the meaning and structure of an american short story a systemic functional analysis = cấu trúc và ngữ nghĩa của một truyện ngắn mỹ

iv

Table of contents
Declaration
Abstract
Acknowledgments
List of Tables
Abbreviations
PART I: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. ..1
1.1. Rationale ...................................................................................................................... ..1
1.2. Aims and Scope of the Study ........................................................................................ ..1
1.3. Methods of the Study .................................................................................................... ..1
1.4. Data collection .............................................................................................................. ..1
1.5. Design of the study…………………… .......................................................................... 2
PART II: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ............................................................ 3
1.1. Three Metafunctions of Language………………… ........................................................ 3
1.2. Context……………………………………………………… .......................................... 3
1.2.1. What is Context? ................................................................................................... 3
1.2.2. Three aspects of context………………… .......................................................... 3-4
1.3. Clauses and their relations ............................................................................................ ..4
1.3.1. Clause Simplex and Clause Complex .................................................................. ..4
1.3.2. Types of Relations between Clauses……… .......................................................... 4
1.3.2.1. Taxis ............................................................................................................ 4
1.3.2.2. Logico – semantic type ............................................................................. .4-5
1.4. Three kinds of function of clauses ................................................................................. ..5
1.4.1. Clause as representation: Transitivity ................................................................. ..6
1.4.1.1. Process types and Participants ...................................................................... .6
1.4.1.1.1. Material process .................................................................................. ..6
1.4.1.1.2. Mental process..................................................................................... ..6
1.4.1.1.3. Relational process ................................................................................ ..6

1.4.1.1.4. Behavioural process ............................................................................. ..7
1.4.1.1.5. Verbal process ..................................................................................... ..7
1.4.1.1.6. Existential process ............................................................................... ..7
1.4.1.2. Circumstances ............................................................................................. ..7
1.4.2. Clause as exchange: Mood ............................................................................... ..7-8
1.4.3. Clause as message: Theme – Rheme………… ................................................... ...8


v

1.5. Cohesion....................................................................................................................... ..8
1.5.1. Grammatical Cohesion ........................................................................................ ..8
1.5.1.1. Reference…………… ............................................................................... 8-9
1.5.1.2. Substitution .................................................................................................. 9
1.5.1.3. Ellipsis ......................................................................................................... 9
1.5.2. Logical Cohesion ................................................................................................ 10
1.5.2.1. Adversative ................................................................................................ 10
1.5.2.2. Additive ..................................................................................................... 10
1.5.2.3. Causal ........................................................................................................ 10
1.5.2.4. Temporal .................................................................................................... 10
1.5.3. Lexical Cohesion ................................................................................................ 10
1.5.3.1. Reiteration………………………… ...................................................... 10-11
1.5.3.2. Collocation ................................................................................................. 11
1.6. Summary ...................................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2: THE MEANING AND STRUCTURE OF THE TEXT “WITCHES‟S
LOAVES” .......................................................................................................................... 12
2.1. The Chosen Text .......................................................................................................... 12
2.2. Clauses and Clause Complex Analysis ........................................................................ 132
2.3. The Analysis of the Text in Terms of Transitivity, Mood and Theme…… .............. 12- 28
2.3.1. The Transitivity Pattern of the Text……………… ............................................ 28-29

2.3.2. The Mood Pattern of the Text……………… ......................................................... 29
2.3.3. The Thematic Pattern of the Text ........................................................................... 29
2.4. The Cohesion of the Text .............................................................................................. 30
2.4.1. Grammatical Cohesion ...................................................................................... 30-31
2.4.1.1. Reference…………………………… .......................................................... 31
2.4.1.2. Conjunctive Devices………… .................................................................... 41
2.4.2. Lexical Cohesion………………… ........................................................................ 41
2.5. Contextual Configuration of the Text………………… ................................................. 43
2.6. Summary ...................................................................................................................... 43
PART 3: CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 44
1.1. Recapitulation............................................................................................................... 44
1.2. Contributions ................................................................................................................ 44
1.3 Implications of the study ................................................................................................ 44
1.4. Suggestions for future research ..................................................................................... 44
REFERENCES
APPENDICE


vi

List of Appendices
Table 1

Clauses and Clause Complexes Analysis

Table 2

Relations between clauses

Table 3

Transitivity Pattern of the Text

Table 4

Mood Pattern of the Text

Table 5

The Thematic Pattern of the Text

Table 6

The grammatical cohesive devices in the text

Table 7

The analysis of the text in terms of transitivity, mood and theme (cont.)

Abbreviations
ANT Antonym

Pred Predicator

Adjct Adjunct

Rel Relational

Beh Behavioural

REP Repetition

Circ Circumstance

Res Residue

COL Collocation

R:D

Compl Complement

R:P Reference Personal

Exist Existential

SFG Systemic Functional Grammar

Fi Finite

Sub Subject

HYP Hyponym

SUB

Mat Material

SYN Synonym

MER Meronym

Phen Phenomenon

Reference Demonstrative

Substitution


1

PART 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale
According to Halliday (1994), the fundamental difference between systemic
functional grammar and formal models of grammar is that the former is based on a
functional framework. It is functional in three closely related senses: in its interpretation
of text, of system, and of the elements of linguistic structures. Functional grammar sees
language first and foremost as a system of communication and analyzes grammar to
discover how it is organized to allow speakers and writers to make any exchange
meanings. Rather than insisting on a clear distinction between grammatical and
ungrammatical forms, the focus is usually on the appropriateness of a form for a
particular communicative purpose in a particular context. The primary concern is with the
functions of structures and their constituents and with their meanings in context. A
grammarian interested in this kind of description is likely to use data from authentic texts
in specific contexts.
My reason for choosing to analyse a short story by O‟Henry is first and foremost due
to my strong favourite for American short stories, especially, O.Henry‟s ones. Therefore, I
would like to have a deep understanding of my beloved short stories, one of which is the
short story “Witches‟ loaves” by O‟Henry. I myself find that functional grammar with the

systemic functional analysis method is a very useful tool and an effective method to help me
understand the story further in terms of both meaning and structure.
1.2. Aims and Scope of the Study
Within the framework of a minor thesis, the aim of the study is to:


Examine some basic analytical aspects included by systemic functional
linguistics such as experiential, interpersonal and textual ones.

 Investigate how these aspects are employed in the short story “The Witches‟
Loaves” by O‟Henry.
 Offer some suggestions for teaching and learning.
The research question that the present study seeks to answer is: “How is the text
expressed in terms of transitivity, mood and theme-rheme?”
This study does not attempt to cover all aspects of functional grammar but some main
areas of systemic functional theory and primary concepts such as linguistic system,
metafunctions and cohesion. The focus is on some issues relating to the analysis of the text.


2

My original writing of the thesis was based on the format and methods employed in the
previous M.A Theses in the same file supervised by Prof. Dr. Hoang Van Van such as: The
meaning and Structure of a Biology text: a systemic functional analysis by Ho Thi Mai
(2008); The meaning and structure of a fairy tale story: a systemic functional analysis by
Pham Thi Thuy and a research on The meaning and Structure of a Science Fiction Story: a
systemic functional analysis. Journal of Science (Foreign Languages) by Prof. Dr. Hoang
Van Van. However; according to the comments given by the Board of Examiners, my M.A
thesis has been changed in some parts mainly in “Development” and “Appendix”. I quite
hope that such adjustments are reasonable and satisfactory.

1.3. Methods of the Study
The study is undertaken with a view to analyzing the meaning and grammar of a
short story. The descriptive and analytical methods will be applied as the principal ones.
The descriptive method is concerned with the description of concepts related to systemic
functional grammar. The analytical method is resorted to analyze the chosen text. The
procedures and conventions used in the analysis are based on the framework of
Halliday‟s (1994) An Introduction to Functional Grammar.
1.4. Data collection
The text is a short story – a literature text taken from “O‟Henry short stories online”.
1.5. Design of the study
The minor thesis is divided into four chapters as following:
-

Chapter I – Introduction: Introduces the rational, aims, scope, methods of the study,
data collection and the research design.

-

Chapter II – Theoretical Background: provides the theoretical background of the
study. Its focus is on introducing important concepts in systemic functional linguistics
relevant to the topic of the thesis.

-

Chapter III – The analysis of the short story “Witches‟ Loaves”: focuses on the
meaning and structure of the text.

-

Chapter IV – The conclusion: summarizes the results of the study and suggests

some implications for teaching and learning English as well as presents the
suggestions for further research.


3

PART 2
DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER I
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1.1. Three Metafunctions of Language
Halliday (1970, 1985) sees the functions of language from the sociological point of view.
According to him, language has three functions as follows:


Language is used to organize, understand and express our perceptions of the world
and our own consciousness. This function is known as the ideational function. The
ideational function can be classified into subfunctions: the experiential and the
logical. The experiential function is largely concerned with content or ideas. The
logical function is concerned with the relationship between ideas.



Language is used to enable us to participate in communicative acts with other people,
to take on roles and to express and understand feelings, attitude and judgments. This
function is known as the interpersonal function.



Language is used to relate what is said (or written) to the real world and to other

linguistic events. This involves the use of language to organize the text itself. This is
known as the textual function.
1.2. Context
1.2.1. What is Context?

From Hymes‟ point of view, (1962), context is a limiter of the range of possible
interpretations, and, on the other hand, a supporter of the intended interpretation: “The use of a
linguistic form identifies a range of meanings. A context can support a range of meaning. When a
form is used in a context it eliminates the meanings possible to that context other than those the form
can signal: the context eliminates from consideration the meanings possible in the form other than
those the context can support.”

According to Nguyen Hoa (2000), contexts are the non-linguistic factors that contribute
and constrain the interpretation of discourse.
1.2.2. Three aspects of the context
Language is a social activity which always takes place in a context. The context of
situation handles the dimensions of the situation which have a bearing on the language used
and is studied under register. Register is, traditionally in systemic grammar, studied in terms
of three parameters: field, tenor and mode.


4

- Field of discourse refers to what is happening, to the nature of the social action that is
taking place; what is it that the participants are engaged in, in which the language figures as
some essential components?
- Tenor of discourse refers to who is taking part, to the nature of the participants, their
statues and roles; what kind of role relationships of one kind or another, both the types of
speech role that they are taking on in the dialogue and the whole cluster of socially
significant relationships in which they are involved?

- Mode of discourse refers to what part the language is playing, what is it that the
participants are expecting the language to do for them in that situation: the symbolic
organization of the text, the status that it has, and its function in the context, including the
channel (is it spoken or written or some combination of the two?) and also the rhetorical
mode, what is being achieved by the text in terms of such categories as persuasive,
expository, didactic, and the like.
( Halliday in Halliday and hasan 1989 : 12)
1.3. Clauses and their relations
1.3.1. Clause Simplex and Clause Complex
According to Halliday, clauses can be divided into clause simplex and clause complex.
Clause simplex contains one clause, and clauses combine together to form a Clause
Complex. A sentence can be interpreted as a clause complex: a Head clause together with
other clauses that modify it. The notion of “clause complex” as Halliday (1994:216) states,
“enables us to account in full for the functional organization of sentences”. Sentence:
constituent of writing. Clause complex: constituent of grammar.
Clause simplex
|| He kicked the ball ||

Clause complex
||| When you are alone || call me |||

1.3.2. Types of Relations between Clauses
According to Halliday, the clauses constructing a clause complex are in relation in two
terms: Taxis (Interdependency) and Logical-semantic type.
1.3.2.1. Taxis (or Interdependence) relation
Taxis, or interdependency, indicate the logical interdependency between clauses in a
clause complex. Taxis relationships are either paratactic or hypotactic.
Parataxis is “the relation between two like elements of equal status, one initiating
and the other continuing” (Halliday 1994:218). In parataxis, the two elements are
independent, so “we only need to distinguish them by the order in which the speaker has

chosen to say them”. This is done by using the number 1,2,3 … as in:


5
|| Jane came into the room,|| and sat down.|||

1

2

Hypotaxis is “the binding of elements of unequal status” (Halliday, 1994:221). The relation of
hypotaxis between a dominant unit and a dependent one is signaled by using an alpha () for the
dominant, a beta () for a clause dependent on it, and a gamma () for one dependent on that, and
so on.
||| If they are here, || I have the right to be here. |||





It is noted that paratactic and hypotactic relationships can be combined in a single clause
complex:
|||Your grandmother knew|| my sickness meant death,|| and that there were no cure|||



1

2

1.3.2.2. Logico-semantic type
The logico-semantic relations are grouped into two main types: expansion and
projection.
Expansion: The secondary clause expands the primary clause by:
– Elaborating
– Extending

= („equals‟)
+ („is added to‟)

– Enhancing

x („is multiplied by‟)

Expansion relationship can be either paratactic or hypotactic.
*Elaboration: One clause expands another by elaborating on it (or some of portion of it). It
means saying the same thing over again, either by direct repetition, or by rewording,
clarifying, or giving an example:
||| I wasn’t surprised ||– it was what I had expected.|||

*Extension: One clause expands another by extending beyond it. It means adding something
new, giving an exception on it, or offering an alternative.
|||They don’t give any instructions, || nor would it help if they did |||
*Enhancement:

One clause expands the meaning of another qualifying it in one of a

number of possible ways: by reference to time, place, manner cause or condition.
||| When the morning came, || the other shepherds returned from Bethlehem|||
Projection: the secondary clause is instated by the primary one as what somebody said

(locution) or thought (idea). In other words, locutions are projected verbal events and ideas
are projected mental events.
Projection relationship can be either paratactic or hypotactic.


6

||| He said, || “Stop talking.”|||
"2

1

||| My mother said || that I could go out then|||
'



1.4. The three kinds of function in clauses
According to Halliday (1994: 34) Actor, Subject, Theme-Rheme each one of the three
forms part of a different functional configuration, making up a separate strands in the overall
meaning of the clause. As a working approximation, we can define these different strands of
meaning as following:
(i)

The

Actor

functions

in

the

structure

of

the

CLAUSE

AS

A

REPRESENTATION. A clause has meaning as representation, a construal of
some process in ongoing human experience; the Actor is the active participant in
that process. It is the element the speaker portrays as the one that does the deed.
(ii)

The Subject functions in the structure of the CLAUSE AS AN EXCHANGE. A
clause has meaning as an exchange, a transaction between speaker and listener;
the Subject is the warranty of the exchange. It is the element the speaker makes
responsible for the validity of what he is saying.

(iii)

The Theme functions in the structure of the CLAUSE AS A MESSAGE. A
clause has meaning as a message, a quantum of information; the Theme is the

point of departure for the message. It is the element the speaker selects for
„grounding‟ what he is going on to say.

These three headings- clause as a representation, clause as an exchange, clause as a
message- refer to three distinct kinds of meaning that are embodied in the structure of a
clause. Each of these three strands of meaning is construed by configuration of certain
particular functions. Actor, Subject and Theme do not occur as isolates; each occurs in
association with other functions from the same strand of meaning. Each kind of meanings
will be discussed in detail in the following presentation.
1.4.1. Clause as representation: Transitivity
According to Halliday (1994: 106) language enables human beings to build a mental
picture of reality, to make sense of what goes on around them and inside them. Clauses play
a central role, because it embodies a general principle for expressing experience. The most
powerful impression of experience is that it consists of “going-on” – happening, doing,
sensing, meaning and becoming. All these goings – on are sorted out in the grammar of the


7

clause, the grammatical system by which this is achieved is transitivity and accounted for
under the heading of process, participant and circumstances
1.4.1.1. Process types and Participants
1.4.1.1.1. Material process
Material process is the process of doing. One identification criteria for material
process is that they can be probed by asking: “What did X do?” or “What did X do to Y?”
The one that performs the action is called actor. The one that is affected by the action is
called Goal. The one that benefits from the process is called Receiver. When a process has
one participant, this role is referred to as Actor. When a process has two participants, these
roles are referred to respectively as Actor and Goal. And when it has three participants, these
roles are referred to respectively as Actor, Goal and Receiver.

E.X:
He

gave

the boy

five dollars.

Actor

Process: material

Receiver

Goal

1.4.1.1.2. Mental process
Mental process is the process of sensing which consists of processes of cognition
(thinking, knowing, understanding, realizing), of affection (loving, hating, adoring,
pampering), of perception (hearing, sensing, feeling) and of desideration (wanting, desiring,
wishing). In this process we very often talk not about what we are doing, but about what we
think of feel. Metal process usually involve two participants referred to respectively as
Senser (one who senses, feels, thinks, and wants) and Phenomenon (one that is sensed, felt,
thought of, and wanted). The Sensor is always a human being.
E.X:
I

can recognize

the King

Sensor

Process: mental

Phenomenon

1.4.1.1.3. Relational process
Relational process is the process of being, having and being at. It comes under three
subtypes: The intensive, the circumstantial, and the possessive. Relational process consists of
two modes: attributive and identifying. When a relational process is in the attributive mode, it
has one participant referred to as Carrier and the quality referred to as Attribute. When the
relational process identifies the other, it has two participants referred to respectively in two
pairs of terms such as Identified/Identifier and Token/Value.
E.X:


8
Sarah

is

wise

Carrier

Process: relational

Attribute

Peter

is

the leader

Identified/Token

Process: relational

Identifier/Value

1.4.1.1.4. Behavioural process
Behavioural process is the process of physiological and psychological behaviour.
Halliday describes these processes semantically as a “half way house” between mental and
material processes. That is, the meanings they realized are midway between materials on the
one hand and mental on the other. They are in part about action, but it is action that has to be
experienced by a conscious being.
The majority of Behaviourals have only one participant. Behaviourals thus express a
form of doing that does not usually extend to other participant. This one obligatory
participant is called the Behaver, and is typically a conscious being.
E.X:
They

laughed

happily

Behaver

Process: behavioural

Circumstance

1.4.1.1.5. Verbal process
Verbal process is the process of saying. It can contain one participants referred to as
Sayer, two participants referred to respectively as Sayer and Target or Sayer and Verbiage,
and even three participants referred respectively as Sayer, Target, and Recipient.
E.X:
My sister

told

me

the truth

Sayer

Process: verbal

Recipient

Verbiage

1.4.1.1.6. Existential process
Existential process is the process of existing, indicating that something or some natural
force exists. In this type of process, there is a participant, the Existent and one or two
circumstantial elements.

There

hangs

a picture

on the wall

Grammatical

Process: existential

Existent

Circumstance

Subject

1.4.1.2. Circumstances
Circumstances essentially encode background against which the process takes place.
Typically they occur freely in all types of process and with the same significance they occur.


9

Circumstances are realized by adverbial groups or prepositional phrases. Circumstances are
often optional, reflecting their background function in the clause. However, in some cases, it
may be more or less obligatory to include the circumstances of the clause.
According to Halliday (1994: 151) there are nine main types of circumstantial
elements: Extent, Location, Manner, Cause, Contingency, Accompaniment, Role, Matter,

Angle with their specific categories.
1.4.2. Clause as exchange: Mood
Mood: As an exchange of interactive event, a clause can be seen as consisting of two
components: Mood element and Residue. The Mood plays a vital role in carrying out the
interpersonal function of the clause as exchange in English.
The Mood is the thing by referred to which a proposition can be affirmed. It consists of two
functional elements: Subject (which is a nominal group) and Finite (part of a verbal group).
The Residue is the verbal element in the Mood which has the function of making the
proposition finite and is the remainder of the clause. It consists of three functional
components: (i) the Predicator, (ii) the Complement, and (iii) the Adjunct.
E.X:
The secretary
Subject
Mood

received
Finite

Predicator

a message.
Complement

Residue

1.4.3. Clause as message: Theme - Rheme
The speaker‟s organization of the clause as message is represented though the thematic
structure. Relevant to the realization of the system of theme are two elements: Theme and
Rheme.
Theme: The Theme servers as the point of departure of the message, which in

English coincides with the initial element(s) of the clause.
Rheme: The Rheme is the remainder of the message. By analyzing the thematic
structure of the clauses in a text we can find out the text‟s mode of development. The Theme
may be realized by a nominal group, a prepositional phrase, an adverbial group, or even a
clause in a case of predicated theme. Theme may be marked or unmarked. An unmarked
theme is one that is usual or typical, whereas a marked theme is one that is unusual. A topical
theme is one that is conflated with an experiential element of the clause: it can be Actor/Agent,
Goal/Medium or Circumstance. A textual theme represents the meaning that is relevant to the
context: both the preceding and the following text (co-text) and the context of situation. And an


10

interpersonal theme represents the interpersonal element with which the speaker or writer acts
on the listener or reader.
E.X:
We

were waiting outside.

Theme

Rheme

1.5. Cohesion
1.5.1. Grammatical Cohesion
1.5.1.1.Reference:

is a relation between the meaning of a word and its

environment, where the environment can be the text (text reference) or the real world
(situation reference). Reference can be divided into anaphoric, cataphoric, exophoric,
personal, demonstrative and comparative reference.
Exophoric: referents which refer outside the text
E.g: That must have cost a lot of money.
Anaphoric: referents which refer backwards
Eg: The apple on the table was rotten. It had been there for days.
Cataphoric: referents which refer forwards
E.g: The following dates have been proposed for the forthcoming
election:

September 8th, September 15th and October 3rd.

Personal reference is reference by means of function in speech situation and through
the category of person.
E.X: My parents couldn‟t attend the party. They had to travel far on business.
Demonstrative reference is a form of verbal pointing by the speaker who identifies
the referent by locating it on the scale of proximity in terms of space and time.
E.X: He really wanted to buy a new laptop. Unluckily, that laptop was too expensive.
Comparative reference serves to compare items within a text in terms of identity and
similarity.
E.X: This exercise is very difficult. The other is quite easy.
1.5.1.2. Substitution
Substitution is a process of replacing one item with another within a text. Halliday and
Hassan (1976:88) also states that “substitution is the relation between linguistic items, such
as words or phrases and in terms of linguistic level, it is a relation on the lexicogrammatical
level, the level of grammar and vocabulary”.
E.X.: A: What ice-cream would you like?
B: I would like the pink one.

11

There are there types of substitution: nominal, verbal and clausal substitution.
Nominal substitution: is the use of a substitute word to replace the Head of a
corresponding nominal group.
E.X: Miss Martha kept a small bakery, the one where you go up three steps.
Verbal substitution: is “do”. This operates as Head of a verbal group, in the place that
is occupied by the lexical verb.
E.X: He hurried to the front door as anyone will.
Clausal substitution: is one further type of substitution in which what is presupposed is
not an element within the clause but an entire clause.
E.X: A: It will not rain too long.
B: You think so?
1.5.1.3. Ellipsis
Ellipsis is an omission of certain elements from a sentence or clause and can only be
recovered by referring to an element in the preceding text.
E.X: A: I think you are right.
B: I am sure I am (right).
Ellipsis can be studied in terms of nominal, verbal and clausal ones.
Nominal Ellipsis: When the Thing is omitted, one of the elements in the modifier must
take the role of the head, but the reader can recover the omitted Thing from the
presupposition.
Wife: I would like to live in the big house.
Husband: I prefer living in the comfortable.
Verbal Ellipsis: The Mood element is present but the Residue is omitted.
A: Can she speak English well?
B: Yes, she can.
Clausal Ellipsis: take the presupposing clause as a basic structure where ellipsis occurs
in constituents like the Subject Complement, Predicator, and Adjunct. The missing part can

be retrieved from the corresponding presupposed structure in another sentence.
A: Have another cup of tea?
B: No, thank you (I won’t have another cup of tea)
1.5.2. Logical Cohesion
1.5.2.1. Additive conjunction
- Structurally coordinate or link when being added to the presupposed item, signaled
through:


12

and, also, additionally....
- Negate the presuppose item, signaled through:
nor, not either......or, neither.........nor ….
1.5.2.2. Adversative conjunction
- Express the contrary to the expectation
- Signaled through: yet, though, only, but….
1.5.2.3. Temporal conjunction
- Deal with time and sequence
- Link by signaling sequence or time
- Signaled through: then, next....
1.5.2.4. Causal conjunction
- Deal with cause and effect, reason and result
- Signaled through: so, thus, therefore, hence, for, for this reason, in this respect…
1.5.3. Lexical Cohesion
Lexical cohesion comes about through the selection of items that are related in some way to
those that have gone before.
E.X: Algy met a bear. The bear was bulgy.
1.5.3.1. Reiteration
This is the repetition of lexical item, or the occurrence of a synonym or some kind. In most

cases it is accompanied by a reference item, typically the.
Eg: Algy met a bear. The bear was bulgy.
Subtypes: Repetition, Synonymy, Antonymy
Repetition: refers to the same lexical item with the same meaning occurring more than
one in the same discourses. The lexical item may be repeated in the same morphological
shape
E.X.: Algy met a bear. The bear was bulgy.
or in derivational variant
E.X.: I strove with none, for none was worth my strife
Synonymy: Lexical cohesion results from the choice of a lexical item that is in some
sense synonymous with a preceding one.
Subtypes: Super-ordinate, Meronymy, Hyponymy
Super-ordinate in texts means that the latter is synonymous with the previous one in the
sense of higher level of generality. Halliday and Hasan (1976:280) regarded super-ordinate as
any item whose meaning includes that of the earlier one.


13

E.X: Four-&-twenty blackbirds, baked in a pie.
When the pie was opened, the birds began to sing.
Meronymy: part-whole relationship
E.X: A tree: trunk, branch, leaf, etc.
Hyponymy: specific- general relationship
E.X: A tree: oak, pine, elm, etc.
Antonymy: Lexical items which are opposite in meaning also function with cohesive effect
in a text.
Eg: He fell asleep. However, the children were awake all the night.
1.5.3.2. Collocation
Collocation refers to lexical cohesion that is achieved through the association of lexical

items that regularly co-occur. Under collocation there are three subtypes: resultative,
modification, and contextual.
Resultative: refers to the relation of one item leading to the outcome of another item.
E.g. kill – die, rain – wet, dark – night.
Modificational refers to the relation holding between an item and one of its inherent
qualities. E.g. run – fast, bright – sun, dark – light...
Contextual: house – build, doctor – examine...
1.6. Summary
In this chapter, I have reviewed some main concepts which serve as the theoretical
framework for the analysis of the text in the following chapter.


14

CHAPTER II
THE MEANING AND STRUCTURE
OF THE SHORT STORY “WITCHES‟ LOAVES”
2.1. The chosen Text
“Witches’ Loaves” is a short story by O”Henry. It is about Miss Martha‟s – the owner of
a bakery- hidden love and deep sympathy for an architectural draftsman – her customer. She
dare not express her love and care directly to the man but just hide it in her heart, which in
the end turns out to be a serious misunderstanding and spoils the man‟s work for a
competition due to “the butter bread”.
O. Henry was a master of irony. Almost all of his short stories dealt with the ironies of
life. This is also true of the story "Witches Loaves." The title is ironic for two reasons. One is
that he alludes to Miss Martha using a recipe of "a mysterious compound of quince seeds and
borax," which was supposedly for her complexion. Yet, he leaves the impression that it is
also something that a wise woman, or witch, who might be versed in herbal lore, might do to
create a love spell. The second, and more ironic use of the title indicates that the man,
Blumberger, calling her an "old cat" when she inadvertently ruins his drawings because her

romantic fancy of him as a starving artist prompted her to add butter to his stale bread,
considers her the equivalent of a witch who put an evil spell on him and destroyed his work.
The title of O. Henry's painful short story "Witches' Loves" has several meanings, each of
which dramatizes a part of the story. The first is that at times, "Witches" is a word used as an
invective against someone one is really angry with or toward something one is really angry
about. The artist was certainly really angry about what those “witches' loves” did to his
drafting plans. The second and third meanings are closely linked. You recall that Miss
Martha prepared a mysterious brew of quince and borax in the kitchen, and the narrator says
that "Ever so many people use it for the complexion." Upon consulting Practical Druggist
and Pharmaceutical Review of Reviews, Volumes 25-28, you find that various quince borax
recipes for bars--or loves--of creams or soaps are used for beauty treatments. In a
metaphorical sense, Miss Martha can be said to be brewing up witches' loves with witchly
mysterious recipes for purposes of romantic witchery. In another metaphor, Miss Martha's
beauty treatment loaves and her doctored--or bewitched--loves of bread are intended as
magic potions to capture the affections of the lonely artist who subsists on stale bread--or so
she thinks.


15

Perhaps O. Henry was thinking of another story when he wrote this - the fairy tale of
Hansel and Gretel. In folklore, witches often used food to lure people into their traps. The
witch in Snow White used an apple, the witch in Hansel and Gretel used candy. In this story,
the "witch" is Miss Martha. Why is she a witch? She thinks she is a kind woman who feels
sorry for a starving artist. Week after week, she eats rich food but never offers any to her
customer. She wishes he would notice her, but she tells herself he is too proud. She does
everything she can to entice him into a conversation with her. She hangs up a painting, she
wears a fancy dress, she puts goop on her face to make her skin look good. Finally, she uses
food - she puts butter into the two stale loaves of bread, thinking she is giving her poor
starving artist customer a treat. Now he will think of her when he eats the stale bread.

Perhaps he will ask her to tea. Alas. Her plan backfires. He has been buying the bread to use
as an eraser for his drawings. He is a draftsman. The buttered bread has ruined his drawings.
In typical O. Henry style, there is a surprise ending. The loaves turn from something good
into something "witchy".
2.2. Clauses and Clause Complex Analysis
The text consists of 179 clauses which make up 86 clause complexes. The clauses in the
clause complexes are in both paratactic and hypotactic relation. Their semantic relations are
mainly of elaboration, extension and enhancement. 4 clause complexes (XXIV, XXVI,
XXVII and LXXIV) are of quoting and quoted relation characterizing the dialogic portion of
the text. Hypotactic and paratactic relations combine into the same clause complexes.
For clauses and clause complexes and their relations, see appendices 1 and 2.
2.3. The Analysis of the Text in Terms of Transitivity, Mood and Theme
Here due to the page limitation of a minor M.A thesis, I just mention one part of the
analysis like a modeling. Please see the next part in Appendix 7 at the end of this thesis.
(1)
(2)
Miss Martha
kept
the little
on the the one
you
go up
three
Meacham
bakery
corner
where
steps
Process: Attribute:
Circ.

Circ.
Actor
Process:
Circ.
Transitivity Carrier:
Possessor Relational Possessed
Material
Subject
Fi. Pred.
Compl
Adjunct Adjunct Subject Fi. Pred. Adjunct
MOOD
Mood
Residue
ResiMood
-due
Theme
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
THEME
(3)
(4)
and
the bell
tinkles
when
you
open
the door.

Actor
Process: Material
Actor
Process:
Goal
Transitivity
Material
Mood Subject Finite Predicator
Subject Fi. Pred. Complement
MOOD
Adjunct


16

THEME

Transitivity
MOOD
THEME

Textual
Theme
(5)
Miss
Martha

Mood
Topical
Theme

THEME

Transitivity
MOOD
THEME

Transitivity
MOOD
THEME
Transitivity
MOOD

Mood
Topical
Theme

Textual
Theme
(6)
her bank-book

Process:
Attribute
Identified
Relational
Subject
Fi. Pred. Complement
Subject
Mood

Residue
Mood
Theme
Rheme
Theme
(7)
and
she
possessed
Carrier: Possessor
Subject
Mood
Topical Theme

Textual
Theme
(8),

Transitivity
MOOD

forty,

Carrier

Transitivity
MOOD
THEME

was

Residue
Rheme

Residue
Rheme

showed
Process:
Relational
Fi. Pred.

a credit of two
thousand
dollars
Identifier

Complement
Residue
Rheme

two false teeth and a
sympathetic heart.
Process: Relational
Attribute: Possessed
Finite
Predicator
Complement
Residue
Rheme

(9)
Many
have married
whose
were
much inferior to
people
chances to do
Miss Martha's.
so
Actor
Process: Material
Carrier
Process: Relational
Attribute
Subject Finite Predicator
Subject
Finite Predicator
Complement
Mood
Residue
Mood
Residue
Theme
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
(10)
(11)

Two or three a man
came in
whom
she
began to take
times a week
an interest in
Cir.
Actor
Process:
Phenomenon
Actor
Process: Mental
Material
Subject
Fi.
Pred. Complement Subject
Fi.
Pred.
Residue
Mood
Residue
Residue
Mood
Residue
Theme
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
(12)

(13)
(14)
He
was
a middle- wearing spectacles and trimmed to a careful
aged man,
a brown beard
point
Carrier
Process:
Attribute Process:
Goal
Process:
Circ.
Relational
Material
Material
Subject Fi. Pred.
Compl.
Pred.
Compl.
Pred.
Adjunct
Mood
Residue
Theme
Theme
Theme
Rheme
(15)

He
spoke
English
with a strong German accent
Sayer
Process: Verbal
Verbiage
Circumstance
Subject
Finite Predicator
Complement
Adjunct
Mood
Residue


17

THEME

Transitivity
MOOD
THEME

Theme
His
clothes
Carrier

Rheme

were

(16)
worn and
darned

Process: Relational

Subject
Finite
Mood
Theme
(17)
But
he

neat,

in others
Circ.

Attribute
Complement
Residue
Rheme
(18)
and
had

very good

manners
Process:
Attribute:
Relational
Possessed
Fi.
Pred. Complement

Process:
Attribute
Relational
Mood
Subject Fi.
Pred. Complement Mood
MOOD
Adjunct
Adjunct
Mood
Residue
Mood
Residue
Textual Topical Rheme
Textual Rheme
THEME
Theme Theme
Theme
(19)
He
always
bought

two loaves of stale bread
Actor
Circumstance
Process: Material
Benificiary
Transitivity
Subject
Adjunct
Finite
Predicator
Complement
MOOD
Mood
Residue
Theme
Rheme
THEME
(20)
(21)
Fresh bread
was
five cents a loaf. Stale ones
were
two for five.
Process:
Attribute
Carrier
Process:
Attribute
Transitivity Carrier

Relational
Relational
Subject
Fi. Pred.
Subject
Subject
Fi.
Pred. Complement
MOOD
Mood
Residue
Mood
Residue
Theme
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
THEME
(22)
Never
did
he
call for
anything but stale
bread
Sayer
- Verbal
Verbiage
Transitivity Circumstance Process: Adjunct
Subject

Finite Predicator
Complement
MOOD
Mood
Residue
Theme
Rheme
THEME
(23)
Once
Miss
saw
a red and brown
on his fingers
Martha
stain
Senser
Process: Mental
Phenomenon
Circumstance
Transitivity Circumstance
Adjunct
Subject
Finite
Predicator Complement
Adjunct
MOOD
Residue
Mood
Residue

Theme
Rheme
THEME
(24)
(25)
She
was
sure
then
that
he
was
an artist and
very poor
Transitivity

Carrier

and wrinkled
and baggy

Circ.

Predicator

looked

in places,

18

Transitivity Carrier

Process: Attribute
Cir.
Carrier Process:
Attribute
Relational
Relational
Subject Fi. Pred. Compl Adjunct
Subject Fi. Pred. Complement
MOOD
Mood
Residue
Mood
Residue
Theme
Rheme
Textual Theme
Rheme
THEME
Theme
(26)
(27)
No doubt
he
lived
in a
where

he
painted
pictures
garret,
Circ.
Actor Process: Circ.
Actor
Process:
Goal
Transitivity
Material
Material
Adjunct
Subject Fi. Pred. Adjunct
Subject
Fi. Pred. Complement
MOOD
Residue
Mood
Residue
Mood
Residue
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
THEME Interpersonal Topical
Theme
Theme
(28)
(29)

(30)
and
ate
stale
and
thought of
the
to eat
in Miss
bread
good
Martha's
things
bakery
Process:
Goal
Process:
Phen
Process:
Circ.
Transitivity
Material
Mental
Material
Fi.
Pred. Compl.
Fi.
Pred. Compl. Predicator
MOOD
Mood

Residue
Mood
Residue
Residue
Textual
Textual
Rheme
Theme
THEME
Theme
Theme
(31)
(32)
Often
when
Miss
sat down
to her chops
she
would sigh,
Martha
and light
rolls and jam
and tea
Actor
Process: Circumstance Behaver
Process:
Transitivity Circumstance
Material
Behavioural

Subject Fi. Pred.
Adjunct
Subject Fi. Pred.
MOOD
Residue
Mood
Residue
Mood
Residue
Topical
Textual
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
THEME
Theme
Theme
(33)
(34)
(35)
and
wish
that the gentle- might
her instead eating his dry in that
mannered share tasty
of
crust draughty
artist
meal
attic

Transitivity
Process:
Actor Process: Goal Circ.
Proc:
Goal
Circ.
Mental
Material
Material
Subject Fi. Pred. Compl. Adjunct Pred. Compl. Adjunct
MOOD Mood Fi. Pred.
Adjct
Mood Res
Mood
Residue
Rheme
Textual
Theme
THEME Textual Rheme Textual Theme
Theme
Theme
(36)
(37)
(36)
Miss Martha's
as
you
have been told,
was
a sympathetic

heart,
one


19

Transitivity

Carrier

MOOD

Subject

THEME

Mood……
Theme

Transitivity
MOOD
THEME

Goal

MOOD

Comp.
Residue
Theme

Process: Verbal

Subject

Finite Predicator

Mood
Adjunct

Mood
Theme

Textual
Theme

In order to test
her theory as to
his occupation,
Circumstance
Adjunct
Residue
Theme
(39)
that
she

Transitivity

THEME

Receiver

(38)
brought

she
Actor
Subject

Residue
Rheme

Process:
Relational
Fi. Pred.
..mood

from her
room

at a sale

Actor

Process:
Cir.
Material
Subject
Fi. Pred. Adjunct

Mood
Residue
Rheme

Complement

Residue
Rheme
one
day

Process: Material
Finite Predicator
Mood

had
bought

Attribute

Circumstance
Adjunct
Residue
Rheme
(40)
and
set
it

a painting

Goal
Complement

against the
shelves
behind the
bread counter
Cir.

Process: Benef
Material iciary
Fi. Pred. Comp. Adjunct
Mood
Residue
Textual
Rheme
Theme

(41)
It
Carrier
Subject

Transitivity
MOOD

was
Process: Relational
Finite
Predicator

a Venetian scene
Attribute
Complement
Residue
Rheme

Mood
Theme

THEME
(42)
A
splendid
marble
palazzio
Transitivity Existent
MOOD
THEME

Subject
Mood
Theme

stood

Process:
Existential
Fi. Pred.

in the
foreground or
rather
forewater
Circumstance

(43)
so

it

said

on the picture

Sayer

Process:
Circumstance
Verbal
Subject Fi. Pred.
Adjunct
Mood
Residue
Rheme

Adjunct
Residue
Rheme
Theme

(44)
For the
there
rest
Transitivity

Circ.

were

Process:
Existential

gondolas,
with
clouds, sky, and the
chiaro-oscuro in lady
plenty
Existent
Circ.

(45)
trailing her hand

Process:
Material

Goal

in the
water
Circ.


20

Adjunct
Residue
Theme
THEME
(46)
No artist
MOOD

Subject Fi.
Mood

Pred.

Complement

Rheme

Adjct
Pred.
Residue

Compl.

Adjct.

Theme

(47)
could fail
it.
Two days the customer
came in
to notice
afterward
Process: Phenomenon Circ.
Actor
Process: Material
Transitivity Senser
Mental
Subject
Fi. Pred.
Compl.
Adjunct
Subject
Finite
Predicator
MOOD
Mood
Residue
Residue
Mood
Residue
Theme

Rheme
Theme
Rheme
THEME
(48)
(49)
"You
haf (have)
here
a fine bicture, madame,"
,he
said
Quoted
Sayer
Process:
Transitivity
Verbal
Carrier: Possessor
Circ.
Attribute:
Processer Relational
Possessed
Complement
Subject Fi. Pred.
MOOD
Residue
Mood
Residue
Rheme
Theme

Rheme
THEME
(50)
while
she
was wrapping up
the bread
Actor
Process: Material
Goal
Transitivity
Subject
Finite
Predicator Complement
MOOD
Mood
Residue
Textual
Topical Theme
Rheme
THEME
Theme
(51)
(52)
"Yes?"
says
Miss Martha,
reveling in
her own
cunning

Quoted
Process: Verbal
Sayer
Process:
Phenomenon
Transitivity
Mental
Finite
Predicator
Subject
Pred.
Complement
MOOD
Residue
Mood
Residue
Theme
Rheme
Theme
THEME
(53)
(54)
(55)
"I
do so art
(no,
it
would
"artist" thus
“and

she substituted
admire
not do
early) paintings”
to say
Quoted
Process: Verbiage Cir. Verbiage Sayer Process:
Transitivity
Verbal
Verbal
Senser ProcessPhen.
Mental
Complement
Sub Fi. Pred. Compl. Adjct Compl. Subject Fi. Pred.
MOOD
Mood
Residue
Mood
Residue
-due
Mood ResiRheme Textual Topical
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
THEME Theme
Theme Theme
(56)
(57)
"You
think

it
is
a good


21

picture?"
Quoted
Process:
Carrier
Process: Relational
Attribute
Mental
Subject
Finite
Predicator Subject
Finite
Predicator Complement
MOOD
Mood
Residue
Mood
Residue
Theme
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
THEME
(58)

"Der balance,"
is not
in good drawing
Quoted
Transitivity
Carrier
Process: Relational
Attribute
Subject
Finite
Predicator
Complement
MOOD
Mood
Residue
Theme
Rheme
THEME
(59),
(60)
said
the
“Der
is not
true”
customer, bairspective of
it
Sayer
Quoted
Transitivity Process: Verbal

Carrier
Process: Relational
Attribute
Fi.
Pred. Subject
Subject
Finite
Predicator Complement
MOOD
Residue
Mood
Mood
Residue
Theme
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
THEME
(61)
(62)
(63)
He
took
his bread,
bowed,
and
hurried
out
Actor
Process:

Goal
Process:
Process:
Circ.
Transitivity
Material
Behavioural
Behavioural
Subject
Fi. Pred. Complement Fi. Pred. Mood Fi. Pred. Adjunct
MOOD
Adjunct
Mood
Residue
Residue
Theme
Rheme
Textual
Rheme
THEME
Theme
(64)
(65)
Yes,
he
must be
an artist. Miss
took the picture back to
Martha
her room.

Carrier
Process:
Attribute Actor Process:
Goal
Circ.
Transitivity
Relational
Material
Sub Fi. Pred.
Subject Subject Fi. Pred. Compl. Adjunct
MOOD
Mood
Residue
Mood
Residue
Textual
Topical
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
THEME
Theme
Theme
(66)
(67)
How gentle
his
shone
behind his
What a

he
had!
and kindly eyes
spectacles ! broad brow
Circ.
Behaver Process:
Circ.
Attribute: Carrier:
Process:
Transitivity
Behavioural
Possessed Possessor
relational
Adjunct Subject Fi. Predi. Complement Complement Subject Finite Predicator
MOOD
Residue
Mood
Residue
ResiMood
-due
Theme
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
THEME
Transitivity

Senser

22

(68)
(69)
But
genius often
has to struggle
before
it
is recognized
Actor
Circ. Process: Material
Phen.
Process: Mental
Transitivity
Mood
Subject Adjunct
Fi.
Pred.
Mood
Subject
Fi.
Pred.
MOOD
Adjunct
Adjunct
Mood
Residue
Mood
Residue

Textual Topical
Rheme
Textual Topical
Rheme
THEME
Theme Theme
Theme
Theme
(70)
(71)
What a
it
would
for art and
if
genius
were by two thousand
perspective
thing
be
backed dollars in bank,
a bakery, and a
sympathetic
heart to.
Receiver Process: Circumstance
Transitivity Attribute Carrier Process: Circ.
Relational
Material
Mood Subject Fi. Pred.
Adjunct

MOOD Complement Subject Fi. Pred. Adjunct
Adjunct
Mood
Residue
Mood
Residue
Theme
Rheme
Textual Theme
Rheme
THEME
Theme
(72)
But
these
were
day-dreams.
Carrier
Process: Relational
Attribute
Transitivity
Subject
Finite
Predicator
Complement
MOOD
Mood
Residue
Textual theme
Topical Theme

Rheme
THEME
(73)
(74)
Often now
when
he
came
he
would
for a across the
chat
while showcase
Actor
Process:
Sayer Process:
Circumstance
Transitivity Circumstance
Material
Verbal
Adjunct
Subject Fi.
Pred. Subject Fi. Pred.
Adjunct
MOOD
Residue
Mood
Residue
Mood
Residue

Theme
Textual
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
THEME
Theme
(75)
(76)
He
seemed to
Miss Martha's
He
kept on buying
stale bread
crave
cheerful words
Process:
Phenomenon
Actor
Process: Material
Goal
Transitivity Senser
Mental
Pred.
Subject
Subject Finite Predicator
Complement
MOOD Subject Fi.
Mood

Residue
Mood
Residue
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
THEME Theme
(77)
(78)
She
thought
he
began to look
thinner and discouraged
Process: Mental
Carrier
Process:
Attribute
Transitivity Senser
Relational
Subject
Finite Predicator Subject Finite Predicator
Complement
MOOD
Mood
Residue
Mood
Residue