Nghiên cứu thành tố cấu trúc và ngữ nghĩa của một số thành ngữ cố định điển hình trong tiếng anh và tiếng việt

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration by Author……………………………………………..…………….

i

Published Works by the Author Relevant to the Thesis……………...….…….

ii

Acknowledgements……………………………………………………...………..

iii

Abstract…………………………………………………………….……...……...

viii

List of Figures………………………………………………………...…………..

x

List of Tables……………………………………………………………...……… xiv
List of Abbreviations and Symbols Used in the Thesis………………....……...

xv

List of Vietnamese – English Terms…………………………………..….……..
PART A: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………....……….

xvi
1

1. Rationale…………………………………………………………..……..…….. 1
2. Aims and Objectives of the Study………………………………...…..………

3

3. Research Questions………………………………………………....…………

3

4. Scope of the Study………………………………………...………….………..

3

5. Contributions of the Study………………………………...……….…………

3

6. Methodology………………………………………………..……...…..………. 4
6.1. Theoretical Framework…………………………………..….……………

4

6.2. Analytical Framework………………………………...…….…………….

7

6.3. Data Collection…………………………………………...….…………… 9
6.4. Data Analysis……………………………………………...….…………..

10

6.5. Procedure………………………………………………...…….…………. 12
7. Structure of the Study………………………………………...…….………… 13
PART B: DEVELOPMENT…………………………………………....……….. 14
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW………………………...….………….

14

1.1. Theoretical Background………………………………………...…….…….

14

1.1.1. Idioms Defined…………………………………………...…….……….

14

1.1.2. Idioms from Traditional View…………………………...…….……….. 16
1.1.3. Idioms from Cognitive View……………………………...…….……… 18
1.1.4. Idioms from Taxonomic View…………………………...…….……….

19

1.1.5. Idioms from Cultural View……………………………...…….………..

28

1.1.6. Idioms in the Relationship to Other Linguistic Units………....……...… 29
1.2. Previous Research………………………………………………....…….…..

33

1.2.1. Previous Research Works on Idioms in English…………...….…….….

33

1.2.2. Previous Research Works on Idioms in Vietnamese………..……….…. 35

i


1.2.3. Previous Research Works on Idioms in English and Vietnamese under
Comparison and Contrastive Analysis………………………………......….…

38

1.3. Summary……………………………………………………….…….….…...

39

CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF ENGLISH AND
VIETNAMESE IDIOMS…………………………………………...……………

41

2.1. Canonical Structural Components……………………………...………….

41

2.1.1. Symmetrical Idioms……………………………………...……………..

41

2.1.1.1. Realization……………………………………..…..…………… 41
2.1.1.2. Structural Patterns………………………………..….………….

42

2.1.1.3. Structural Components…………………………....…………….

43

2.1.2. Similized Idioms……………………………………..……..…………... 51
2.1.2.1. Realization……………………………………..…..…………… 51
2.1.2.2. Structural Patterns……………………………..…..……………

52

2.1.2.3. Structural Components………………………..….…….……….

53

2.1.3. Non-symmetrical idioms…………………………………....…………..

59

2.1.3.1. Realization……………………………………..…..…………… 59
2.1.3.2. Structural Patterns……………………………..…….………….

60

2.1.3.3. Structural Components………………………….....……………

62

2.2. Non-canonical Structural Components………………..…..……………….

69

2.2.1. Idiom Variants………………………………………….....…………….

70

2.2.1.1. Realization……………………………………..…..…………… 70
2.2.1.2. Structural Components………………………...…..……………

72

2.2.2. Synonymous Idioms………………………………..…..……………….

78

2.2.2.1. Realization……………………………………..…..…………… 78
2.2.2.2. Structural Components…………………………....…………….
2.3. Structural Components of English and Vietnamese Idioms Compared

80
85

2.3.1. Similarities……………………………………………..…..…………… 85

2.3.1.1. Canonical Structural Components Found in both Languages…...

85

2.3.1.2. Non-canonical Structural Components Found in both Languages 85
2.3.2. Differences…………………………………….…………..……………

86

2.3.2.1. Canonical Structural Components Unique to English………..… 88
2.3.2.2. Non-canonical Structural Components Unique to English…......

89

2.3.2.3. Canonical Structural Components Unique to Vietnamese..…….

90

2.3.2.4. Non-canonical Structural Components Unique to Vietnamese… 91
2.4. Summary………………………………………………………..………..…..
ii

92


PART C: CONCLUSION…………………………………………….…………. 142
1. Recapitulation……………………………………………………...….……….

142

2. Conclusions………………………………………………………...…..………

146

3. Implications for Idiom Teaching and Translation……………...……….…..

149

4. Suggestions for Further Studies……………………………………....………
REFERENCES………………………………………………………….....……..

151
153

APPENDIX 1…………………………………………………………...….……..

I

APPENDIX 2…………………………………………………………...….……..

VII

APPENDIX 3…………………………………………………….…...…………..

XII

APPENDIX 4………………………………………………………....…………..

XVI

ABSTRACT
An investigation of idioms in English and Vietnamese in terms of structural and
semantic components is carried out in the present study. Componential analysis,
describing, comparing and contrasting are regarded as the main methods used in the
present thesis. The findings of the study are concerned with the similarities and
differences between English and Vietnamese idioms in terms of (1) structural
components, and (2) semantic components and their formation. In order to collect the
iii


data, a hand search approach of the dictionaries in both languages has been conducted,
which helps to establish a corpus of 4,134 idioms in English and 4,053 idioms in
Vietnamese.
In the present study, a common theoretical framework on idioms is applied to both
English and Vietnamese. The canonical structural and semantic components involve
three types of idioms existing in our data: symmetrical, similized, and non-symmetrical
(Đức 1995; Hành 2008). The canonical structural components of each idiom type are
realized, described and analyzed according to grammatical rules suggested by Quirk,
Greenbaum, Leech, & Svartvik (1985). The non-canonical structural components
involve two types of idioms: idiom variants and synonymous idioms.
The semantic components of each idiom type involve the motivation degrees
(transparent, semi-transparent, semi-opaque, and opaque) (Fernando & Flavell 1981;
Fernando 1996), the association between the literal readings and the idiomatic meanings
(Langlotz 2006), and the semantic composition of component parts (Hành 2008). The
findings of the current study also reveal that most of the idioms in both English and
Vietnamese are analyzable and have meanings that are at least partly motivated
(Geeraets 1995; Gibbs 1990, 1995; Kövecses & Szabo 1996; Nunberg et al. 1994;
Fernando 1996; Langlotz 2006; etc). The formation mechanism of the semantic
components of idioms is motivated by external semantic cognition including metaphors,
metonymies and conventional knowledge (Gibbs 1990, 1995). It is a natural process

implicitly affected by several different factors such as living circumstance (geographical
environment, climate), historical allusion (historical events, fables and mythologies,
literary works), religions and beliefs, and traditions and customs (food and cooking,
animals). This leads to a fact that the component parts forming idioms in the two
languages are different although they denote similar concepts. The thesis also presents
the implications for idiom teaching and translation.
Keywords: idioms, idiomaticity, symmetrical idioms, similized idioms, non-symmetrical
idioms, idiom variants, synonymous idioms, underlying factors, motivation degree,
literal reading, idiomatic meaning

iv


LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Classification of symmetrical figurative idioms in Vietnamese
(Hành 2008: 76)………………………………………………….….. 26
Figure 1.2: Classification of non-symmetrical figurative idioms in Vietnamese
(Hành 2008: 100)……………………………………………….…… 27
Figure 1.3: Classification of similized idioms in Vietnamese (Hành 2008: 115)

27

Figure 2.1. Distribution of symmetrical idioms in English and Vietnamese….…

42

Figure 2.2: Structural patterns of symmetrical idioms in English……….…….…

42

v


Figure 2.3: Structural patterns of symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese……..…….

43

Figure 2.4: Structural components of A and B symmetrical idioms in English.…

44

Figure 2.5: Structural components of A or B symmetrical idioms in English…...

45

Figure 2.6: Structural components of A but B symmetrical idioms in English..…

46

Figure 2.7: Structural components of A to B symmetrical idioms in English........

46

Figure 2.8: Structural components of A, B symmetrical idioms in English….…..

47

Figure 2.9: Symmetrical relationship between A and B of mẹ trịn con vng in
Vietnamese………………………………………………………......

48

Figure 2.10: Symmetrical relationship between A and B of chạy ngược chạy
xuôi in Vietnamese…………………………………………………..

49

Figure 2.11: Canonical structural components of symmetrical idioms in
Vietnamese………………...…………………………………...……..

50

Figure 2.12: Distribution of similized idioms in English and Vietnamese….…...

52

Figure 2.13: Structural patterns of similized idioms in English…………….……

52

Figure 2.14: Structural patterns of similized idioms in Vietnamese………….….

53

Figure 2.15: Structural components of as A as B similized idioms in English.….

54

Figure 2.16: Structural components of A like B similized idioms in English….… 54
Figure 2.17: Structural components of […] like B similized idioms in English…

55

Figure 2.18: Structural components of […] as B similized idioms in English.….. 56
Figure 2.19: Structural components of A như B similized idioms in
Vietnamese…………………………………………………………....

57

Figure 2.20: Structural components of (A) như B similized idioms in
Vietnamese……………………………………………………...…….

58

Figure 2.21: Structural components of như B similized idioms in
Vietnamese………………………………………………...……….....

59

Figure 2.22: Structural components of AB similized idioms in Vietnamese….…

59

Figure 2.23: Distribution of non-symmetrical idioms in English and
Vietnamese……………………………………………………………

60

Figure 2.24: Structural patterns of non-symmetrical idioms in English……..…... 61
Figure 2.25: Structural patterns of non-symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese..……

61

Figure 2.26: Structural components of A HN (B) non-symmetrical idioms as
noun phrases in English……………………………………………... 62
Figure 2.27: Structural components of AB non-symmetrical idioms as adjective
phrases in English…………………………………………………… 63
Figure 2.28:

Structural components of Prep B non-symmetrical idioms as
vi


prepositional phrases in English…………………………….….……
Figure 2.29:

64

Structural components of A Adv non-symmetrical idioms as

adverbial phrases in English…………………………………...……. 64
Figure 2.30: Structural components of (A) V/PV B non-symmetrical idioms as
verb phrases in English……………………………………………… 65
Figure 2.31: Structural components of non-symmetrical idioms as sentences in
English…………………………………………………………......... 66
Figure 2.32: Structural components of AB non-symmetrical idioms as noun
phrases in Vietnamese……………………………...………………..

67

Figure 2.33: Structural components of AB non-symmetrical idioms as adjective
phrases in Vietnamese…………………...…………………………..

68

Figure 2.34: Structural components of AB non-symmetrical idioms as verb
phrases in Vietnamese…………………………...…………………..

68

Figure 2.35: Structural components of non-symmetrical idioms as sentences in
Vietnamese………………………………………...……...………....

69

Figure 2.36: Distribution of idiom variants in English and Vietnamese…….…...

71

Figure 2.37: Realization criteria of idiom variants in English and Vietnamese.…

72

Figure 2.38: Distribution of synonymous idioms in English and Vietnamese..….

79

Figure 2.39: Realization criteria of synonymous idioms in English and
Vietnamese…………………………………..………………...…….

80

Figure 2.40: Distribution of idiom types in English and Vietnamese……….…...

87

Figure 2.41: Distribution of idiom variants and synonymous idioms in English
and Vietnamese……………………………………….………...…..

87

Figure 3.1. Distribution of transparent symmetrical idioms in English and
Vietnamese………………………………………………...…..……

94

Figure 3.2: Semantic components of transparent symmetrical idioms in English
and Vietnamese……………………………………………………..

94

Figure 3.3: The relationship between the literal reading and idiomatic meaning
of slowly but surely in English and bày mưu tính kế in Vietnamese.

95

Figure 3.4: Transformation of quốc sắc thiên hương (from Sino-Vietnamese
into Vietnamese)……………………………………...……………... 95
Figure 3.5: Distribution of semi-opaque symmetrical idioms in English and
Vietnamese………………………………………………...……..….

96

Figure 3.6: Semantic components of semi-opaque symmetrical idioms in
English and Vietnamese………………………………..……………
vii

97


Figure 3.7: The relationship between the literal reading and idiomatic meaning
of day and night in English and mồm năm miệng mười in
Vietnamese…………………………………………..………………

97

Figure 3.8: Distribution of opaque symmetrical idioms in English and
Vietnamese…………………………………………...…………..….

98

Figure 3.9: Semantic components of opaque symmetrical idioms in
Vietnamese…………………………………………...……………...

98

Figure 3.10: The relationship between the literal reading and idiomatic meaning
of già kén kẹn hom in Vietnamese……………………………...…… 99
Figure 3.11: Distribution of semi-transparent similized idioms in English and
Vietnamese…………………………………………...…………..….

102

Figure 3.12: Semantic components of semi-transparent similized idioms in
English and Vietnamese……………………………………………..

103

Figure 3.13: The relationship between the literal reading and idiomatic meaning
of as busy as a bee in English and chậm như rùa in
Vietnamese…………………………………………………………..

103

Figure 3.14: Distribution of semi-opaque similized idioms in English and
Vietnamese…………………………………………...……………...

104

Figure 3.15: Semantic components of semi-opaque similized idioms in English
and Vietnamese……………………………………………….……..

104

Figure 3.16: The relationship between the literal reading and idiomatic meaning
of as black as coal in English and đen như chó in
Vietnamese…………………………………...……………………...

105

Figure 3.17: Distribution of transparent non-symmetrical idioms in English and
Vietnamese…………………………………………………..…...….

108

Figure 3.18: Semantic components of in any case in English……………….…... 108
Figure 3.19: Distribution of semi-opaque non-symmetrical idioms in English
and Vietnamese…………………………………………...…………

109

Figure 3.20: Semantic components of semi-opaque non-symmetrical idioms in
English and Vietnamese……………………………………………..

109

Figure 3.21: The relationship between the literal reading and idiomatic meaning
of throw a spanner into the works in English and áo gấm đi đêm in
Vietnamese……………………………….…………………...……..

110

Figure 3.22: Distribution of opaque non-symmetrical idioms in English and
Vietnamese………………………………………………..…………
viii

110


Figure 3.23: Semantic components of kick the bucket in English and đẽo cày

giữa đường in Vietnamese………………………………...………...

111

Figure 3.24: The relationship between the literal reading and idiomatic meaning
of kick the bucket in English and đẽo cày giữa đường in
Vietnamese…………………………………...……………………...

111

Figure 3.25: The semantic composition of kick the bucket in English and đẽo
cày giữa đường in Vietnamese (drawn from Fernando & Flavell
1981)………………………………………………………………… 113
Figure 3.26: The formation of an idiom in English and Vietnamese (drawn from
Fernando & Flavell 1981: 26)…………………………….…………

120

Figure 3.27: The formation mechanism of semantic components of idioms in
English and Vietnamese…………………………...………………...

123

Figure 3.28: Main factors that affect the formation of semantic components of
idioms in English and Vietnamese………………………………….

133

Figure 3.29: Motivation degrees of symmetrical idioms in English and
Vietnamese………………………………………………………….

134

Figure 3.30: Motivation degrees of similized idioms in English and
Vietnamese…………………………………………………………..

134

Figure 3.31: Motivation degrees of non-symmetrical idioms in English and
Vietnamese…………………………………………………………..

135

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Traditional view of kick the bucket in English..………………….….… 17
Table 1.2: Traditional view of mì chính cánh in Vietnamese…….……..…….......

17

Table 1.3: Types of Idioms (Fernando 1996: 32)………………….…….....….…... 21
Table 1.4: Distinguishing criteria of idioms…………………….……...………….

32

Table 2.1: Possible variabilities of idiom variants in English…………………….. 75
Table 2.2: Possible variabilities of idiom variants in Vietnamese…………...……

78

Table 2.3: Possible variabilities of synonymous idioms in English……..…..……. 82

Table 2.4: Possible variabilities of synonymous idioms in Vietnamese……....…..

84

Table 2.5: Possible variabilities of idiom variants found in both English and
Vietnamese…………………………………………….…….………… 86
ix


Table 2.6: Possible variabilities of synonymous idioms found in both English
and Vietnamese…………………………………………….…………..

86

Table 2.7: Structural components of non-symmetrical idioms unique to English..

89

Table 2.8: Possible variabilities of idiom variants and synonymous idioms
unique to English………………………………………………………

89

Table 2.9: Structural components of non-symmetrical idioms unique to
Vietnamese………………………………………………….………...

90

Table 2.10: Possible variabilities of idiom variants and synonymous idioms
unique to Vietnamese…………………………………….….………… 91

Table 3.1: Nuances of different idiom variant types in English and Vietnamese....

11

Table 3.2: The coordination of semantic components of symmetrical idioms 7
found in both English and Vietnamese…………………..……………
Table 3.3: The existential relationship between A and B of similized idioms 13
found in both English and Vietnamese…………………..……………

1

Table 3.4: Differences between English and Vietnamese in terms of main factors
that affect the formation of semantic components of idioms…….……. 13
2
14
0

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS USED IN THE DISSERTATION
[…]

absence of constituents

Adj

adjective

AdjP

adjective phrase

Adv

adverb

AdvP

adverbial phrase

Cl

clause
x


De

determiner

DCl

dependent clause

Ger

gerund

HN

head noun

InCl

independent clause

LT

language teaching

NePa

negative particle

N

noun

NP

noun phrase

Mo

modifier

Op

operator

PV

phrasal verb

Prep

preposition

PrepP

prepositional phrase

Pro

pronoun

TL

target language

To-inf

to-infinitive

Sen

sentence

Sim

similized

SL

source language

Sub

subordinator

Syn

synonymous

V

verb

VP

verb phrase

LIST OF VIETNAMESE – ENGLISH TERMS
bán mờ

semi-opaque

bán tường minh

semi-transparent

biến thể thành ngữ

idiom variant

chuyển đổi theo nghĩa đen

literalized transformation

đẳng kết

coordination

đồng đại

synchronic evolution

xi


hình ảnh biểu trưng

mental image

mờ

opaque

khuynh hướng nghiên cứu

approach

phi đẳng kết

non-coordination

phương pháp phục nguyên

etymologizing

tâm nguyên

etymology

thành ngữ đồng nghĩa

synonymous idiom

thành ngữ đối xứng

symmetrical idiom

thành ngữ phi đối xứng

non-symmetrical idiom

thành ngữ ví von hóa

similized idiom

hợp phần

component

tường minh

transparent

sắc thái nghĩa

nuance

xii


PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
‘The accurate and appropriate use of expressions which are in the broadest sense
idiomatic is one distinguishing mark of a native command of the language and a reliable
measure of the proficiency of foreign learners’ (Cowie, Mackin & McCaig 1993: x). In
fact, I started learning English in 1994. And I am now working as a teacher of English
in a university in Sonla. Indeed, my students and I all desire to master English as the
native speakers; nevertheless, we usually face a lot of difficulties that prevent us from
gaining natural conversations. One of the reasons for these problems lies in the way we
perceive and use idioms. The structural and semantic problems posed by idioms puzzle
us a lot. Of all the difficulties the most familiar is that of meaning: most idioms do not
mean what they appear to mean. The sense of the whole idiom is usually different from
the meanings of the combination of its component parts. The study is carried out with
the hope that, to some extent, our problems will be solved.
Actually, studying idioms is not new; nonetheless, it has never been old. In Vietnam,
there exist three approaches in studying idioms: etymology, synchronic evolution, and
comparison and contrastive analysis (Hành 2008). Firstly, the investigations on idioms

under etymology go into macro field. These studies focus on the formation and
transformation of each idiom during its existence. It is hard work taking a lot of time
and energy. The method mainly used in these studies is the etymologizing, i.e. the
origins of idioms are recovered in order to make the forms and the idiomatic meanings
transparent. Hành (2002) and Minh (2007) are the typical authors who pay attention to
this area. The second approach in studying idioms is synchronic evolution. Descriptive
method is used in these studies from which the underlying cultural factors behind the
idioms are partly interpretable. This area of study attracts a lot of authors such as San
(1974), Việt (1981), Lực & Đang (1978), Đức (1995), Hành (2008), etc. Studying
idioms under comparison and contrastive analysis is the third approach. The studies
under original recovery and synchronic evolution are the backgrounds for comparison
and contrastive works. Several attempts have been made to work out the similarities and
differences between English and Vietnamese in terms of emotion expressing idioms (Trào
2009),

idiomatic verb phrases (Long 2010), idiom translation (Lan 2001; Phúc 2009),

1


etc. An in-depth investigation of the structural and semantic components of idioms will
also offer excellent opportunities for cross-language comparison and analysis.
Structurally, English and Vietnamese are very different. English is regarded as a semiinflectional language (Crystal 1997) while Vietnamese is completely isolating. It is
interesting, nevertheless, that several idioms in English have the same structural patterns
as those in Vietnamese. For example, like water off a duck’s back in English and như
nước đổ đầu vịt in Vietnamese are both prepositional phrases. It is more interesting that
the idiomatic meanings of the two idioms are also similar, and they are paraphrasable as
‘have no effect’. In terms of structural components, these idioms have both similarities
and differences. They are similized idioms introduced by prepositions as the first
component parts (like in English and như in Vietnamese). The differences lie in the rest

of component parts forming the idioms. The component parts after like in English
together form a noun phrase whereas those after như in Vietnamese together form a
clause. To the best of my knowledge, the structural components of idioms in both
English and Vietnamese have not yet been investigated in this way.
Although the component parts forming idioms expressing the same concepts in English
and Vietnamese are usually different, they have some features in common. The idioms
in both languages appear from totally transparent to the totally opaque: transparent, i.e.
all the components are explicit (e.g. slow but sure in English and bàn đi tính lại (discuss
something carefully) in Vietnamese); semi-transparent, i.e. some components are
explicit (the meaning focused) and the other are implicit (e.g. as busy as a beaver (very
busy) in English and đẹp như tiên (very beautiful) in Vietnamese); semi-opaque, i.e. all
the components are implicit but possibly interpretable (e.g. like a duck to water (feel
comfortable) in English and như chó với mèo (be always conflictive) in Vietnamese);
and opaque, i.e. all the components are implicit (e.g. kick the bucket (die) in English and
đẽo cày giữa đường (be indeterminate in one’s position) in Vietnamese) (Fernando &
Flavell 1981; Fernando 1996). Investigating semantic components of idioms based on
these semantic criteria in both English and Vietnamese is still the gap. In addition, what
main factors lie behind the differences between the two languages in terms of the
formation of semantic components of idioms also need uncovering (Hành 2008).
For the reasons presented above, we state that studying the structural and semantic
components of idioms in both English and Vietnamese in order to fill in the gap in
research is necessary.
2


2. Aims and Objectives of the Study
The study attempts to find out the similarities and differences between English and
Vietnamese idioms from structural and semantic perspectives.
In order to achieve the aims, the study is expected to reach the following objectives:
- to study how idioms are organized structurally and semantically in English and

Vietnamese;
- to establish the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese idioms in
terms of structural and semantic components;
- to provide main factors lying behind the similarities and differences between English
and Vietnamese idioms.
3. Research Questions
The objectives of the study can be elaborated into the following research questions:
i) How are idioms in English and Vietnamese organized structurally and semantically?
ii) What are the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese idioms in
terms of structural and semantic components?
iii) What main factors lie behind the similarities and differences between English and
Vietnamese idioms?
4. Scope of the Study
The present study focuses on everyday idioms selected from recently published
dictionaries (see Section 6.3). All the authors of these works affirm that the idioms in
their books are both current and used, or at least understood, by most native speakers. It
means that the study is deliberately limited to idioms usually used in daily
conversations. It is noteworthy that the study investigates idioms in both English and
Vietnamese from structural and semantic components perspective. The components in
the current inquiry are regarded as elements which are hardly varied and together form a
unit.
5. Contributions of the Study
Scientifically, a common theory on idioms is applied to both English and Vietnamese.
3


This approach helps to find out the similarities and differences between English and
Vietnamese idioms in terms of structural and semantic components. This is a major
contribution to the knowledge of linguistics in general and that of idioms in particular.
Since language and culture are closely intertwined, the findings will help improve the

knowledge of the two underlying cultures, which are expressed through those idioms.
Practically, for language teaching (both English and Vietnamese), the study facilitates
learners’ communication because language is for communication, and idioms are an
indispensable part of common expressions (Cowie, Mackin & McCaig 1993: x). The
work will provide assistance to English-speaking learners of Vietnamese and
Vietnamese learners of English to distinguish one kind of idioms from others in each
language. The work will also enable learners to tell when idioms in English and
Vietnamese are similar and different, which is likely to be useful for their study.
Language teachers will be aided to help their learners reach this communicative goal
(see Section 3 in Part C). For translation, knowledge of idioms from this work will help
translators find closest equivalents to the expressions in the source language. Idioms and
idiomatic expressions are the most culture-bound part of any language, so their transfer
is one of the most problematic issues in translation. It is because transfer of language
also involves that of culture, which is not always transferable. In this way, knowledge
from this sort of work will be of great benefit to translators, who should be able to find
the possible equivalents in the target language.
6. Methodology
6.1. Theoretical Framework
As presented in Section 4, idioms in the present study are investigated from both
structural and semantic perspectives. According to Katz & Fodor (1963: 170), ‘a full
synchronic description of a language is a grammatical and semantic characterization of
that language’. The term ‘grammatical’ refers to the description of pholology,
phonemics, morphology, and syntax. ‘Semantic’ belongs to a theory which must be
constructed ‘to have whatever properties are demanded by its role in linguistic
description’ (Katz & Fodor 1963: 171).
Structurally, idioms are generally described and analyzed according to typical

4

grammarical rules. In fact, there are different kinds of grammars. Fromkin (1998)
mentions three types of grammars: descriptive, prescriptive and teaching. The
descriptive grammar involves the description of what the speakers of a language do
when they speak their language. That certain language uses are categorized as
acceptable or unacceptable according to a standard form of the language is called
prescriptive grammar. The teaching grammar is used to learn a foreign language or a
dialect. Yule (1996) also gives three types of grammar as follows:
Each adult speaker of a language clearly has some type of ‘mental grammar’,
that is, a form of internal linguistic knowledge which operates in the production
and recognition of appropriately structured expressions in that language. This
‘grammar’ is subconscious and is not the result of any teaching. A second, and
quite different, concept of ‘grammar’ involves what might be considered
‘linguistic etiquette’, that is, the identification of the ‘proper’ or ‘best’ structures
to be used in a language. A third view of ‘grammar’ involves the study and
analysis of the structures found in a language, usually with the aim of
establishing a description of the grammar of English, for example, as distinct
from the grammar of Russian or French or any other language
(Yule 1996: 87)
The models of Immediate Constituent Analysis suggested by Bloomfield (1933) are
used in the present study. These models are then principally developed by Wells (1947),
Harris (1957) and Chomsky (1957). The central issue underlying these models is that
the structure of an expression can be presented by dividing the expression into parts
(immediate constituents), which are then further divided into smaller parts until
syntactically indivisible units are obtained. Gleason (1955: 151), who represents the
relations held between immediate constituents, describes:
The process of analyzing syntax is largely one of finding successive layers of
immediate constituents and of immediate constructions, the description of
relationships which exist between immediate constituents and the description of
those relationships which are not efficiently described in terms of immediate
constituents. The last is generally of subsidiary importance; most of the

relationships of any great significance are between immediate constituents.
Specifically, the structural components of an idiom are exhibited by dividing the idiom
into successive layers or constituent parts. The constituent parts can be labelled as
belonging to different grammatical constituents like noun phrase, verb phrase,

5


prepositional phrase, etc which can be further divided into categories such as noun,
adjective, verb, etc (Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, & Svartvik 1985). This can be shown by
taking a simple example of the idiom body and soul (completely). This idiom is divided
into two parts which are connected by a coordinator (and). The first part (body) and the
second one (soul) are both nouns.
The semantic components of idioms in the current study are analyzed according to Katz
& Fodor’s (1963) componential theory. According to Katz & Fodor (1963), ‘semantic
components may be combined in various ways in different languages yet they would be
identifiable as the ‘same’ component in the vocabularies of all languages’. Generally,
this theory determines how expressed signs, usually vocabulary items called lexemes, in
a language are related to the perceptions and thoughts of the people who speak the
language. In this theory, word meanings are broken down into semantic features and
their specifications. In other words, the meanings of lexemes are analyzed into
components, which can then be compared across lexemes or groups of lexemes. Since
idioms are regarded as special linguistic units functioning as words (Fernando & Flavell
1981; Fernando 1996; Đức 1995; Hành 2008; etc), they can be analyzed in this way.
Finegan (2004) supposes that words are tangible. They can have one meaningful part
(e.g. car, sing, tall, etc), or more than one meaningful part (e.g. bookstore, laptop,
headset, etc) (Finegan 2004: 40). According to Fromkin (2000: 26), words which are
not the smallest units of meaning may be simple or complex. For example, the word
stayed has two parts, stay and –ed; headmaster includes two words, head and master,
which form a compound; and beautifully may be divided into beautiful and -ly. The

relationship between the form and meaning of a word is an arbitrary one (Fromkin
1998: 5). Fromkin (1998) also states that the sounds represented by the letters of a word
(in the written form of the language) signify a concept. Indeed, both words and idioms
are used to express pure concepts, and they are analyzable.
The canonical structural and semantic components of idioms in the present study are
formally established according to three types of idioms: symmetrical, similized, and
non-symmetrical (Đức 1995; Hành 2008). The structural components of each idiom
type are coded in separate component parts, which are then realized, described and
analyzed according to grammatical rules suggested by Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, &
Svartvik (1985). It is noteworthy that the component parts are realized under words,
6


phrases and clauses. The canonical semantic components of idioms are analyzed
according to the transparent-opaque axis introduced by Fernando & Flavell (1981) and
Fernando (1996) and the association between the literal reading and idiomatic meaning
suggested by Langlotz (2006). The transparent-opaque axis involves the different
motivation degrees of each idiom type: transparent, semi-transparent, semi-opaque, and
opaque. The association between the literal reading and idiomatic meaning refers to the
possible analyzability of each idiom type.
The non-canonical structural and semantic components of idioms are generally based on
two types of idioms: idiom variants and synonymous idioms (This issue is partly
discussed in the author’s article published in 2009).
The theoretical framework is used for the present study for several specific reasons.
First of all, the components are regarded as the criteria to classify idioms from both
structural and semantic perspectives. For example, similized idioms are structurally
realized through the components as comparative means (Đức 1995; Hành 2008), and
these idioms are also semantically classified due to the explicitness and implicitness of
their components (Fernando & Flavell 1981; Fernando 1996). Second, this theoretical
framework can be applied to a large number of idioms belonging to different types in

both English and Vietnamese. And finally, it is the framework that helps to achieve the
objectives of the study.
6.2. Analytical Framework
According to Krzeszowski (1990: 35), ‘No exact or reliable exploration of facts can be
conducted without a theoretical background, providing concepts, hypotheses, and
theories which enable the investigator to describe the relevant facts and to account for
them in terms of significant generalizations’ (cited in Trào 2009: 12).
In the present inquiry, the theories of contrastive linguistics of König and Gast (2008)
and Chaturvedi (1973) are applied to the investigation of the idioms collected.
König and Gast (2008) suppose that contrastive linguistics is a branch of comparative
linguistics that is concerned with pairs of languages which are ‘socio-culturally linked’.
According to these authors, two languages can be said to be socio-culturally linked
when (i) they are used by a considerable number of bi- or multilingual speakers, and/or
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(ii) a substantial amount of ‘linguistic output’ (text, discourse) is translated from one
language into the other. English and Vietnamese are socio-cultural linked because they
satisfy both criteria given above.
Contrastive linguistics invariably requires a socio-cultural link between the languages
investigated, but that it is not restricted to pair wise language comparison. Contrastive
linguistics thus aims to arrive at results that carry the potential of being used for
practical purposes, e.g. in foreign language teaching and translation. As it provides the
descriptive basis for such applications, its research programme can also be summarized
as ‘comparison with a purpose’. ‘Comparison’ in the present study is understood as the
identification of similarities and differences between two or more categories along a
specific (set of) dimension(s) (König and Gast 2008). We mean that the categories
compared must be of the same type, i.e. there has to be a set of properties that they have
in common in both languages.
In order to carry out a contrastive study, Chaturvedi (1973) suggests some guiding

principles as follows:
(i) to analyse the mother tongue and the target language independently and
completely; (ii) to compare the two languages item-wise-item at all levels of
their structure; (iii) to arrive at the categories of a) similar features, b) partially
similar features, c) dissimilar features - for the target language; and (iv) to arrive
at principles of text preparation, test framing and target language teaching in
general.
The contrastive analysis emphasises the influence of the mother tongue in learning a
second language and translation. This type of study will provide an objective and
scientific base for second language teaching as well as translation. For knowing the
significantly similar structural and semantic properties in both languages, the first step
to be adopted is that both languages should be analysed independently. After the
independent analysis, to sort out the different features of the two languages, comparison
of the two languages is necessary. From this analysis it is easy to make out that at
different levels of structural and semantic properties of these two languages there are
some features quite similar and some quite dissimilar.

8


In the present study, a large number of idioms in both English and Vietnamese are used
as examples for illustration. It means that we have to translate idioms from Vietnamese
into English. The fact we face is that there are several Vietnamese idioms whose
equivalents in English cannot be found. In order to keep the consistency in translation,
the strategy we use is paraphrase (Baker 1992; Fernando & Flavell 1981; ValeroGarcés 1997).
6.3. Data Collection
In order to collect the data, a working definition of an idiom has been established in the
present study (see Section 1.1.1). Any idiom selected in both English and Vietnamese
satisfies the criteria the definition for working involves.
Data for the present analysis of English and Vietnamese are mainly collected from the

following dictionaries:
English
Bình, P. V. (1999). Tục ngữ nước Anh và thành ngữ tiếng Anh giàu hình ảnh [English
picturesque idioms]. Hải Phịng: Nxb Hải Phòng.
Cambridge Idioms Dictionary (2006). (2nd ed.). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Collins COBUILD Idioms Dictionary (2002). (2nd ed.). UK: Harper Collins Publisher.
Cowie, A. P., Mackin, R., & McCaig, I. R. (1993). Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Siefring, J. (2005). Oxford Dictionary of Idioms. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Vietnamese
Lân, N. (2003). Từ điển thành ngữ và tục ngữ Việt Nam [A dictionary of Vietnamese
idioms and proverbs]. Hà Nội: Nxb Văn học.
Lực, N., & Đang, L. V. (2009). (3rd ed.). Thành ngữ tiếng Việt [A dictionary of
Vietnamese idioms]. Hà Nội: Nxb Khoa học Xã hội.
Minh, T. H. (2007). Đi tìm điển tích thành ngữ [Seeking idioms’ classic references]. Hà
Nội: Nxb Thông Tấn.
Ý, N. N., Hành, H. V, Khang, N. V., Thại, L. X., & Thành, P. X. (1998). Từ điển giải

9


thích thành ngữ tiếng Việt [A dictionary of Vietnamese idioms]. Hà Nội: Nxb
Giáo dục.
Ý, N. N. (2002). Từ điển thành ngữ tiếng Việt phổ thông [A dictionary of common
Vietnamese idioms]. Hà Nội: Nxb Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội.
We choose the dictionaries above because of several specific reasons. Firstly, they are
quite popular and currently available. Secondly, they cover a large number of the idioms
which people are likely to find in everyday English as well as Vietnamese. Thirdly,
most of idiom types can be found in these dictionaries in a large number. And finally,

the dictionaries satisfy the diachronic perspective because the examples for illustrations
are mostly from literal works, magazines and newspapers. The collected data forms a
corpus under three categories: symmetrical idioms (231 for English and 2,343 for
Vietnamese), similized idioms (516 for English and 699 for Vietnamese), and nonsymmetrical idioms (3,387 for English and 1,011 for Vietnamese).
The data in the current dissertation are also published or submitted data which are
available in books, PhD theses and journals such as On Idiom: Critical Views and
Perspectives by Fernando and Flavell (1981), Idioms and Idiomaticity by Fernando
(1996), Bình diện cấu trúc hình thái-ngữ nghĩa của thành ngữ tiếng Việt [Vietnamese
Idioms from Formal-semantic Perspectives] by Đức (1995), Thành ngữ học tiếng Việt
[Vietnamese Idiom Studies] by Hành (2008), ‘Occational Adnominal Idiom
Modification – A Cognitive Linguistic Approach’ by Langlotz (2006), ‘Cultural
Differences between English and Chinese on Idioms Origins’ by Lijie (2010), Emotion
Expressing Idioms in English and Vietnamese: A Contrastive Analysis by Trào (2009),
etc. The sources of these data are believed to be reliable, suitable and adequate because
they are all published, submitted and related to the area of the study.
6.4. Data Analysis
Due to the aims, the objectives, and the scope of the study, componential analysis,
describing, comparing and contrasting are regarded as the main methods used in the
present dissertation. The study makes use of the Vietnamese language as the target and
the English one as the source language (the base language). In some cases, we may use
the opposite (the English language as the target and the Vietnamese one as the source
language).

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Componential analysis is said to develop from anthropological studies describing and
comparing kinship terminology in diferent languages. Componential analysis is one of
the main methods used to describe and analyze the idioms, especially semantic
components of idioms in both English and Vietnamese. We describe meanings, meaning

relationships and the grammatical behavior of idiom classes by analyzing idiomatic
meanings into meaning components. This analysis procedure is called lexical
decomposition (Katz & Fodor 1963; Dowty 1979; Zhang 2002). However, how to
understand and apply this approach in the dissertation is not entirely like the traditional
sense. Componential analysis in the concept of the dissertation means that we do not
only manipulate objects existing in a static way but we also analyze and access idioms
in their operation. More specifically, we study idioms in their existence and operating
environment. Here, we do not separate idioms from their ‘internal’ environment and
characteristics directly impacting on the rules of formation, survival and the
development of the idioms. On the other hand, we do not also separate idioms from
their ‘external’ environment, i.e. culture - society - history related to the establishment
and administration of the idioms.
According to Wisker (2001: 118), descriptive research aims to find out more about a
phenomenon and to capture it with detailed information. Often the description is only
true for that moment in time, but it still helps us to understand and know more about the
phenomenon. In addition, descriptive research attempts to determine, describe, or
identify what is, i.e. the descriptive research uses description, classification,
measurement, and comparison to describe what phenomena are (Wisker 2001: 120).
Describing method is applied in the present dissertation to present the theoretical
foundation of idioms in general and idioms from structural and semantic components
perspective in particular, which is then illustrated by examples with explanations and
discussions, and hopefully reach conclusions by deductive reasoning.
The term 'contrastive linguistics' was suggested by Whorf (1941) and was defined as ‘a
sub-discipline of linguistics concerned with the comparison of two or more languages or
subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities
between them’ (Fisiak 1981: 1). Contrastive analysis is the method of analyzing the
structure of any two languages with a view to estimate the differential aspects of their
systems, irrespective or their generic affinity or level of development. Contrastive

11

analysis of two languages becomes useful when it is adequately describing the sound
structure and grammatical structure of two languages, with comparative statements,
giving due emphasis to the compatible items in the two systems. In appearance,
comparing and contrasting are similar to each other, for both methods compare two or
more items (languages in our case) in order to find similarities and differences between
them. But academically they have quite different connotations nowadays, partly of the
etymological meanings of the two words, and partly because of the different traditions
of the two disciplines in their development. Although neither carries an extreme demand
to look for ‘similarity’ or ‘difference’ only, each has nevertheless a tendency for one of
the two, i.e. methodologically, the ‘comparative’ method stresses similarity more, while
the ‘contrastive’ method emphasizes the differences. In the present study, comparing
and contrasting help us to identify, analyze and point out the similarities and differences
between the structural and semantic components of idioms as well as their formation in
English and those in Vietnamese.
6.5. Procedure
Generally, the procedure of the present study is divided into four stages (Chaturvedi
1973; König and Gast 2008) (see Section 6.2):
(i) From our corpus, we first analyze the mother tongue and the target language
independently and completely in terms of structural and semantic components of idioms
according to the theoretical framework (see Section 6.1).
(ii) After that, we compare the idioms in the two languages item-wise-item at all levels
of their structural and semantic components. We also seek the underlying factors
affecting the formation of semantic components of idioms in both English and
Vietnamese (Hành 2008; Lijie 2010).
(iii) Then, we arrive at the categories of a) structural and semantic components of
idioms found in both languages, b) structural and semantic components of idioms
unique to either English or Vietnamese. We also investigate the regularities for the
established similarities and differences.

(iv) And finally, we give some suggestions for idiom teaching and translation based on
the findings.
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7. Structure of the Study
The present study consists of three major parts, in addition to the appendices and the
references.
Part A, introduction, consists of the rationale, the aims and objectives, the research
questions, the scope, the contributions, the methodology, and the structure of the study.
Part B, development, is divided into three chapters including chapter 1: Literature
Review, chapter 2: Structural Components of English and Vietnamese Idioms, and
chapter 3: Semantic Components of English and Vietnamese Idioms.
The last part is conclusion which includes the recapitulation of the study as well as the
conclusions and some suggestions for implications achieved from the discussion in the
dissertation and for further studies.

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