haveplayed aless important role inthe Cana
-
dian economy than forests, they have been a major
part of the economies of the coastal provinces, espe
-
cially those of the Atlantic coast. The first major de-
cline in Canada’s fisheries occurred in 1992 with the
collapse of the Atlantic cod fisheries. This decline
came about because of colder water temperatures
in the LabradorSea and overfishing of the species.At-
lantic cod had played a significant role in Canada’s
fish exports. Canada shifted its focus to salmon, hali-
but, and haddock. Shellfish—especially lobster,
shrimp, and crab—account for approximately 50 per-
cent of the dollar value of Canadian fish exports. Of
the remaining 50 percent of export dollar value, 15 per-
cent is dominated by the export of salmon. Two-thirds
of the salmon exported comes from the Atlantic.
However, sockeye salmon, which has a higher dollar
value, is a Pacific fish and is threatened by warming in

the Pacific Ocean. This is causing the salmon to move
toward the Bering Sea, resulting in a reduction in the
number of sockeye found in Canadian waters.
Consequently, Canada’s fishing industry is shifting
from reliance on a natural resource to dependency
on farm-raised and ocean-cultured fish. Aquaculture,
much of which is mariculture (aquaculture done in
the ocean), has played an ever-greater role in the in-
dustry. Both finfish and shellfish are cultured. From
1998 to 2000, aquaculture increased steadily at a rate
of 14 percent per year. This change in much of the
base of fisheries has created new supply sectors in
Canada’s domestic economy, including the manufac-
turing of cages and the production of feed supplies
for the captive-raised fish and shellfish.
Zinc
Zinc is a bluish white metal found in the Earth’s crust.
It has a large variety of uses ranging from the galvaniz-
ing of steel against corrosion to the creation of alloys
such as brass to use in roofing and in paint. Zinc de-
posits are located in the Appalachian region of Can-
ada and are mined in both open and underground
mines. There are alarge numberof zincmines operat-
ing in Canada, including mines in British Columbia,
Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Ontario, Quebec, and the
Northwest Territories. Canada is the world’s largest
producer of zinc and exports about 90 percent of its
zinc production. Zinc is exported both as refined
metal andasconcentrate. Therefined metalthat isex-
ported has been subjected to an electrolytic process

and is therefore an almost pure product. Canada ex
-
ports zinc worldwide. The major markets for zinc as
refined metal are the United States and Taiwan. For
166 • Canada Global Resources
zinc concentrate, the majority of markets are in Eu
-
rope, especially in Belgium, Germany, Spain, and It-
aly. South Korea is also an important market for zinc
concentrate.
Nickel
Nickel is a grayish white metal and ranks twenty-
fourth in abundance among metals found in the
Earth’s crust. It is used primarily as an alloying agent
and is found in about three thousand different alloys,
including stainless steel. Nickel was first discovered in
Canada near Sudbury, Ontario, where a number of
companies run integrated operations in mining, mill-
ing, smelting, and refining the nickel. In 1993, an-
other large deposit of nickel was discovered at Voisey
Bay. Canada is the second largest producer of nickel
worldwide; only Russia produces more. Canada’s do-
mestic market uses only 2 percent of the nickel pro-
duced in the country; the remainder is exported to
major markets such as the United States, Western Eu-
rope, and Japan.
Other Resources
Canada’s other resources include salt, copper, gold,
and molybdenum as well as numerous others. Salt is
found in both eastern Canada,where it isabundant in

the Atlantic basin, and western Canada, from Mani-
toba to Alberta. Canada is the world’s fourth largest
producer ofsalt. Allbut 1percent ofCanada’s tradein
salt is done with its major trading partner, the United
States. However, Canada imports more salt than it ex-
ports.
In Canada, copper, a reddish metal, is usually found
in combination with sulfite minerals. The copper sul-
fides often contain gold and molybdenum as well.
Canada is the fifth largest mine producer of copper
globally. Its two major copper-producing provinces
are Ontario and British Columbia. Thecopper mined
in Ontario is processed there, but the copper mined
in BritishColumbiais exported toAsiafor processing.
Shawncey Webb
Further Reading
Barnes, Michael. More than Free Gold: Mineral Explora-
tion in Canada Since World War II. Renfrew, Ont.:
General Store, 2008.
Førsund, Finn R. Hydropower Economics. New York:
Springer, 2007.
McKay, David L. Why Mining? Victoria, B.C.: Trafford,
2002.
Martin, Raymond, and William L. Leffler. Oil and Gas
Production in Nontechnical Language. Tulsa, Okla.:
PennWell, 2006.
Wetzel, Suzanne, Luc C. Duchesne, and Michael F.
Laporte. Bioproducts from Canada’s Forests: New Part-
nerships inthe Bioeconomy. NewYork: Springer,2006.
Zoellner, Tom. Uranium: War, Energy, and the Rock That

Shaped the World. New York: Viking, 2009.
See also: Aluminum; Athabasca oil sands; Canadian
Environmental Protection Act; Forests; Oil and natu-
ral gas distribution; Potash; Zinc.
Canadian Environmental Protection
Act
Categories: Laws and conventions; government
and resources
Date: Became law June 30, 1988
The Canadian Environmental Protection Act out-
lined environmental quality standards for Canada
and established regulations on the manufacture, emis-
sion, and discharge of toxic substances to achieve those
standards.
Background
During the 1960’s and 1970’s the Canadian federal
government and the governments of the Canadian
provinces passed several laws intended to regulate
pollution and clean up the environment. The Clean
Water Act, passed in 1970, provided for cooperation
between the federal and provincial governments on
water resource management issues, particularly the
cleanup of pollution in the Great Lakes. The Clean
Air Act, passed in 1971, provided for similar coopera-
tion to manage air quality. These acts were super-
seded by the Environmental Protection Act, passed in
1988, which established broad environmental quality
objectives and gave the government the authority to
regulate emissions of hazardous materials.
Unlike in the United States, where federal laws

generally supersede localor state laws, in Canada con-
stitutional jurisdictionto passlaws regulating theenvi-
ronment is shared by the federal and provincial gov-
ernments. As a result, the provisions of Canada’s
Environmental Protection Act did not apply in any
province that had enacted, and enforced, equivalent
Global Resources Canadian Environmental Protection Act • 167
provincial laws. Canadian industry as well as the pro
-
vincial governments had lobbied for this provision
so that the industries would not have to deal with two
different sets of laws and both provincial and federal
law enforcement authorities.
Provisions
The Canadian Environmental Protection Act allowed
regulation ofair pollution where theemissions consti-
tuted a health threat. Emissions of lead (including
lead ingasoline), mercury, andother toxic substances
were restricted. The act also allowed the government
to control the emissions responsible for acid rain.
Water quality management, provided under the act,
had two objectives: to maintain the supply of safe
drinking water and to minimize pollution of the fish-
eries. Dumping of materials into the oceans was also
controlled. The act provided for the cleanup of any
unauthorized releases of toxic or hazardous materials
and authorized fines or jail terms for convicted pol-
luters.
The actallowed the ministerof the environment or
the minister of national health and welfare to issue a

temporary ban on the importation or manufacture of
any new substance thought to be an environmental
hazard while its toxicity could be studied. In addition,
the act included a list of forty-four substances already
in use that were to be tested for toxicity within five
years of passage of the act.
Impact on Resource Use
Environment Canada is the agency of the Canadian
federal government responsible for overseeing the
country’s environment and for the prevention of
pollution of the air, land, and water across Canada.
The Canadian Environmental Protection Assessment
Agency, a division of Environment Canada, develops
and manages the federal environmental review pro-
cess and develops the national standards required to
manage the toxic substances regulated by the Cana-
dian Environmental Protection Act.
George J. Flynn
See also: Acid precipitation; Air pollution and air
pollution control; Environmental law in the United
States; Environmental ProtectionAgency; Greenhouse
gases and global climate change; United Nations En
-
vironment Programme; Water pollution and water
pollution control.
Canning and refrigeration of food
Category: Obtaining and using resources
Two of the most important methods for preserving food
are canning and refrigeration.
Definition

Canning is the technique of preserving food in air-
tight containers through the use of heat, while refrig-
eration is the process of preservation through the use
of low temperatures. Canning inactivates enzymes
and kills microorganisms that would cause food to
spoil during storage, while refrigeration stops the
growth and activity of most microorganisms that cause
food spoilage.
Overview
Canning and refrigeration are processes that pre-
serve food by slowing down its normal decay. Without
these food storage processes, most people would have
to grow their own food, and large cities could not ex-
ist. Food could not be transported from rural areas to
urban areas without being spoiled or destroyed by
pests. Famines would be more frequent and wide-
spread, since surpluses of food could not be stored to
guard against emergencies.
Canning is themost common method of food pres-
ervation in developed countries,and it is thebasis of a
large segment of the commercial food industry. In
this process, fruits, vegetables, fish, meat, poultry,
soups, and other foods are sealed in airtight contain-
ers and then heated to destroy microorganisms that
may cause spoilage. The airtight packaging protects
the food from contamination and permits storage at
room temperatures for many months. One disadvan-
tage of canning is that the heat required for steriliza-
tion changes the food’s texture, color, and flavor.
The canning process was developed by a French

chef, Nicolas Appert, in the early 1800’s. He worked
out a process of packing food in glass jars, which were
then tightly corked and heated in boiling water. Glass
or tin-coated sheet steel containers are used in the
commercial canning ofmany foods, and beginningin
the early 1960’s aluminum cans were used for canned
liquids. Virtually alltypes of foodare cannedcommer-
cially, and the products are available in cans of all
sizes.
Refrigeration, or cold storage, keeps food fresh at
168 • Canning and refrigeration of food Global Resources
temperatures somewhat above 0° Celsius. Refrigera-
tion takes place when heat flows to a receiver colder
than itssurroundings. Lowtemperatures do not steril-
ize food,but they doslow downthe growthof microor-
ganisms and decrease enzymes that cause food to de-
teriorate. Refrigeration produces few changes in food,
and theoriginal color, flavor, texture, andnutrients of
the food are retained.
Cold storage has been used for hundreds—or
thousands—of years to preserve foods, dating back to
when people stored food inside cool caves. Ice was a
valuable cargo fornineteenth century ships,but it was
expensive and difficult to transport. In 1851, the first
commercial machine for making ice was patented by
John Gorrie, an American physician. This develop-
ment led to the large-scale use of refrigeration for
shipping and storing foods. After World War I, the do-
mestic refrigerator began to displace the icebox, and
with the widespread dissemination of mechanical re-

frigeration in homes, the development of a frozen-
food industry became possible. Soon a large fleet of
refrigerated trucks was transporting the products.
Alvin K. Benson
See also: Agricultural products; Aluminum; Food
chain; Food shortages; Freeze-drying of food; Popula-
tion growth; Tin.
Capitalism and resource exploitation
Category: Social, economic, and political issues
Originating in Western Europe in the sixteenth cen-
tury, capitalism is a socioeconomic system that chan-
nels individual efforts toward increasing economic
growth. Historically, economic growth is associated
with an increasing human population and the in-
creasing exploitation of natural resources.
Background
Capitalism has a number of characteristics that differ-
entiate it from traditional economies and command
economies. First, as Karl Polanyi observes in The Great
Transformation (1964), capitalism ischaracterized by a
market economy. A market economy means subject
-
ing human beings, means of production, and nature
Global Resources Capitalism and resource exploitation • 169
Workers at a factory in the Philippines stuff sardines into cans. (AFP/Getty Images)