Developing compensation strategies in listening for 10th form students at Nguyen Van Cu Upper-Secondary School, Gia Lam, Hanoi = Phát triển chiến lược bù trong

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FALCUTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES







LÊ THỊ HỒNG HẠNH







DEVELOPING COMPENSATION STRATEGIES IN LISTENING
FOR 10
TH
FORM STUDENTS AT NGUYEN VAN CU
UPPER-SECONDARY SCHOOL, GIALAM, HANOI

(Phát triển chiến lược bù trong kỹ năng nghe cho học sinh lớp 10 trường
THPT Nguyễn Văn Cừ, Gia Lâm, Hà Nội)


M.A. Minor Programme Thesis

Major: English Methodology
Code: 60 14 10

HANOI, 2010

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FALCUTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES






LÊ THỊ HỒNG HẠNH






DEVELOPING COMPENSATION STRATEGIES IN LISTENING FOR
10TH FORM STUDENTS AT NGUYEN VAN CU
UPPER-SECONDARY SCHOOL, GIALAM, HANOI

(Phát triển chiến lược bù trong kỹ năng nghe cho học sinh lớp 10 trường
THPT Nguyễn Văn Cừ, Gia Lâm, Hà Nội)

M.A. Minor Programme Thesis




Major: English Methodology
Code: 60 14 10
Supervisor: VŨ MAI TRANG, M.A.







HANOI, 2010

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration …………………………………………………………………………………… i
Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………… ii
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………… iii
Table of contents……………………………………………………………………………….iv
List of abbreviations………………………………………………………………………… vii
List of tables………………………………………………………………………………….viii
List of figures………………………………………………………………………………… ix
PART A: INTRODUCTION 1
1. Rationale 1
2. Aims of the study 2

3. Scope of the study 2
4. Methods of the study 2
5. Design of the study 3
PART B: DEVELOPMENT 4
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 4
1.1. Listening comprehension 4
1.1.1. Definitions of listening comprehension 4
1.1.2. Listening comprehension process 5
1.1.3. Possible problems in listening comprehension 6
1.2. Language learning strategies 8
1.2.1. Definitions of language learning strategies 8
1.2.2. Classification of language learning strategies 8
1.2.3. The importance of language learning strategies for students…………………… 10
1.3. Compensation strategies in listening 11
1.3.1. Definition of compensation strategies 11
1.3.2. The importance of compensation strategies in listening 13
1.3.3. Guidelines on applying compensation strategies in listening 13
CHAPTER 2: DATA COLLECTION, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 15
2.1. Data collection 15
2.1.1. Setting of the study 15
2.1.2. Subjects of the study 15
2.1.3. Methods and instruments 16
2.2. Findings and discussions 18
2.2.1. Teachers’ perception and evaluation of compensation strategies in listening 18
2.2.2. Students’ perception and evaluation of compensation strategies in listening 20
2.2.3. The current situation of applying compensation strategies in listening 21
2.2.4. Students’ difficulties and preferences in applying compensation strategies in
listening 25
2.2.4.1. Students’ difficulties in applying compensation strategies in listening 25
2.2.4.2. Students’ preferences in applying compensation strategies in listening 27

CHAPTER 3: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DEVELOPING COMPENSATION
STRATEGIES 30
3.1. Raising awareness of compensation strategy training 30
3.2. Integrating strategy training into the lessons 31
3.3. Teaching basic grammatical rules and phonological rules 32
3.4. Teaching discourse marker clues 33
3.5. Exploiting background knowledge 35
3.6. Recalling key words and structures 36
3.7. Making full use of visual aids 36
3.8. Providing pairwork and groupwork 37
3.9. Giving encouragement 37
3.10. Providing a variety of listening tasks 37
PART C: CONCLUSION 39
1. Conclusion 39
2. Limitations and suggestions for further research 40
References…………………………………………………………………………… …… 41

Appendixes…………………………………………………………… …………………… I
Appendix 1: Interviews for teachers………………………………………… ………… I
Appendix 2: Survey questionnaires for students III
Appendix 3: A sample of an interview transcript XI
Appendix 4: A sample of a class observation XIII
Appendix 5: A suggested lesson plan of integrating strategy instruction XVI


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS


EFL: English as a Foreign Language
LLS: Language Learning Strategies

NVC School: Nguyen Van Cu Upper-secondary School
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Classification of language learning strategies
Table 2: Classification of compensation strategies
Table 3: Descriptive statistics for frequency of compensation strategy use
Table 4: Students’ difficulties in applying compensation strategies in listening
Table 5: Students’ preferences in applying compensation strategies in listening
LIST OF FIGURES


Figure 1: Frequency of use for strategy “using titles and visual clues”
Figure 2: Frequency of use for strategy “using background knowledge clues”
Figure 3: Frequency of use for strategy “using contextual clues”
Figure 4: Frequency of use for strategy “writing sound transcript”
Figure 5: Frequency of use for strategy “using background noise clues”
Figure 6: Frequency of use for strategy “using grammatical clues”
Figure 7: Frequency of use for strategy “using discourse marker clues”
Figure 8: Frequency of use for strategy “using phonological clues”

PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
English language teaching in the recent years has moved from traditional approaches,
involving the explicit teaching of grammar and translation, to various versions of
communicative methodology. Consequently, a greater emphasis has been placed on learners
and what strategies they adopt to be successful. Well-known researchers such as Cohen
(1988), O‟Malley and Chamot (1990), and Oxford (1990) have pointed out that learning
strategies are among the main factors that help determine how well students learn a second or
foreign language. Therefore, it is the role of the teacher to help students discover and apply
appropriate learning strategies in their learning.
The necessary to equip students with listening strategies to help them develop their
listening skill at upper-secondary schools in Vietnam can be seen clearly. The new series of
English textbooks for students have been used in schools in Viet Nam for some years and it
seems that listening skill is the most difficult one for our students to master. Listening is also
the skill that causes a lot of difficulties for teachers to prepare and carry out the lesson because
the old textbooks do not have a separate part for teaching and learning listening skill. The
students who are using the new kind of textbooks often find it hard to catch up with the
listening text and as a result they fail to comprehend what is spoken. Besides, they come to
listening activities with little knowledge of how to listen effectively and successfully. The
situation at Nguyen Van Cu Upper-secondary School is the same, if not to say it is more

serious. We have many weak students who lack vocabulary, grammatical knowledge and have
poor pronunciation. Listening lessons are really hard for them.
There is a variety of strategies that can be employed in listening skill such as memory
strategies; cognitive strategies; compensation strategies; metacognitive strategies; affective
strategies; and social strategies (Oxford, 1990). However, compensation strategies which
involve in the ability of guessing intelligently from linguistic clues and other clues are of great
help to weak students. These strategies help students to overcome their limitations to guess
what is heard.
The facts above explain the reasons why the researcher conducts the study
“Developing compensation strategies in listening for 10th form students at Nguyen Van Cu
upper-secondary school, Gialam, Hanoi”. It is hoped that this study can be of some help to
teachers and students in listening lessons.
2. Aims of the study
First of all, the study aims at investigating the perception of compensation strategies in
listening by teachers and 10
th
form students at Nguyen Van Cu Upper-secondary School; the
target students‟ frequency of use of these strategies; and their difficulties and preferences in
applying these strategies. Secondly, the author intends to propose pedagogical implications
and suggestions for developing the target students‟ compensations strategies in listening.
To achieve these aims, four research questions have been presented as follows:
1. How do teachers and 10
th
form students at NVC School perceive compensation
strategies in listening and their importance?
2. How often do 10
th
form students at NVC School apply compensation strategies in
listening? Which specific strategies do they use?
3. What are the difficulties and preferences of 10

th
form students at NVC School in
applying compensation strategies in listening?
4. What recommendations should be made for teachers to help 10
th
form students at
NVC School develop compensation strategies in listening?
3. Scope of the study
Firstly, this study only focuses on compensation strategies used in listening (guessing
intelligently) although the new kind of textbook covers all of four skills, namely reading,
speaking, listening and writing as well as there are a lot of English language learning strategies
that can be employed.
Secondly, due to the small scale of the study the subjects are restricted only to 10
th

form teachers and students at Nguyen Van Cu upper-secondary school, who are using the new
kind of textbook.
4. Methods of the study
The author has applied the following methods in this study:
Data collection results from interviews (for teachers), survey questionnaires (for
students) and class observations.
Data analysis is done through coding, classifying, and reporting the information.
5. Design of the study
The study is divided into three parts.
Part A Introduction shows the research problem and the rationale for the research.
Subsequently, it presents the aims, the scope, the methods and the design of the study.
Part B Development consists of three chapters.
Chapter 1 provides a summary of theoretical background which covers a review in key
concepts relating to the research topic as well as the literature in the field.
Chapter 2 deals with the setting of the study and the data collection process. The results

obtained are also analysed and interpreted in this part, so that major findings are revealed and
discussed.
Chapter 3 is concerned with recommendations for developing 10
th
form students‟
compensation strategies in listening at the target school. These recommendations are drawn
from the literature review and from the findings in Chapter 2.
Part C Conclusion reviews the main findings of the study and provides suggestions
for further studies.
PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1. Listening comprehension
1.1.1. Definitions of listening comprehension
Language is the tool of communication, while listening is the most important part of
language communication and it is the basic path to understand others. Listening is more than
merely hearing words and comprehension is often considered to be the first-order goal of
listening, and the highest priority of the listener. During the last few decades, scholars have
been trying to find out the nature of listening comprehension and as a result different
definitions of listening comprehension have been proposed.
Underwood (1989: 1) puts a simple and easy-to-understand definition. According to
her, listening “is the activity of paying attention to and trying to get meaning from something
we hear.” Underwoord emphasizes the consciousness of listeners by using the phrase “paying
attention”. Besides, listening here is not stressed the word level but the meaning of the whole
utterance. She clarifies that “ to listen successfully to spoken language, we need to be able to
work out what speakers mean when they use particular words in particular ways on particular
occasions, and not simply understand the words themselves. ”
In Rubin‟s point of view, “listening is conceived of as an active process in which
listeners select and interpret information which comes from auditory and visual clues in order
to define what is going on and what the speakers are trying to express.” (Rubin, 1995: 7 as
cited in Helgesen & Brown, 2007: 3) The author emphasizes the activeness of listeners in the

listening process and also identifies two distinctive features of listening comprehension which
are selecting and interpreting. Selecting means listeners use only part of the incoming
information whereas interpreting means listeners make sense of the input from their
background knowledge as well as the new information.
More specifically, Richards and Schmidth (2002: 313) as cited in Helgesen & Brown
(2007: 3) views listening comprehension as “the process of understanding speech in a first or
second language. The study of listening comprehension in second language focuses on the role
of individual linguistic units (e.g., phonemes, words, grammatical structures) as well as the
role of the listeners’ expectations, the situation and context, background knowledge and
topic.” In this definition, the writers mention the role of non-linguistic units such as the
context, the background knowledge. These things are often neglected in traditional points of
views which regard the listeners as tape recorders. I agree most with this definition because it
covers all of the necessary factors relating to listening comprehension.
Besides the controversies over the definition of listening comprehension, there also
exist the concerns about the process of listening comprehension.
1.1.2. Listening comprehension process
Listening is different from hearing in the aspect of listeners‟ paying attention. Paying
attention results in the fact that listeners actively process what they hear.
According to Underwood (1989: 4) the aural process has three stages. Firstly, the
„echoic memory’ takes the sounds for a very short time and classifies them into „meaningful
units’ according to the background knowledge of the listener. Secondly, the information is
processed by the short term memory. In a matter of seconds, the meaning is taken out through
word-checking and word-comparing (with long term memory information). Finally, the
meaning extracted is stored in the long-term memory for the use in the future. It can be seen
that here Underwood relates the aural process in terms of time and memory. The background
knowledge of listeners is also mentioned in the listening process.
The two fundamental modes of information processing that are widely accepted by
researchers such as Rumelhart (1977), Nunan (2001), Flowerder and Miller (2005) are the
bottom-up and top-down processing. In bottom-up processing, listeners use their linguistic
knowledge to form final message. Linguistic knowledge includes sounds, words, grammatical

relationships, lexical meanings. In other words, “bottom-up processing is trying to make sense
of what we hear by focusing on the different parts: the vocabulary, the grammar or functional
phrases, sounds, etc.” (Helgesen & Brown, 2007: 6). On the contrary, Nauman (2002: 25)
illustrates that top-down processes “focus on the overall meaning of a passage and the
application of schemata. Schemata are mental frameworks based on past experiences which
can be applied to and help us interpret the current situation.” In top-down processing,
listeners use their prior knowledge to generate hypothesis. Prior-knowledge includes topic of
the listening material, context of the listening material, culture of the listening material, text
type of the listening material. It is important for both teachers and students to recognize the
existence of these two types of processing listening input as they both contribute to the
development of listening skill.
However, bottom-up processing and top-down processing as well has its weak points.
Bottom-up processing fails to see that understanding a text does not only depend on one‟s
linguistic knowledge. It is also an interactive process between the listener‟s previous
knowledge and the text. Top-down processing cannot evoke listeners‟ schemata if the
incoming information they hear is unfamiliar to them. Besides, although listeners can trigger a
schema, they might not have the suitable schema expected by the speaker. Therefore, one of
listening teacher‟s jobs is to help students learn to balance the two kinds of processing.
Because neither bottom-up process nor top-down process alone is sufficient for
comprehension, “these two processing intersect to develop an interactive processing.” (Wu,
2008: 23). In the interactive process listeners use both prior knowledge and linguistic
knowledge in understanding messages. The degree to which listeners use the one process or
the other will depend on their knowledge of the language, familiarity with the topic or the
purpose for listening.
Understanding how listeners process listening comprehension will provide students
and teachers with a lot of ideas to listen more effectively. It is also necessary to consider the
possible problems students often encounter in learning to listen to English.
1.1.3. Possible problems in listening comprehension
Listening is usually a hard skill to master in one‟s own language as well as in second
language acquisition. There exist some problems from the point of views of the listeners when

learning to listen.
Ur (1996: 111) refers to six major problems in listening comprehension which are
difficulties in perceiving sounds, following natural speed and native accent, catching up with
the load of information as well as the needs to understand everything, to get things repeated,
and to have a rest. Trouble with sounds seems to be the biggest problem as most students have
difficulty catching the actual sounds of the foreign language. The misconception that listening
means having to understand every word is a very common problem and is often unconsciously
fostered by teachers and/ or listening materials. The effort to understand everything results in
ineffective comprehension as well as feelings of fatigue and failure. The speed of the speakers
also causes many difficulties to students because they cannot hear the sounds clearly when
dealing with fast and natural native-sounding speech.
Underwood (1989: 16) shares some of the main points with Ur about problems in
listening comprehension. She states seven problems which include “lack of control over the
speed at which speakers speak”, “not being able to get things repeated”, “the listener’s limited
vocabulary”, “failure to recognise signals”, “problems of interpretation”, “inability to
concentrate”, and “established learning habits ”. Lack of vocabulary is really an obstacle for
people listening to a foreign language since they can sometimes hear the words clearly, but the
problem may occur in understanding the meanings of the words they do not know. An
unknown word can be like a suddenly dropped barrier causing them to stop and think about
the meaning of the word and thus making them miss the next part of the speech. Besides,
“established learning habits” mean students are traditionally taught to understand everything
in the English lessons by listening carefully to teachers who probably speak slowly and
clearly. As a result, students become worried and discouraged if they fail to understand every
word while listening.
Yagang (1993: 1) provides a little bit different point of view when saying that “The
evidence that shows why listening is difficult comes mainly from four sources: the message to
be listened to, the speaker, the listener, and the physical setting.” The message is considered
in terms of the content (topic, organization …) and linguistic features (liaisons, elision …).
The speaker factor includes redundancy, speaker‟s voice, accent and speech style. The listener
factor involves in linguistic knowledge, background knowledge, exposure to different kinds of

listening materials, psychological and physical factors. The physical setting consists of
background noises, visual and aural environmental clues, etc.
The problems students may encounter in listening comprehension are many and
various. As a result, they need to have some solutions to overcome these difficulties and
develop their listening competence. Language learning strategies (LLS) can be applied as
effective tools here.
1.2. Language learning strategies
1.2.1. Definitions of language learning strategies
Research on LLS has been a growth area since 1970s, when the emphasis on teachers
and teaching shifted to the learners and learning. Different researchers have presented their
definitions of this term differently.
Learning strategies in the view of O‟Malley and Chamot are “the special thoughts or
behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn or retain new information.”
(O‟Malley and Chamot, 1990: 1). LLS in this definition are emphasised as cognitive skills,
which relate to being in a state of conscious intellectual activity.
Cohen defines LLS as the “processes which are consciously selected by learners and
which may result in action taken to enhance the learning or use of a second or foreign
language, through the storage, retention, recall, and application of information about that
language” (Cohen, 1998: 4). Cohen emphasises that students consciously select these
processes but in fact there may be strategies students take unconsciously.
According to Oxford, LLS are “specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques that
students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills. These
strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language.
Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative
ability” (Oxford, 1992/1993:18 as cited in Nguyen (2007: 6)). This definition is clear,
moderate and reflects the nature of LLS. LLS here are learner generated (taken by students);
they enhance language learning and help develop language competence, they may be visible
(behaviours, steps, techniques, etc.) or unseen (thoughts, mental processes). The definition of
Oxford, an expert in LLS research, will be applied in this study due to its comprehensiveness.
This definition also serves as guideline for the classification of LLS in the following part.

1.2.2. Classification of language learning strategies
Oxford (1990: 16 - 22) classifies second LLS into two major classes: Direct Strategies
(strategies which directly involve the subject matter) and Indirect Strategies (strategies which
do not directly involve the subject matter itself, but are essential to language learning). Direct
Strategies are classified into memory strategies; cognitive strategies; and compensation
strategies. Indirect strategies include metacognitive strategies; affective strategies; and social
strategies.
DIRECT STRATEGIES
INDIRECT STRATEGIES
I. Memory
Strategies
1. Creating mental linkages
2. Applying images and sounds
3. Reviewing well
4. Employing actions
IV. Metacognitive
Strategies

1. Centering learning
2. Arranging and planning learning
3. Evaluating learning
II. Cognitive Strategies
1. Practicing
2. Receiving and sending
messages
3. Analyzing and reasoning
4. Creating structures for input and
output
V. Affective Strategies
1. Lowering anxiety

2. Encouraging oneself
3. Taking emotional temperature
III. Compensation
Strategies
1. Guessing intelligently
2. Overcoming limitations in
speaking and writing
VI. Social
Strategies
1. Asking questions
2. Cooperating with others
3. Empathizing with others
Table 1: Classification of language learning strategies (adapted from Oxford, 1990)
Memory strategies help learners link one second language item or concept with another
but do not necessarily involve deep understanding. Various memory strategies enable learners
to learn and retrieve information in an orderly string (e.g., acronyms), while other techniques
create learning and retrieval via sounds (e.g., rhyming), images (e.g., a mental picture of the
word itself or the meaning of the word), a combination of sounds and images (e.g., the
keyword method), body movement (e.g., total physical response), mechanical means (e.g.,
flashcards), or location (e.g., on a page or blackboard)
Cognitive strategies enable the learner to manipulate the language material in direct
ways, e.g., through reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining,
reorganizing information to develop stronger schemas (knowledge structures), practicing in
naturalistic settings, and practicing structures and sounds formally.
Compensation strategies (e.g., guessing from the context in listening and reading;
using synonyms and “talking around” the missing word to aid speaking and writing; and
strictly for speaking, using gestures or pause words) help the learner make up for missing
knowledge.
Metacognitive strategies (e.g., identifying one‟s own learning style preferences
andneeds, planning for a second language task, gathering and organizing materials, arranging

a study space and a schedule, monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task success, and evaluating
the success of any type of learning strategy) are employed for managing the learning process.
Affective strategies, such as identifying one‟s mood and anxiety level, talking about
feelings, rewarding oneself for good performance, and using deep breathing, have been shown
to be significantly related to second language proficiency.
Social strategies (e.g., asking questions to get verification, asking for clarification of a
confusing point, asking for help in doing a language task, talking with a native-speaking
conversation partner, and exploring cultural and social norms) help the learner work with
others and understand the target culture as well as the language.
Oxford‟s classification is appropriate since it covers fully LLS, from direct strategies
to indirect ones. It is a combination of the strategy classification systems by different experts
such as Rubin (1987), Chamot and O‟Malley (1990). It is more comprehensive and detailed,
and more accessible for readers because the strategies are organized hierarchically. However,
there is some overlap among sub-strategies in Oxford‟s classification.
1.2.3. The importance of language learning strategies for students
LLS can enable students to become more independent, autonomous, lifelong learners
(Allwright, 1990; Little, 1991 as cited in Oxford (2003: 9)). Students are freer to act, and to
make their own decision and able to learn continuously and permanently thanks to appropriate
LLS. Besides, a study by O'Malley and Chamot (1990) also suggests that effective second
language/ foreign language learners are aware of the LLS they use and why they use them.
LLS “make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective,
and more transferable to new situations” (Oxford, 1990: 8). Oxford (1990: 1) argues that
strategies are important for two reasons. In the first place, strategies “are tools for active, self
– directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence”.
Secondly, learners who have developed appropriate learning strategies have greater self –
confidence and learn more effectively. According to Oxford (1990: 9), LLS:
- contribute to the main goal, communicative competence
- allow learners to become more self – directed
- expand the role of teachers
- support learning both directly and indirectly

However, the effectiveness of LLS “may depend largely on the characteristics of the
given learner, the given language structure(s), the given context, or the interaction of these”
(Cohen, 1998:12). For beginning and intermediate language learners, compensation strategies
may be among the most important ones (Oxford, 1990: 90).
1.3. Compensation strategies in listening
1.3.1. Definition of compensation strategies
For purposes of this study and for ease of discussion, the term “compensation
strategies”, one type of LLS, as Oxford (1990) proposes, will be used in this paper.
Compensation strategies are classified as one of the direct strategies in Oxford‟s
classification. Learners use compensation strategies for comprehension of the target language
when they have insufficient knowledge of the target language. In other words, compensation
strategies are needed to fill any gaps in the knowledge of the language. When learners do not
know new words and expressions, they guess the meaning. Learners bring their own life
experience to interpret data by guessing.
Compensation strategies are also divided into two strategy sub-groups: Guessing
intelligently and Overcoming limitations. Oxford proposes to use the acronym GO to
remember these two strategy sub-groups when stating that “language learners can GO far
with compensation strategies” (Oxford, 1990: 90). Each of these strategy sub-groups consists
of some specific strategies as shown in the following table:
Strategy
Group
Strategy
Sub-groups
Specific Strategies
Applied to
Language Skills
Compensation strategies
(Direct)
1. Guessing
intelligently

a. Using linguistic clues
Listening, Reading
b. Using other clues
Listening, Reading
2. Overcoming
limitations in
speaking and
writing
c. Using mother tongue for an
expression without translating it
Speaking
d. Getting help
Speaking
e. Using mime or gestures
Speaking
f. Avoiding communication
Speaking, Writing
g. Selecting the topic
Speaking, Writing
h. Adjusting/ Approximating the
message
Speaking, Writing
i. Coining words
Speaking, Writing
j. Using a circumlocution or synonym
Speaking, Writing
Table 2: Classification of compensation strategies (adapted from Oxford, 1990)
As can be seen from Table 2, compensation strategies in listening are accompanied
with guessing intelligently:
- Using linguistic clues: Listeners can use such clues as prefixes, suffixes, word order, stress,

intonation, etc. to guess the meaning of unfamiliar language items they hear. In order to do so,
they need to have sufficient knowledge of the target language.
- Using other clues: Listeners can rely on clues from other sources such as visual clues,
situational context, background knowledge, text structure, etc. to make guesses about what is
heard.
Compensation strategies in listening is the combination of both bottom-up and top-
down processing as listeners have to employ all available information from linguistic
knowledge to background knowledge to understand the message.
1.3.2. The importance of compensation strategies in listening
Willing (1989: 130) confirms that “the importance of willing and accurate guessing
has long been recognized by language teachers everywhere”. Compensation strategies in
listening (guessing intelligently) can be of great help to students in general and beginning and
intermediate students in particular because they allow students to comprehend the new
language despite their gaps in knowledge. All effective listening involves guesswork because
listeners (even native speakers) often miss some words when listening and speakers can never
be completely explicit or clear about their meaning. It is always better to find ways to
construct meaning rather than give up; to try to build meaning based on what you understand
than to worry about what you do not understand. Compensation strategies in listening provide
ways for listeners not to guess blindly but to make intelligent guesses basing on clues „inside‟
and „outside‟ language. If used successfully, compensation strategies can help students
overcome knowledge limitations when they do not hear something clearly or they cannot catch
all the words.
Compensation strategies have been among the listening strategies with highest frequent
use. A study on listening comprehension strategies of Taiwan students by Teng (1998)
indicated that among the six strategy categories, compensation strategies were most often
employed by subjects. Vu (2004) studied listening strategies of the students at an university in
Vietnam and concluded that compensation strategies were most highly employed.
Monolingual Korean students are reported to use compensation strategies most in a study by
Leavell & Hong-nam (2007).
Compensation strategies, along with other listening strategies, serve as effective tools

for listeners in the listening comprehension process. “Learners who are aware of a range of
strategies, and who are able to match their strategies to their listening purposes, will be better
listeners and better learners” (Nunan as cited in Helgesen & Brown, 2007: 147). It is of vital
importance that our students be taught to listen effectively and critically.
1.3.3. Guidelines on applying compensation strategies in listening
These guidelines are constructed according to a lot of ideas from Oxford‟s Strategy
Inventory of Language Learning (Oxford, 1990), other researchers, language teachers and my
own experience. They are also applied in my survey to investigate students‟ current
application of compensation strategies in listening.
- Using grammatical clues (part of speech, prefixes, suffixes …) to guess the unfamiliar
language items in the listening passage.
- Using background knowledge to guess the meaning of the listening.
- Using the words and phrases surrounding the unknown word to make quick guesses
about its general meaning
- Using the titles, subtitles, pictures, diagrams accompanying the listening task to
understand the topic/ content of the listening.
- Using phonological clues (intonation, stress …) to guess the meaning of the listening.
- Using clues from discourse markers (markers of addition/ cause and effect/ sequences/
…) to guess the meaning of the listening.
- Using clues from body language of speakers to guess the meaning of the listening.
- Using clues from background noises to guess the meaning of the listening.
- Writing down the transcript for the word that listeners do not remember the spelling in
doing gap-filling exercises.
Conclusion
This chapter has provided an overview of definitions of key terms such as listening
comprehension, LLS, and compensation strategies. It also deals with the listening
comprehension process, classification of LLS, the importance of LLS in general and
compensation strategies in listening in particular. Finally, guidelines on applying
compensation strategies in listening have been proposed.
It can be seen that there have been quite a lot of studies related to compensation

strategies in listening. However, these studies spend only a small part on compensation
strategies because they focus on a variety of listening strategies. Besides, there is little
information about ways to help students develop compensation strategies. This is the gap that
the current thesis study tries to bridge. By using Oxford‟s and some other researchers‟ ideas
about compensation strategies in listening, this study hopes to add further evidence to the
small but growing body of research on this topic.
CHAPTER 2: DATA COLLECTION, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

2.1. Data collection
2.1.1. Setting of the study
Nguyen Van Cu Upper-Secondary School (NVC School) is located in Gia Lam district,
the suburb of Hanoi. It has had a history of 33-year development since its foundation in 1977.
In the school year 2009 - 2010, our school has 32 classes with more than 1,500 students, so
there are about 47 students in a class. One thing worth to note here is that the entry level of
students entering NVC School is not very high. They mostly come from rural areas where
English teaching and learning has not been paid much attention. Besides, NVC School shares
common features with classrooms elsewhere in Vietnam: large size, students sitting in rows of
four each and irremovable furniture.
English is taught here as a compulsory curriculum subject like other upper-secondary
schools. Students have three periods of English a week and each period lasts 45 minutes. The
new textbook of English 10, English 11, and English 12 aims at enabling the students to
communicate in the target language with four language skills. There are 16 units in a textbook,
and each unit is divided into 5 parts: Reading, Speaking, Listening, Writing, and Language
Focus.
2.1.2. Subjects of the study
There are two reasons why this study aims at 10
th
form teachers and students at NVC
School. Firstly, the 10
th

form students are the newcomers to the new kind of textbooks for
upper-secondary schools in which listening is stressed equally to other three skills. Secondly,
the students are at pre-intermediate level for which compensation strategies are of great help
as these strategies help them overcome knowledge limitations.
There are five out of eight teachers of English at NVC School participating in this study.
These five teachers include one male and four females. Their ages range from 26 to 33 with at
least four years of teaching English. One of them has finished an M.A course at Vietnam
National University, Hanoi. The reason for this choice of participants is that they are all in
charge of 10
th
form classes at NVC School.
The samples of students here are restricted to four 10
th
form classes (among eleven 10
th

form classes at NVC School). These four classes, which were chosen randomly, account for
180 students. They are aged from 15 to 16 and all of them have had at least four years of
learning English at lower-secondary schools. They are not the same at English speaking
competence. Some of them are really good and active while a lot of them are quite passive and
unmotivated in learning English.
2.1.3. Methods and instruments
The process of collecting data was carried out in the following steps:
Firstly, semi-structured interviews were conducted with five teachers to obtain their
attitudes towards compensation strategies in listening.
Secondly, the author observed two classes of listening to get some more detailed
information.
Thirdly, the questionnaires were distributed to 180 students to investigate their
attitudes towards compensation strategies in listening, the frequency of use of these strategies
and their difficulties and preferences.

Interviews
The interviews in this study serve as a useful tool to invest the teachers‟ perception and
evaluation of compensation strategies in listening. They also aim at seeking information about
some points related to developing students‟ compensation strategies in listening.
Each interview consists of two parts: the first one for personal information and the
second one for the content information. The number of prepared questions for the content
information is eight. The interviews are semi-structured, which means there is “a prompt
which requests certain information but the exact shape of the response is not predetermined”
(Cohen, 1989: 28). In the interviews, the author can sometimes add some explanation as well
as ask for some more detailed information.
The one-on-one interviews were conducted in Vietnamese and in informal ways so that
the teachers were able to express their ideas freely. It was lucky that all of the teachers were
very enthusiastic in participating in the interviews. The method of recording information was
note-taking. Then the interviews were translated into English for analysis.
Class observations
The method of class observation is used not to investigate the compensation strategies
applied by students since guessing skill is mentalistic and not behavioristic. Instead, it intends
to address the ways in which the teachers help students to develop compensation strategies in
listening.
Two classes of listening which were observed were Unit 15 - Listening, Unit 16 -
Listening in English 10. During observations, the researcher was an observer and did not take
part in any classroom activity. The observer took notes focusing on techniques that the
teachers help students to develop compensation strategies in listening.
Questionnaires
The major means of data collection is the questionnaires for students. Each
questionnaire is constructed from two parts: part A for personal information and part B for
content information. Part B is divided into three small sections, namely B1, B2, and B3. B1
consists of five yes/no questions in order to find out students‟ perception and evaluation of
compensation strategies in listening. B2 includes eight questions to investigate students‟
degree of frequency in using specific strategies of compensation strategies in listening. These

questions are adapted from Oxford‟s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (1990) and
some other ideas. Students answered each item statement using a 5-point Likert-scale that
ranged from 1 (Never) through 5 (Always). B3 is made up from two multiple choice questions
and its purpose is addressing students‟ difficulties and preferences in applying compensation
strategies. Students can choose more than one option in this part.
The questionnaire questions were worded carefully and translated into Vietnamese to
make it easy for the students. The questionnaires were also piloted with the help of three
students before delivering to the large number. The specific strategies are carefully illustrated
with examples, so students can clearly understand them and increase the accuracy of their
responses. The students were encouraged to share their ideas frankly and accurately, i.e.
representing what they actually do rather than what they should be doing. Besides, the
questionnaire papers were collected anonymously in order that students can freely express
their ideas.
2.2. Findings and discussions
The data from questionnaire were keyed into the computer and analyzed by using
EXCEL. Descriptive statistics, including frequencies, means, standard deviations and
percentages, were implemented in order to investigate the use of language learning strategies.
Besides, information from interviews and class observation was also synthesized and
interpreted.
2.2.1. Teachers’ perception and evaluation of compensation strategies in listening
In general, three out of five teachers in the interviews were aware of the concept
“listening strategies”. As adapted from Oxford‟s definition of language leaning strategies,
listening strategies can be defined as “specific behaviors or thought processes” that students
use to enhance their learning listening comprehension. Listening strategies are techniques or
activities that contribute directly to the comprehension and recall of listening input. Three
teachers shared the same concept. For example, Teacher 3 stated that “listening strategies are
techniques and skills that listeners use to listen more effectively.” However, two teachers still
had vague ideas of “listening strategies” when they considered listening strategies as listening
for general or specific information.
In term of the concept “compensation strategies in listening”, four out of the five

teachers admitted that they had never heard of this one. However, when the interviewer
replaced this concept with “guessing intelligently in listening” they all stated the familiarity.
Teacher 1 emphasized that “guessing skill in listening helps students get the answers and
comprehend the listening although they do not catch all the words”. Although all the teachers
reported to be familiar with “guessing intelligently in listening”, results from the interviews
indicated they did not have a full understanding of this strategy. They all thought of guessing
strategy as guessing the answers from the topic and the key words of the listening. For
example, Teacher 2 explained that “students can base on instructions and key words of tasks
in listening to guess the meaning”. Only one teacher (Teacher 5) added the background
knowledge factor as a guessing clue. It is shown that the teachers were not fully aware of the
detailed system of specific techniques in guessing intelligently in listening (as mentioned in
the guidelines in Chapter 1 Literature Review).
Some information from class observations has validated the above finding. In two
classes of Unit 15 – Listening and Unit 16 – Listening, the teachers often asked students some
information relating to the topic of the listening and helped students identify the key words of
the questions or the statements provided before students listened.
To answer the question “What do you think about the importance of compensation
strategies in facilitating your students’ listening comprehension?” all five teachers
emphasized the importance of compensation strategies in listening lessons. Teacher 2
confirmed that “guessing intelligently is very important to students’ listening comprehension.
It can make up for 50 percent of the success of listening”. Teacher 4 explained that “guessing
skill helps students orient the listening information”. Teacher 5 added a very interesting idea
that students‟ implementation of guessing skill “helps lessons not to be overloaded”.
As a result of the approval of the significance of compensation strategies, teaching
compensation strategies in listening have been done by all of the five teachers interviewed.
They reported that they usually help students develop these strategies by “introducing the
topic and providing necessary vocabulary” (Teacher 1), “asking students to scan the tasks and
identify key words” (Teacher 2), “asking students to predict the answers before listening” or
“to predict the content of the listening” (Teacher 3 & 4), and “helping students to see the
differences among options in the answers” (Teacher 5). Two class observations also showed

the teachers‟ efforts of helping students to guess intelligently. However, these techniques are
not enough to develop a full system of specific compensation strategies in listening for
students because they only concentrate on some clues such as the topic and the key words.
In conclusion, the five teachers at NVC School held some understanding of
compensation strategies in listening but they failed to reach a full knowledge of the specific
strategies. The reason for this limited knowledge lies in the fact that compensation strategies
in listening have not been properly investigated and introduced to English teachers and
learners. Besides, all five teachers in this study acknowledged the importance of compensation
strategies in listening to students. By this, they all meant the necessity of teaching
compensation strategies in listening to students. However, they need to be equipped with more
useful techniques to help students develop guessing strategies effectively.
2.2.2. Students’ perception and evaluation of compensation strategies in listening
Most of the students in the survey (84%) admitted that they had never heard of the
term “listening strategies”. This term seemed to be quite new to them because even not all of
the teachers were aware of this concept (as mentioned in the previous part) and some teachers
taught listening strategies without naming them. Moreover, students can employ listening
strategies consciously and unconsciously, which means that students can exploit the strategies
with or without being aware of them.
The concept of “compensation strategies in listening”, therefore, was explained with
the term “guessing intelligently in listening” to make it easier for students as well as to collect
the reliable data. More than half of the students, namely 56%, reported that they were familiar
with “guessing intelligently in listening”. Guessing skill seems to be very natural to people,
even in mother tongue. However, the ability to guess intelligently requires a lot of practice.
The students who reported their familiarity may know some ways to guess but they still need a
lot of practice to be intelligent guessers. In the two classes of listening observed, the correct
guesses students made accounted for only about 50%.
It is noted that a very large number of students appreciate compensation strategies in
listening. 88% of the informants thought that compensation strategies are important in
facilitating their listening comprehension. This revelation matched Oxford‟s evaluation of
compensation strategies in listening when she stated that they were among the most important