ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING - INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT pdf

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INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Industries produce large volumes of wastes that may include
a wide variety of chemicals containing most toxic pollutants.
It has been estimated that there are over 300,000 water-using
factories in the United States.
1
As the population grows, the
need for manufactured goods will also increase. As a result,
the volume of industrial wastes is expected to grow faster
than that of municipal wastes. Some of the industrial wastes
can be treated jointly in municipal wastewater treatment
plants, but others must be pretreated at the source.
In recent years, industrial wastewater management has
undergone vast changes. Under legislative mandates and
technological advancement, industries are recognizing the
need and benefits of using water for several different pur-
poses in descending order of required cleanliness before
final treatment and release to the environment. This multi-
ple, cascade, or sequential reuse of water minimizes the need
for new water supplies, and reduces and concentrates wastes.
A benefit of water and residual reuse may be an economical
closed-loop, a zero discharge system that requires minimum
make-up water to function.
Presented here is an overview of industrial pollu-
tion control legislation and standards, Standard Industrial
Classification, industrial waste survey and monitoring, and
wastewater treatment systems for selected industries.
INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION CONTROL
LEGISLATION AND STANDARDS

Water Pollution Control Legislation
Although water pollution legislative history in the United
States had its beginning with the Refuse Act of 1899, the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (PL
92-500) marked the greatest commitment to eliminating pol-
lutants in the nation’s lakes, rivers, and streams.
2
The following
is a summary of the last 40 years of water pollution control
legislation enacted by the Congress of the Unites States.
• Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948
• Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1956
• Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
of 1961
• Water Quality Act of 1965
• Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966
• Water Quality Improvement Act of 1970
• Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
of 1972
• Clean Water Act of 1977
• Clean Water Act Amendments of 1980
• Clean Water Act Amendments of 1981
• Water Quality Act of 1987
The 1972 and 1977 laws are collectively known as the Clean
Water Acts.
3,4
They clearly express a serious national inter-
est in water quality and reflect a strong public commitment
to end water pollution. This legislation establishes deadlines
for terminating pollution, enforcement provisions by federal,

state, and local governments, and a greater federal degree of
control over the quality of the nation’s waters. The discharge
of pollutants into the nation’s waters is prohibited unless a
permit is obtained under the National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System ( NPDES ). There are about 50,000 indus-
trial and 16,000 municipal NPDES permits at the present
time.
5
These permits are issued by the states and must be
renewed every 5 years. The NPDES permit records effluent
limits and spells out requirements for monitoring and record-
ing. Restrictions on amounts of specific pollutants that a given
facility may discharge into surface waters are, in general,
based on national effluent guidelines. Industry has responded
positively to the mandates of the law in meeting the discharge
limits based on the best available treatment technologies as
defined by EPA. Under the NPDES permitting program efflu-
ent limitations are established for toxic pollutants for various
industrial categories. In a similar manner, industrial pretreat-
ment standards are being developed for all pollutants that are
discharged into the publicly owned treatment works (POTW).
Under the pretreatment regulations, two types of federal pre-
treatment standards are established: (1) prohibited discharges
and (2) categorical standards.
Prohibited discharges to sewers or POTWs are those that
cause a fire or explosion hazard, corrosion, obstruction, and
slug discharges and heat discharges. Categorical standards
are developed for those pollutants that are incompatible, that
is, those that interfere with the operation of or pass through
POTWs, or contaminate the sludge and other residues from

POTWs.
Substances considered for categorical standards are those
for which there is substantial evidence of carcinogenicity,
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INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 527
mutagenicity, and/or teratogenicity; substances structurally
similar to aforementioned compounds; and substances known
to have toxic effects on human beings or aquatic organisms
at sufficiently high concentrations and which are present in
the industrial effluents. There are many specific elements or
compounds that have been identified as priority pollutants.
These include metals, organics, cyanides, and asbestos.
To provide incentives, the Clean Water Act offered
federal cost sharing to cover 75 percent of treatment plant
construction. In the 1987 amendments, Congress set up a
mechanism for states to develop revolving loan funds to pay
for future pollution control facilities.
6
Toxic Substance Control Act
The Toxic Substance Control Act of 1976 (TSCA), was
enacted to regulate the introduction and use of new hazard-
ous chemicals.
7
Under TSCA regulations, industry must
furnish data on the anticipated production, usage, and health
effects of all new chemical substances and mixtures before
they are manufactured for commercial distribution. TSCA
also regulates the manufacture, processing, use, and final
disposal of all chemical substances.
The Resources Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976

(RCRA) restricts the disposal of hazardous waste into the
atmosphere, bodies of water, or on land.
8
Thus RCRA was
enacted to protect the quality of groundwater, surface water,
the land, and the air from contamination by solid wastes.
The Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984
(HSWA) emphasized the protection of groundwater through
the use of leachate collection (double liners), and monitor-
ing of underground tanks; upgraded criteria for disposing
of municipal solid wastes in landfills; and established new
requirements for the management and treatment of small
quantities of hazardous wastes.
9
The Comprehensive Environmental Response Compen-
sation and Liabilities Act of 1980 (CERLA), the so-called
Superfund legislation, was designed primarily to address the
problem or the financial cleaning of abandoned or illegal
hazardous waste sites.
10
The Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA) provided funds and a
timetable and guidance for cleanup standards.
11
The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 restates the waste
reduction mandate in the 1984 HSWA amendments to RCRA.
A pollution prevention office within the EPA was also created
by this law along with the expansion of the reporting require-
ments of the SARA, emergency planning, and community
right-to-know provisions. Organizations subject to these pro-

vision are required to report the steps taken to achieve waste
reduction.
12
STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION
The U.S. Government Standard Industrial Classification
(SIC) lists 20 broad industry types bearing two-digit identi-
fication numbers. More specific classification of industry is
achieved through three and four digit systems. As an example,
Standard Industrial Classification 20 is for Food and Kindred
Products; 202 for Dairy Products; and 2021, 2022 and 2023
for Creamery Butter, Cheese, and Condensed and Evaporated
Milk.
13
MAJOR CONTAMINANTS—INDUSTRIAL SOURCES
AND EFFECTS
The initial step in the rational development of industrial pol-
lution control is to identify and characterize the major indus-
trial contaminants. Generally pollutants can be classified in
three basic categories. These categories and parameters are
listed below:
(A) Physical Properties
Temperature
Insoluble components
Floating, settleable and suspended matters
Color
Odor
Foamability
Corrosiveness
Radioactivity
(B) Chemical Composition

Organic matter
Inorganic matter
Total dissolved solids
Acid-Base
pH
Acidity
Alkalinity
Nutrients
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Extractables
Oil
Grease
Reaction
Oxidizing
Reducing
Chlorine demand
(C) Biological Effects
Decomposition
Biodegradable
Nonbiodegradable
Toxic
Organic—phenols, pesticides, polychlorinated biphe-
nyls (PCB), benzidine, etc.
Inorganic—heavy metals and cyanide
Pathogens
Industrial sources as well as major water quality effects
of some of these materials are summarized in Table 1.
14
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

528 INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
INDUSTRIAL WASTE SURVEY
Industrial waste surveys are conducted to develop knowledge
of the waste streams from a specific industry. A survey pro-
vides information on sewer lines, waste routing, and material
balance. Since an industrial waste survey provides an under-
standing of the waste flow through the plant, and the potential
for water and residual reuse, a majority of the industries find
that the survey expenditures yield an excellent return.
15,16
Sewer Map
Of prime importance for any industry in operation at a site is
the development of an up-to-date sewer map showing water,
wastewater, and sanitary and storm drains. Locating sewer
lines and establishing the manufacturing sources responsi-
ble for different waste streams becomes a time-consuming
and complex problem in older facilities. Piping diagrams
are seldom updated as changes are made over the years.
The sewer map should include details such as pipe size;
location and type of water supply and drain connections to
each processing unit; direction of flow; location of roof and
floor drains; manholes; catch basins and control points. To
develop a realistic sewer map tracer, studies may be needed.
Commonly used tracers are dyes, floats (wood chips, cork
floats, and stoppered bottles), and smoke.
Flow Sheet
A flow sheet is prepared for each operation in the entire plant.
It should show all raw materials, additives and products,
by-products, and liquid and solid wastes. All primary dis-
charges from each process, and the type, period, and duration

of each operation should also be indicated on the flow sheet.
Mass Balance
After developing the flow sheet the next step is to obtain the
amounts of raw materials, additives, products, and wastes for
each operation. From the material balance, the extent of solid
and liquid waste characteristics may be determined. This mass
balance acts as a check on the waste quantities determined in
the preliminary sampling and analysis. It also provides pre-
liminary estimates of flows and parameters to be measured.
Location of Sampling Stations
Sufficient sampling stations should be established to deter-
mine the waste load at all of the major processes which con-
tribute wastes. A desirable feature of the sampling station
is that the flow be known. If flow is not known, it may be
established by use of a flow measurement device. The sam-
pling stations should be easily accessible with adequate safe-
guards, and wastewater should be well mixed.
Coordination with Production Staff
It is necessary that the efforts of the production staff be fully
coordinated during the industrial waste survey. The input and
information supplied by the production staff is valuable in
identifying the frequency of batch dumps, spills, overflows,
and continuous discharges.
SAMPLING AND MONITORING
The basis for industrial pollution abatement programs rests
upon information obtained by sampling and monitoring
of various waste streams. Serious problems or inaccurate
TABLE 1
Major contaminants—industrial source and effect
Type of contaminant Industrial source (some examples) Some major effects

Inorganic salts Oil refinery, desalination plants, munitions
manufacturing and pickle curing
Interferes with industrial usage municipal (drinking
water), and agriculture (irrigation water)
Acids and/or alkalies Chemical manufacturing, tanneries Corrosion of pipelines and equipment, kills fish
Organic matter Tanneries, canneries, textile mills etc. Food for bacteria and thus depletes oxygen
Suspended matter Paper mills, canneries, etc. Suffocates fish eggs, degrades stream appearance
Floating solids and liquids Slaughterhouse, oil refinery Unsightly, odorous, interferes with oxygen transfer
Heated water Cooling waters from most industries and power plants Accelerates bacterial action, lowers total oxygen
saturation level
Color Textile, tanneries, metal finishing, and chemical plants Objectionable appearance
Toxic chemicals Munitions manufacturing, metal plating, steel mills,
petrochemicals, etc.
Alters stream biota and animal diversity
Microorganism Pharmaceutical, combined municipal—industrial plants Unsafe for drinking and swimming
Radioactivity Nuclear power plants, chemical laboratories Concentrates in fish, harmful for drinking
Foam-producing matter Glue manufacturing, slaughterhouse, detergent
manufacturing
Aesthetically objectionable
Source: Adapted from Ref (14).
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INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 529
information may result if sampling procedures and test
parameters are selected in a careless or naive manner.
Flow Measurement
An essential part of the wastewater sampling and monitor-
ing program is the collection of flow data. A knowledge of
flow rate, flow variability, and total flow is essential. A vari-
ety of flow measuring devices are available. the selection of
the proper measuring method or device will depend on fac-

tors such as cost, accessibility, type of flow, and character of
waste. A list of many different types of methods and devices
commonly used for wastewater flow measurement are given
in Table 2.
2
Sampling
It is essential that waste stream samples be truly representa-
tive of the waste discharge. Waste conditions may vary both in
magnitude and composition over a 24-hour period. Therefore,
care should be taken in selecting the method of sampling, fre-
quency and duration, sample handling, and parameters to be
measured. All these items are briefly discussed below.
Method of Sampling
Two most common methods of sampling are known as grab
samples and composite samples. Either may be obtained
manually or automatically. Grab samples are single batch
samples taken at a given time. Composite or integrated
samples are taken at constant time intervals usually over
a 24-hour period, then mixed in proportion to flow at the
time of sampling to obtain one representative sample of the
total flow for the day.
Grab samples provide valuable information at low cost.
They are recommended where: (1) condition or quality
remains relatively uniform over long periods; (2) the effect
of slug loads are desired; (3) concentration of certain constit-
uents are needed for adjustment of chemical feed; (4) flow is
intermittent; and (5) the sample requires immediate analysis
due to instability of the constituents.
Composite sampling is done to obtain the average qual-
ity data for the day. Continuous samplers that take a sample

volume in proportion to the flow are desirable. Another type of
composite sampler removes samples on the hour and deposits
it into different bottles. A volume of sample from each bottle is
mixed manually in proportion to flow to obtain the composite
TABLE 2
Types of flow measurement devices commonly used for measuring wastewater discharges
Flow Measurement Devices Principle of Flow Measurement
1. For pressure pipes
a. Venturi meter Differential pressure is measured
b. Flow nozzle meter Differential pressure is measured
c. Orifice meter Differential pressure is measured
d. Electromagnetic meter Magnetic field is induced and voltage is measured
e. Turbine meter Uses a velocity driven rotational element (turbine,
vane, wheel)
f. Acoustic meter Sound waves are used to measure the velocity
2. For open channels
a. Flumes (Parshall, Palmer-Bowlus) Critical depth is measured at the flume
b. Weirs Head is measured over a barrier (weir)
c. Depth measurement Float is used to obtain the depth of flow in the
sewer, and velocity is calculated from slope
d. Acoustic meter Uses sound waves to measure velocity and depth
3. Computing flow from freely discharging pipes
1. Pipes flowing full
a. Nozzles and orifices Water jet data is recorded
b. Vertical open-end flow Vertical height of water jet is recorded
2. Pipe partly flowing full
a. Horizontal open-end pipe Dimensions of free falling water jet are obtained
b. Open flow nozzle (Kennison nozzle or
California pipe method)
Depth of flow at free falling end is determined

4. Miscellaneous methods
a. Dilution method A Constant flow of a dye tracer is used
b. Bucket and stopwatch A calibrated bucket is used and time to fill is
recorded
c. Pumping rate Constant pumping rate and pumping duration are
recorded
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
530 INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
average sample for the day. Individual hourly samples are the
grab samples representing the condition at that instant.
Frequency and Duration of Sampling
The frequency of sampling depends on the flow rate, waste-
water characteristics, and variability in quality and volume.
The expected range in flow rate and waste concentration
should be determined by a preliminary survey. Although
most of the time the frequency is one sample per hour, the
frequency for highly variable waste streams could be as high
as one sample every three minutes.
An intensive plant survey will generally last between
five to ten days of normal plant operation. Since the treat-
ment facilities must be designed to treat the highest pollution
load expected, it is important to consider seasonal variations
(if applicable).
Sample Handling
In order to obtain a representative sample it is necessary for
the sampling point to have sufficient hydraulic turbulence.
Sufficient volume of the sample must be obtained to perform
all analyses planned. The minimum volume of grab sample
should be between one to two liters. Sample containers and
sampling device should be clean and uncontaminated. Before

the sample is taken, the container should be rinsed several
times with the wastewater. Each sample should be labeled
with an identification card containing the following infor-
mation: date and time, sample location, method of sampling
(grab or composite), and notation of information obtained
from field analyses of parameters that may change before
laboratory analyses are made (temperature, pH, appearance).
The sample should be analyzed as quickly as possible.
Storage should be in a manner that insures that the charac-
teristics to be analyzed are not altered. Refrigeration in most
instances is necessary. In some cases a special chemical may
have to be added to prevent changes in chemical or biological
characteristics.
Parameters Measured
A major item in any industrial monitoring program is the cost
of analytical measurement. It is important that the parameters
be properly selected to represent inplant waste streams; and
waste characterization, treatment and reuse requirements. In
some cases the necessary analyses will be time-consuming
and relatively expensive. In many cases, an alternative ana-
lytical technique may be used that are less expensive. Major
constituents of interest in industrial pollution monitoring are
listed in Table 1.
Analytical Considerations
Good analytical procedures are of the utmost importance in
a monitoring program. The basic references for wastewater
analytical procedures and techniques are EPA publications,
Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater,
and ASTM Standards.
17 – 20

The analysis may fall into several
major categories including routine wet chemistry, selective
ion electrodes, automated wet chemistry, and bioassary tests.
Data Analysis
Data obtained through a well-planned and executed moni-
toring program will provide valuable information for waste
process selection, plant design and operation, and assist the
industry in evaluating the manufacturing process. The mon-
itoring program may result from changes in chemical use
and/or industrial process, inplant spills or dumping of baths.
Variability of the parameters may be random or cyclic. The
data should be analyzed to establish the fluctuations with
time, location, work shifts, and type of operation.
Statistical techniques should be used to develop rela-
tionships such as average or mean, standard deviation and
extreme conditions, and regression coefficients. With a
knowledge of basic probability theory and the use of statis-
tical techniques, such as least squares, curve fitting, analysis
of variance, regression and correlation analysis, chi-squared
goodness of fit, and others, it is possible to construct math-
ematical models and curves for almost any level of preci-
sion desired. Such techniques help to evaluate information
having wide variations, so that an estimate of the best value
of the parameter being measured can be developed. For
more information the reader should consult several excellent
references on statistical methods.
21 – 24
TREATMENT PROCESSES
Industrial wastewater treatment utilizes a number of unit
operations and processes to achieve the desired degree of

treatment. The collective treatment schematic is called a flow
scheme, flow diagram, flow sheet, process train, or flow sche-
matic. Basic considerations for developing a flow scheme
include: (1) the manufacturing process and its flow scheme;
(2) characteristics of wastewater streams and degree of treat-
ment; (3) requirements of the regulatory agency; (4) construc-
tion cost; (5) level of expertise of treatment plant operation
personnel; and (6) operation and maintenance costs.
2
The wastewater treatment facilities are designed to process
liquids and solids or sludges. It is essential that in-plant waste
management and control techniques be utilized if cost-effec-
tive methods of liquid and solids treatment are to be attained.
Some application of in-plant controls include waste reduc-
tion, waste segregation, water conservation and recycle, and
process modifications. Generally, controlling wastes within
the plant is much more cost-effective than implementation
of treatment. Certain innovative processes that reduce waste
production have resulted in improved process yield or by-
product recovery and utilization.
Waste Reduction
A basic materials balance procedure should be developed that
accounts for all materials that enter and leave an individual
department or processing area. Some specific waste reduction
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INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 531
measures include: (1) materials balance accounting; (2)
improved process control; (3) more effective cleanup proce-
dures; (4) regular preventive maintenance; and (5) by-product
recovery. Poor maintenance and cleanup procedures in many

industrial plants are a major source of wasteload generation.
Product spills should be avoided, and when they occur,
the waste should be handled in a manner that will minimize
the contribution of wasteload to the plant. Proper housekeep-
ing procedures should be developed and implemented.
Waste Segregation
It is important to segregate all wastes in accordance with
the physical and chemical properties of the contaminants,
potential to react, and their treatability. Important properties
are suspended solids, acidity, basicity, organic matter and
biodegradability, volatility, and toxic organics and inorgan-
ics. Efforts should be made to minimize dilution of waste
streams prior to treatment and/or recovery of residuals.
Diluted streams should be handled separately.
Water Conservation and Recycle
Water conservation and recycle consist of minimizing the
raw water supply and maximizing the amount or wastewater
reuse within the plant. The net effect of water conservation
and recycle is the reduction of wastewater volume and to
concentration of wasteloads.
Each process should be investigated to minimize water
supply requirements and the potential for substituting recy-
cled or reclaimed wastewater for fresh water. Water qual-
ity requirements for most industrial processes will govern
the feasibility or extent of water reuse. However, in every
industry using water for washing, rinsing, or cooling, some
form of countercurrent flow or recycling can probably be
implemented for maximum reuse. Some specific recom-
mendations for water conservation and recycle include:
(1) dry (nonwater) cleaning method, (2) water meters at

each department to make operators conscious of usage,
(3) automatic valves that close when water is no longer
required, (4) regular preventive maintenance programs that
include leak surveys, and (5) cleanup with high-pressure,
low-volume rinse sprays.
16
Process Modification
In-plant process modifications, though more costly to imple-
ment than simple operational changes, may be very effective
in controlling wasteload generation. Process modifications
may consist of individual unit process changes, or changes to
a complete process line. The cost-effectiveness of such modi-
fications will depend on the relative reduction in wasteloads.
In older industrial plants, required process modifications may
be accomplished during the installation of newer and more
efficient equipment. In the design of new plants, each pro-
cess should be evaluated with respect to use of more efficient
equipment for maximum water conservation and minimum
wasteload generation.
Liquid Treatment Systems
The removal of various contaminants from the liquid depends
on the nature of the impurities and their concentrations.
Coarse and settleable inorganic and organic solids are gener-
ally removed in sedimentation facilities. Oil and grease is
removed by skimmers. The removal of dissolved organics is
readily achieved in biological or chemical or physicochemi-
cal treatment processes. For example, chemical oxidation-
reduction reactions and precipitation are used for removal
of heavy metals. Carbon adsorption can be used to remove
refractory organics. Ion exchange and membrane processes

are suitable for demineralization and byproduct recovery.
Major physical, chemical, and biological treatment pro-
cesses used for liquid treatment are summarized in Table 3.
For extensive presentations on these processes the readers
should refer to several excellent publications that provide
detailed discussions on the theory and design of wastewater
treatment processes.
2, 25 – 31
Sludge and Brine Processing and Disposal
Safe handling and disposal of residues and brines pro-
duced in various treatment units are of equal importance.
Solids portions include screenings, grit, scum, organic and
inorganic sludges. Brines (high mineral concentrates) are
produced from ion exchange, reverse osmosis, and electro-
dialysis units. In general, the sludge processing and disposal
methods include thickening, stabilization, and dewatering or
evaporation of liquid. Several of the unit operations and pro-
cesses used for sludge and brine handling and disposal are
illustrated in Figure 1.
MAJOR INDUSTRIAL WASTES AND TREATMENT
It should be recognized that to truly understand the waste
problem of any industry, a lifetime serious effort on the part
of a qualified waste engineer may be required. Production
methods of each industry are normally different. As a result,
the treatment process train needed for the waste streams
should be individually designed. The purpose of this section
is to review the origin and characteristics of wastewater and
methods of wastewater treatment for six major industries. In
the following discussion, the reader will find a brief sum-
mary of the major liquid wastes, their origin, characteristics

and current methods of treatment for food, paper and allied
products, chemical, petroleum, metals, and power generation
industries. For a detailed study on these topics the readers
should refer to several references on the subject included in
the list of references.
32 – 35
Food Industry
There are approximately 50,000 food processing plants in
the total food processing industry in the United States.
Food processing is a low-profit margin, highly com-
petitive industry. Water is required for washing, blanching,
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
532 INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
TABLE 3
Major physical, chemical, and biological treatment unit operations and processes used for liquid treatment
Unit Operations and Processes Principal Applications
Screening Racks or bar screens are the first step in wastewater treatment. They are used to remove large objects.
Flow equilization Used to dampen the flow rate and mass loading.
Skimming Used for oil separation where free oil is floated to the surface of a tank and then skimmed off. The oil separator
specified by American Petroleum Institute is commonly used.
Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) Process used to remove suspended solids, and oil and grease from the waste stream. Uses dissolved air to
produce line bubble that float the solids.
Foam separation Process used to remove minute concentrations or refractory organics and heavy metal ions. Contaminants are
carried up by rising bubbles to the pool surface where they are deposited as the bubbles exit.
Sedimentation Use to remove settleable solids.
Neutralization Process used to neutralize acidic or alkaline waste streams prior to chemical and/or biological treatment.
Precipitation Dissolved solids in solution are chemically transformed into insoluble form. Process is extensively used to
precipitate phosphorous and heavy metals. Heavy metals are generally precipitated as hydroxide through the
addition of time or caustic to a pH of minimum solubility.
Chemical Oxidation Used to oxidize pollutants to terminal end products. Common oxidants are Cl

2
, O
3
, H
2
O
2
, and KMnO
4
. Oxidation
of iron and manganese is used for precipitation. Cyanides, sulfides and many organics arc destroyed by
oxidation.
Chemical Reduction Used to precipitate certain ions from solutions, e.g., hexavalent chromium. Also many oxidizing agents are
destroyed by reduction. Common reducing agents are ferrous sulfate, sodium metabisulfite, and sulfur
dioxide.
Coagulation Used to agglomerate suspended materials so that efficient settling can take place. Commonly used chemicals are
alum, iron salts, and polymers. The process consists of chemical feed, flash mix and flocculation basins.
Suspended growth biological reactor Biological process using suspended biomass to remove dissolved organics. Principal variation is an activated
sludge process.
Attached growth biological reactor Biological process using attached biomass to remove dissolved organics. Principal variations are a trickling
filter and a rotating biological contactor (RBC).
Anaerobic Processes Attached or suspended microbial process operated in the absence of oxygen. Normally used to treat high strength
organic wastes. Methane is produced as an energy source. Sludge (biomass) production is small.
Oxidation Pond Large basins (normally earthern) used for waste storage and treatment. Treatment is achieved by natural
processes of settling and biological decomposition.
Aerated Lagoon Basins (normally earthern and frequently with plastic liners) with aeration equipment where waste are aerated
over long periods of time. The waste characteristics are altered by biological oxidation.
Land Treatment Organic waste is applied over land for treatment. Common application methods are slowrate irrigation, rapid
infiltration, and overland flow.
Nitrification Process is used to convert ammonia nitrogen to nitrate nitrogen. It can be achieved in suspended or attached

growth biological reactors.
Denitrification Nitrite nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen are reduced to nitrogen gas by microorganisms. Denitrification is achieved
under anaerobic condition in suspended or attached growth reactors. An organic source such as methanol is
needed.
Disinfection Process used to reduce the number of water borne pathogens in water. Normally applied to effluents of
wastewater treatment plants containing microbes. Chlorination and ozonation are the most common
methods.
Ammonia stripping Ammonia gas is air stripped from the wastewater, normally by using stripping tower. High pH values are required.
Breakpoint Chlorination Ammonia nitrogen is oxidized to nitrogen gas by breakpoint chlorination in a mixing basin.
Filtration Used to polish the effluent by removing total suspended solids and turbidity. Biological activity in the filter bed
may reduce some of the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
Carbon adsorption Used to remove soluble refractory organics from wastewater effluent.
Ion Exchange A demineralization process in which the cations and anions in wastewater are selectively exchanged for the ions
in an insoluble resin bed. When the resin capacity is used up it is regenerated by using high concentrations of
the original ions that are exchanged for the polluted ions attached to the resin. Flow from regeneration is
composed of highly concentrated brine.
Reverse osmosis or ultrafiltration A demineralization process applicable to production of high-quality water from effluent. The water permeates
through semipermeable membrane at high pressure, producing high-quality water in one stream and a high
concentration of mineral ions in another.
Electrodialysis A demineralization process where electrical potential is used to transfer the ions through ion-selective
membranes. Produces two streams; one high in mineral content and the other free of minerals.
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INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 533
pasteurization, cleaning process, equipment, and cooling of
final product. The waste is generally characterized by high
BOD and suspended solids. The estimated total wastes from
food industry for the United States in 1968 was:
320 million cubic meters of wastewater discharged
360 million kg of BOD generated
180 million kg of suspended solids generated

8 billion kg of solids residuals
Table 4 is a brief summary of major liquid wastes, their origin,
characteristics and applicable methods of treatment for sev-
eral major industries in the food industrial category.
Paper and Allied Products Industry
Pulp is produced by mechanically or chemically processing
wood or other vegetative materials to extract usable cellu-
losic fibers as an aqueous slurry. The pulp slurry may be used
directly in paper making or it may be shipped elsewhere for
processing into paper products. The pulp and paper industry
is the ninth largest industry in the United States. The major
group of the industries in the pulp and paper industry are
pulp mills, paper mills, paperboard mills, miscellaneous
converted paper products, paperboard containers and boxes,
and building paper and board mills.
The fundamental industrial operations are divided into
two major categories: pulp mill and paper mill. The pulp mill
operation includes wood preparation, pulping, deinking, pulp
washing, screening and thickening, and bleaching. Paper mill
operations include stock preparation, paper machine opera-
tion, and finishing. Table 5 provides a summary of these
operations, origin of major wastes, major characteristics, and
treatment methods.
Chemical Industry
The chemical industry is highly diversified and supplies
products for virtually every other industry. The number of
synthetic compounds manufactured is estimated to range
between 500,000 and 600,000, and a host of new products is
introduced every year. The chemical products may be used
as primary, intermediate, or finished products.

The chemical processing industry has a variety of spe-
cial pollution problems due to the vast number of products
manufactured. The treatment processes combine process-
ing, concentration, separation, extraction, by-product recov-
ery, destruction, and reduction in concentration. The wastes
mayoriginate from solvent extraction, acid and caustic
wastes, overflows, spills, mechanical losses, etc. Origin of
major wastes, characteristics, and treatment and disposal of
wastes in several major chemical industries are summarized
in Table 6.
Petroleum Industry
The petroleum industry is one of the most important manu-
facturing industries in the country. It is a complex industry
utilizing complex combination of interdependent operations
engaged in the storage and transportation, separation of
crude molecular constituents molecular cracking, molecu-
lar rebuilding, and solvent finishing to produce petrochemi-
cal products. Each process is responsible for production of
many waste streams containing oil, chemical oxygen demand
(COD), phenol, sulfide, chloride, and others. Treatment may
involve oil separation, precipitation, adsorption, and biologi-
cal treatment. The refining operations may be divided into
many major categories. Wastewater characteristics, origin
of major wastes, characteristics, and treatment and disposal
methods from several major processes are summarized in
Table 7.
Metals Industry
Primary metal processing and fabricated metal products man-
ufacturing comprise the metals industries. The most important
end uses of the products of the metals industries are automo-

biles, machinery, appliances, electrical equipment, structures,
THICKENING STABILIZATION CONDITIONING DEWATERING DISPOSAL
Concentrates solids Reduces pathogens, and
eliminate offensive odors
Enhances water removal Removes moisture and
produces sludge cake
Used for ultimate
disposal of residues
1. Gravity 1. Chlorine oxidation 1. Chemical 1. Vacuum filter 1. Evaporation of brine
2. Flotation 2. Line stabilization 2. Elutriation 2. Filter press 2. Incineration
3. Centrifugation 3. Heat treatment 3. Heat treatment 3. Horizontal belt filter 3. Wet Oxidation
4. Aerobic digestion 4. Centrifugation 4. Pyrolysis
5. Anaerobic digestion 5. Drying beds 5. Composting
6. Land filling
7. Deep well injection
FIGURE 1 Alternative unit operations and processes for sludge and brine processing and disposal.
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
534 INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
TABLE 5
Summary of industrial wastes from several major operations in pulp and paper industry
Major Industrial Operations Origin of Major Wastes Major Characteristics Major Treatment and Disposal
Methods
Pulp mill
Wood preparation Log transportation and storage,
debarking and chipping
Solid wastes, hydraulic debanking
uses water
Incineration, water is recycled
through lagoons
Pulping Mechanical pulping, kraft pulping,

sulfide pulping
Suspended solid, BOD, liquors
containing high BOD, sulfide,
mercaptans, high pH
Sedimentation, recovery if sodium
hydroxide and sodium sulfide,
aeration
Deinking Removal of ink Contains dirt and clay fillers,
chemicals and usually alkaline
Sedimentation and coagulation
Pulp washing, screening,
and thickening
Washing action, centrifugal cleaning,
gravity and vacuum thickening
Liquor contains pulp fibres Pulp fibres are recorded and
recycled
Bleaching Bleaching of pulp fibers by chlorine
solution
Contains chlorine, low pH, high
TDS
Dechlorination, neutralization
Paper mill
Stock preparation Addition of filter, colors, chemicals,
and screening
Color, clay fillers, chemicals, high
TDS
Coagulation and reuse
Paper machine Removal of free water Contains fibres and fillers. Known
as white water. TSS, TDS and
BOD

Fibers reclaimed, liquid wastes
treated by coagulation, activated
sludge
Finishing and converting Surface improving, size cutting.
Mostly dry process
Little or no liquid waste, mainly
solid waste
Recycled in pulping operation,
incineration
TABLE 4
Summary of industrial
wastes from major food industry
Industries Producing Waste Origin of Major Wastes Major Characteristics Major Treatment and Disposal Methods
Canned goods Trimming, culling, juicing and
blancing of fruits and
vegetables
High in suspended solids,
colloidal and dissolved
organic matter
Screening, lagooning, soil absorption by
spray irrigation
Dairy products Dilutions of whole milk,
buttermilk, and whey
High in dissolved organic matter,
mainly protein, fat, and lactose
Biological treatment aeration, RBC,
trickling filtration, activate sludge,
whey recovery
Brewed and distilled beverages Steeping and pressing of grain;
residue from distillation of

alcohol; condensate from
stillage evaporation
High in dissolved organic solids,
containing nitrogen and
fermented starches or their
products
Recovery, concentration by centrifugation
and evaporation, RBC; trickling
filtration; use in feeds; anaerobic
biological treatment followed by
aerobic biological treatment
Meat and poultry products Stockyards; slaughtering of
animals; rendering of bones
and fats; residues in
condensates; grease and
wash water; picking chickens
Organic matter, blood, other
proteins, and fats and oils
Screening, settling and/or floatation,
trickling filtration, RBC, activated
sludge, recovery for animal food
products
Animal feedlots Excreta from animals High in organic suspended solids
and BOD
Land disposal and anaerobic lagoons
Beet sugar Transfer, screening, and juicing
waters; drainings from lime
sludge; condensates after
evaporator; juice and
extracted sugar

High in dissolved and suspended
organic matter, containing
sugar and protein
Reuse of wastes, coagulation, lagooning,
activated sludge, trickling filter,
anaerobic process
Cane sugar Spillage from extraction,
clarification, evaporation
cooling, and condenser
waters
Variable pH, soluble organic
matter with relatively high
BOD of carbonaceous nature
Neutralization, recirculation, chemical
treatment, some selected aerobic
oxidation
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 535
furniture, and containers. There are approximately 35,000
establishments in the United States. The industry uses approx-
imately 32 billion cubic meters of water per year. Four per-
cent of the plants use 92 percent of the water. These industries
generate wastewaters which vary in quantity and quality.
Table 8 provides the reader with a brief summary of the major
liquid wastes, their origin, characteristics, and methods of
treatment in four major metals industries.
TABLE 6
Summary of industrial wastes from several major chemical industries
Industries Producting Wastes Origin of Major Wastes Major Characteristics Major Treatment and Disposal Methods
Acids and Alkalies Dilute wash waters; many varied

dilute acids and bases
Low or high pH, low organic content Unflow or straight neutralization,
coagulation and sedimentation
Detergents Washing and purifying soaps and
detergents
High in BOD and saponified soaps Flotation and skimming, precipitation
with CaCl
2
Explosives Washing TNT and guncotton for
purification, washing and
pickling of cartridges
TNT, colored, acid, odorous, and
contains organic acids and
alcohol from powder and cotton,
metals, acid, oils, and soaps
Flotation, chemical Precipitation,
biological treatment, aeration,
chlorination of TNT, neutralization,
adsorption
Pesticides Washing and purification of
products
High organic matter, benzene ring
structure, toxic to bacteria and
fish, acid
Dilution, storage, activated-carbon
adsorption, alkaline chlorination
Phospate and phosporus Washing, screening, floating
rock, condenser bleed-off
from phospate reduction plant
Clays, slimes and oils, low pH, high

suspended solids, phosphorus,
silica and fluoride
Lagooning, mechanical clarification,
coagulation and settling of refined
waste
Formaldehyde Residues from manufacturing
synthetic resins and from
dyeing synthetic fibers
Normally high BOD and
formaldehyde, toxic to bacteria in
high concentrations
Trickling filtration, absorption on
activated charcoal
Plastics and resins Unit operations from polymer
preparation and use; spills and
equipment washdowns
Acids, caustic, dissolved organic
matter such as phenols,
formaldehyde, etc.
Discharge to municipal sewer, reuse,
controlled-discharge
Fertilizer Chemical reactions of basic
elements. Spills, cooling
waters, washing of products,
boiler blowdown
Sulfuric, phosphoric, and nitric
acids; minerals elements, P, S, N,
K, Al, NH
3
, NO

3
Neutralization, detain for reuse,
sedimentation, air stripping of NH
3
,
lime precipitation
Toxic chemicals Leaks, accidental spills, and
refining of chemicals
Various toxic dissolved elements
and compounds such as Hg and
PCBs
Retention and reuse, change in
production, neutralization and
precipitation, carbon adsorption
TABLE 7
Summary of wastes generated from various oil refinery operations
Major Industrial Operations Origin of Major Wastes Major Characteristics Major Treatment and Disposal Methods
Crude oil and product storage Primary fractionation of oil and
water, spills and leakages
High concentrations of emulsified
oil, COD, TSS
API separation, DAF, settling, aeration
Crude desalting Chemical desalting, heating and
gravity separation of oil
Emulsified and free oil, ammonia,
phenol, sulfide, TSS, high BOD
and COD
API separation, DAF, activated sludge,
carbon adsorption
Cracking Thermal cracking or catalytic

cracking, fractionation, steam
stripping, and overhead
accumulators or fractionators
BODs, COD, ammonia, phenol,
sulfides, cyanides, and alkalinity
Chemical oxidation, biological treatment
carbon adsorption
Polymerization Catalytic reaction, acid, removal
action, and gas stabilizer
Alkaline waste stream, high in
sulfide, mecaptans, and ammonia
Acid catalysts recycled, carbon
adsorption
Alkylation Catalytic reaction caustic and
water wastes, neutralization of
hydrocarbon streams
Oil, sulfides, TSS, fluoride Neutralization, chemical oxidation,
sedimentation
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
536 INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
Power Generation Industry
The power generation industry uses large volumes of
water for cooling purposes. It is estimated that total cool-
ing water demand for power generation is in excess of
400 billion cubic meters per year. This is approximately
one-fifth of the total runoff in the United States.
33
Direct
discharge of cooling water in streams, lakes, and estuaries
has an impact on water quality and the ecosystem in three

ways: it pollutes the water thermally, it subjects aquatic
organisms to a variety of physical stresses as it is pumped
through the plant, and it pollutes the water chemically.
Types of Cooling Systems
Basically, there are three ways of dissipating heat: once
through cooling systems, cooling ponds, and cooling towers.
The average condenser water requirement and consumptive
use for different cooling systems are summarized below:
36
Condenser requirement 120 liters per KWH
Consumptive use:
once through 0.7 liter per KWH
cooling ponds 1.0 liter per KWH
cooling tower 1.4 liter per KWH
A general discussion on three types of heat dissipating
systems is given below:
37
Once Through Cooling The most common and least
expensive method for removing heat from power plant
condensers is a once-through-cooling system. The system
requires large intake structures and has the largest environ-
mental impact. Aquatic organisms are forced through the
condenser tubes resulting in high mortality. The 2 to 5°C
warmer discharge upsets stratification, lowers dissolved
oxygen, increases the metabolic rate of aquatic animals, and
increases undesired bacteria.
Cooling Ponds The cooling water is circulated through
cooling ponds in a closed-loop. Cooling occurs by evaporation,
conduction, and long-wave radiation. Land area of the ponds
are generally 0.5–1 hectare/MW.

Cooling Towers Cooling towers are used to eliminate
discharge of heated water into natural bodies of water.
There are two types of cooling towers: natural-draft and
mechanical-draft. Natural-draft cooling towers rely on
natural air circulation to dissipate waste heat to the atmo-
sphere. The mechanical-draft cooling towers use induced
drafts to promote evaporative heat transfer. Both require
heat transfer between water and air. Dry cooling towers use
a temperature driving force between the water inside the
tubes and air flowing past the tubes.
Wastewater Treatment
Chemical discharges from the power-generation industry result
from makeup water treatment; chemicals added to plant cool-
ing water or steam generator; products of corrosion, erosion,
wear, or chemical reaction from plant system; and residuals
from pollution control equipment. The chemicals generally
controlled in effluent discharge permits are: pH, PCBs, TSS,
oil and grease, heavy metals, free and total residual chlorine,
phosphorus, and corrosion inhibitors.
34
Treatment methods
generally used for removal of contaminants include: neutral-
ization, coagulation, and precipitation of corrosion inhibitors,
TSS, heavy metals and phosphorus; flotation or American
Petroleum Institute (API) separator for oil and grease; ion-
exchange or reverse osmosis for TDS control; and evaporation
for concentration and residue recovery and disposal.
REFERENCES
1. Henry Lee, Legislation and Standards: Status, Trends Significance,
Chapter 1, “Industrial Wastewater Management Handbook”, H.S. Azad

(Editor), McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1976.
2. Qasim, S.R., Wastewater Treatment Plant: Planning Design and Opera-
tion, Technomic Publishing Company, Inc. Lancaster, PA, 1994.
3. Federal Water Pollution: Control Act Amendment of 1972 (PL 92-500),
92nd U.S. Congress, October 18, 1972.
4. Clean Water Act (PL 95-217), 95th U.S. Congress December 27, 1977.
5. Wentz, C.A., Hazardous Waste Management, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, 1995.
TABLE 8
Origin, characteristics, and treatment of wastes in four major metal industries
Industries Producting Wastes Origin of Major Wastes Major Characteristics Major Treatment and Disposal Methods
Steel Coking of coal, washing of
blast-furnace flue gases,
and pickling of steel
Low pH, acids, phenol, ore, coke,
limestone, alkali, oils, mill
scale, and fine suspended solids
Neutralization, recovery and reuse,
chemical coagulation
Iron-foundry products Wasting of used sand by
hydraulic discharge
High suspended solids, mainly
sand; some clay and coal
Selective screening, drying of reclaimed
sand
Metal container Cutting and lubricating metals,
cleaning can surface
Metal fines, lubricating oils,
variable pH, surfactants,
dissolved metals

Oil separation, chemical precipitation,
collection and reuse, lagoon storage.
Final carbon adsorption
Metal-plated products Stripping of oxides, cleaning and
plating of metals
Acid, metals, toxic, low volume,
mainly mineral matter
Alkaline chlorination of cyanide;
reduction and precipitation of
chromium; lime precipitation of
other metals
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 537
6. Water Quality Act of 1987 (PL 100-4), 100th Congress, February 4,
1987.
7. Toxic Substance Control Act (PL 99-519), 99th U.S. Congress, October
22, 1986.
8. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (PL 89-272), 89th Con-
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9. The Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 (PL 98-616),
98th U.S. Congress, November 8, 1984.
10. The Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liabil-
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Press, New York, 1981.
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CLINTON E. PARKER
SYED R. QASIM
University of Texas at Arlington
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC