Lồng ghép việc thảo luận về các chủ đề gây tranh cãi vào hoạt động nói để tăng cường sự tham gia của học sinh trong các giờ học Tiếng Anh Một nghiên cứu hành độ

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
-----  -----

TRẦN THỊ PHƯƠNG NGA

INTEGRATING DISCUSSIONS ON CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS INTO
SPEAKING ACTIVITIES TO INCREASE STUDENTS’ PARTICIPATION
IN ENGLISH LESONS: AN ACTION RESEARCH AT THE INDUSTRIAL
ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY COLLEGE

(Lồng ghép việc thảo luận về các chủ đề gây tranh cãi vào các hoạt động nói để
tăng cường sự tham gia của học sinh trong các giờ học Tiếng Anh: Một nghiên cứu
hành động tại trường CĐ Công Nghệ và Kinh Tế Công Nghiệp)

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111

Ha Noi, 2014


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
-----  -----

TRẦN THỊ PHƯƠNG NGA

INTEGRATING DISCUSSIONS ON CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS INTO
SPEAKING ACTIVITIES TO INCREASE STUDENTS’ PARTICIPATION
IN ENGLISH LESONS: AN ACTION RESEARCH AT THE INDUSTRIAL
ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY COLLEGE

(Lồng ghép việc thảo luận về các chủ đề gây tranh cãi vào các hoạt động nói để
tăng cường sự tham gia của học sinh trong các giờ học Tiếng Anh: Một nghiên cứu
hành động tại trường CĐ Công Nghệ và Kinh Tế Công Nghiệp)

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field:

English Teaching Methodology

Code:

60140111

Supervisor: Assoc. Prof, Dr. Le Hung Tien

Ha Noi, 2014


DECLARATION
I hereby state that I TrầnThịPhươngNga, being an M.A. candidate of the Faculty of Postgraduate Studies, ULIS, VNU, certify my authorship of the study entitled ―Integrating
discussions on controversial topics into speaking activities to increase students’
participation in English lessons – an action research at the Industrial Economics and
Technology College (IETC)‖. The thesis is the study of my own research and the
substance of the thesis has not, wholly or partially, been submitted for a degree to any

other universities or institutions.

Ha Noi, August 2014

TrầnThịPhươngNga

i


ACKOWLEDGEMENTS
To complete the task, I have received a great deal of useful and practical support from
many people.
First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Mr.
LêHùngTiếnfor his scholarly knowledge, wholehearted supervision, insightful invaluable
guidance and constructive critical feedback. He has inspired and encouraged me during the
steps of the thesis.
Also, my special thanks are sent to my colleagues and my beloved second-year students in
two classes, K6A-KT and K6A-KTD at the Industrial Economics and Technology College
for their participation in as well as their strong support for the research with comments,
useful materials and classroom observation opportunities without which my work would
have not been completed.
Last but not least, I would like to convey my heartfelt thanks to my family and all of my
close friends for their love, care, encouragement and financial as well as spiritual support
for me to fulfill this thesis.
Ha Noi, August 2014

TrầnThịPhươngNga

ii

ABSTRACT
Students at the Industrial Economics and Technology College (IETC) often neglect
themselves from speaking activities for a number of factors including inadequate
vocabulary, incorrect pronunciation and insufficient confidence. Controversial topics are
proved to encourage students to think critically and speak actively. Therefore, the author
of the study decided to conduct an action research to integrate discussions on
controversial topics into speaking activities. The action research was carried out among 47
second-year students of Accounting and Electrical Technique classes with the aims of
increasing students‘ participation and changing their attitude towards speaking. The
research was conducted through seven steps with data collected from observation, pre and
post intervention questionnaires, interviews and students‘ reports. The result of the study
shows that total amount of participation increased significantly; students participate more
voluntarily and confidently. Moreover, their attitudes towards speaking changed when
they expressed their willingness, interest and agreement on the benefits of
controversial topics.

iii


LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Participants‘ description
Table 2: Total supporting ideas for each topic.

LIST OF CHARTS
Chart 1: Frequency of participation in class K6A-KT
Chart 2: Frequency of participation in class K6A-KTD
Chart 3: Level of volunteer to speak in class K6A-KT
Chart 4: Level of volunteer to speak in class K6A-KTD
Chart 5: Degree of participation before intervention

Chart 6: Degree of participation in class K8A-KT during the intervention
Chart 7: Degree of participation in class K8A-KTD during the intervention
Chart 8:The frequency of ideas per person in class K8A-KT
Chart 9:The number of ideas per person in class K8A-KTD
Chart 10: The benefits of controversial topics
Chart 11: Level of confidence after the intervention
Chart 12: Students‘ feeling about controversial topics.

iv


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Declaration ............................................................................................................................ i
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. ii
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... iii
List of tables and charts .................................................................................................... iv
Table of contents ................................................................................................................. v
PART A: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1
1. Rationale for the study ....................................................................................................... 1
2. Aims of the study .............................................................................................................. 2
3. Research questions ............................................................................................................. 3
4. Scope of the study .............................................................................................................. 3
5. Methods of the study ......................................................................................................... 3
6. Significance of the study.................................................................................................... 4
6.1. Theoretical significance of the study ............................................................................. 4
6.2. Practical significance of the study .................................................................................. 4
7. Design of the study ........................................................................................................... 4
PART B: DEVELOPMENT .............................................................................................. 5

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................... 5
1.1. Teaching Speaking Skills: ............................................................................................. 5
1.1.1. Definition of speaking .......................................................................................... 5
1.1.2. Components of speaking skill ............................................................................... 5
1.1.3. Characteristics of a successful speaking activity .................................................. 7
1.2. Action research .............................................................................................................. 8

v


1.2.1. Definition of action research................................................................................. 8
1.2.2. The stages of an action research ........................................................................... 9
1.3. Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 10
1.3.1. Definitions of discussion ..................................................................................... 10
1.3.2. Purposes of classroom discussions ...................................................................... 11
1.3.3. How to have a good classroom discussion .......................................................... 11
1.4. Controversial topics ...................................................................................................... 12
1.4.1. Definition of controversial topics ........................................................................ 12
1.4.2. Definition of discussion on controversial topics.................................................. 13
1.4.3. Controversy, conflict and debate ......................................................................... 13
1.4.4. Advantages of using controversial topics ............................................................ 14
1.4.5. How to deal with controversial topics ................................................................ 15
1.5. Definition of classroom participation ........................................................................... 16
1.6. Related studies .............................................................................................................. 16
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY .................................................................................. 19
2.1. Setting of the study ....................................................................................................... 19
2.1.1. The teaching and learning condition .......................................................................... 19
2.1.2. Description of material used ...................................................................................... 20
2.1.3. The teachers .............................................................................................................. 20
2.1.4. The students ............................................................................................................... 20

2.2. The participants............................................................................................................. 21
2.3. Action research procedures ........................................................................................... 21
2.3.1. Initiation .............................................................................................................. 22
2.3.2. Preliminary investigation .................................................................................... 23
2.3.3. Review of research questions ............................................................................ 23

vi


2.3.4. Intervention ........................................................................................................ 24
2.3.5. Evaluation .......................................................................................................... 26
2.3.6. Dissemination .................................................................................................... 26
2.3.7. Follow-up ........................................................................................................... 26
2.4. Data collection instruments .......................................................................................... 26
2.4.1. Classroom observation ......................................................................................... 26
2.4.2. Questionnaire ....................................................................................................... 27
2.4.3. Interview .............................................................................................................. 27
2.4.4. Students‘ reports ................................................................................................ 27
2.5. Procedure of data collection ........................................................................................ 28
CHAPTER 3: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS .............................................. 29
3.1. Research question 1 ...................................................................................................... 29
3.2. Research question 2 ..................................................................................................... 32
3.3. Research question 3 ..................................................................................................... 37
PART C: CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 41
1. Summary of findings ....................................................................................................... 41
2. Concluding remarks ......................................................................................................... 42
3. Limitations of the study ................................................................................................... 42
4. Recommendations ........................................................................................................... 42
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 44
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................I

vii


PART A : INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale of the study:
It is of no suspicion that English has become an international language for decades. It has
been considered a means of international communication and the most common instrument
to interlink countries worldwide. This results in an increasing demand of learning English
as a foreign language. To learn English communicatively, listening and speaking skills
should take a predominant position. However, in most primary, lower secondary and
upper-secondary schools in Vietnam, English learning limits itself at grammar introduction
and writing but neglects the importance of listening and speaking skills, especially
speaking. Therefore, students learn English passively; they keep silence, listen, take notes
and hesitate to express their ideas orally. Because students learn and are taught in a passive
way, they can hardly express their own viewpoints due to lack of vocabulary, poor
pronunciation and inadequate confidence.
At IETC, most students are at considerably average and low levels. They rarely take part in
classroom activities except for being urged to give their own words. Hence, speaking
lessons do not work well because only some are willing to take part in oral activities while
most of the others keep silent or are incapable of expressing their own opinions. They are
not interested enough to involve in speaking activities. This results from both sides teachers and learners. The teachers introduce a new language in a traditional method which
focuses mainly on grammar and writing. During speaking lessons, it has been found out
that students, for some reasons, lack confidence to speak or even neglect classroom
activities. A preliminary investigation shows that normally the students spend only 20 to
40 percent of their time participating into classroom activities and a similar number remain
silence unless they are asked to speak. The most frequently found problem in learning
speaking skill is the influence of their native language. Other obstacles are the lack of
motivation, vocabulary, enjoyment to practice the foreign language. Of these obstacles,
motivation seems to be a leading factor helping increase the number of participation

among students. Once they have a given motivation, they will be ready to speak. The
author of this research has considered the problem and does believe that one of the main
discouraging factors is that they are not given the right topic which can activate their

1


motivation to speak. The choice of appropriate speaking topics which can break the iceberg of silence is therefore of crucial importance.
Controversial topics have been proved by many authors to be beneficial in increasing
students‘ participation. Although some teachers avoid controversial topics during class
time, it is indeed a potential issue in that it motivates students to think critically and
encourage them to speak actively. The use of controversial topics has been proved by
many authors to be an effective technique to encourage students to speak. Teaching the
pros and cons of controversial issues in a structured conflict format can help "focus student
attention," increase motivation, "produce higher levels of cognitive reasoning," "produce
higher levels of achievement and retention," as well as increase "levels of creativity and
divergent thinking" and "students' self-esteem." ( Johnson & Johnson 2009). Many authors
have implemented research studies on the use of controversial topics and they certainly
bring about positive outcomes. Oulton, Day, Dillon, & Grace (2004) believe that the ability
to engage in a constructive discussion of controversial topics fosters an appreciation of
opposing viewpoints and is a key element of good citizenship.
Accordingly, the author of this study has taken these problems into consideration and
decided to conduct an action research entitled: Integrating discussions on controversial
topics into speaking activities to increase students’ participation in English lessons – an
action research at the Industrial Economics and Technology College (IETC).
2. Aims of the study:
This study is an action research. It aims at:
- Investigating the current situation of speaking learning and teaching at IETC to see the
level of participation and possible factors obstructing students from expressing their
viewpoint orally.

- Investigating the effectiveness of integrating discussions on controversial topics into
speaking activities to see how the learning motivation and participation increase and how
students‘ communicative competence is improved.
-Proposing further recommendations for other teachers on teaching methods so that
controversial topics can be used more frequently due to their advantages.

2


3. Research questions:
This study is an action research which investigates the current situation of speaking
learning among students and examines the degree of participation into speaking activities
and the change in students‘ attitude before and after the interference. Therefore, there are
three research questions to be raised:
1. How actively do students participate in speaking activities before and after the
intervention?
2. What accounts for the degree of their participation?
3. What is the students‘ perception of the advantages of controversial topics?
4. Scope of the study:
This research has a broader scope and it is impossible for the writer to handle all existing
problems. Therefore, the writer limits the scope of the study. To intensify students‘
participation in speaking activities the teacher can apply a variety of methods and
techniques. However, in this study, the researcher only focuses on the use of motivating
topics which are controversial to increase students‘ participation. In terms of language
skills the author of this study only concentrate on speaking skill integrated with other
language skills. In terms of participants, there are a lot of students of alternative majors at
IETC. However, the action research is carried out on 47 students of Accounting and
Electrical Technique in their second semester because the writer is assigned to take
responsibility of the two classes at the time.
5. Methods of the study:

The research is conducted basing on both qualitative and quantitative approach.
Firstly, quantitative approach is utilized to investigate fully the degree of participation in
speaking lessons before and after the integration of discussions on controversial topics and
the number of participants and responds in each activity. Secondly, qualitative approach
aims to investigate students‘ attitude towards speaking and how beneficial they can explore
about the use of controversial topics. The data underlying the research questions, therefore,
can be collected by means of:
-

Questionnaires.

3


-

Interviews.

-

Classroom observation.

Besides, students‘ observation sheets are also collected as an useful tool to investigate the
effectiveness of discussions on controversial topics.
6. Significance of the study:
6.1. Theoretical significance of the study
- It is expected that this research can be used as a reference for other researchers who intend
to conduct a research on using controversial topics as a tool to increase students‘
participation in English speaking activities.
- Hopefully, the findings and recommendations of the study can be of some help for

English teachers in the adaptation of alternative techniques to improve students‘ speaking
skill.
6.2. Practical significance of the study
It is expected that the study is beneficial for both the teacher and the students during and
after the action research is carried out:
- By preparing for discussion of controversial topics in class and organizing class activities,
the teacher will become more knowledgeable, energetic and motivated.
- The students will be encouraged to think critically and actively.
- Other teachers will adopt similar activities when they explore the advantages of the
activities used by their colleagues.
7. Design of the study:
The study is divided into three main parts as follow:
Part A- Introduction: This part presents the rationale, the aims and the research
questions, the scope, significance as well as the methods and design of the study.
Part B- Development: This part comprises three chapters.
Chapter 1 – Literature review: In this chapter, relevant literature regarding speaking skill,
discussion, action research and controversial topics are reviewed.

4


Chapter 2 – Methodology: In this chapter the context of the study is introduced, the
problem is identified, the plan of action is presented, and explanations are given to
instruments of collection, as well as data and data collection procedure.
Chapter 3 – Data analysis and discussions: The data is interpreted, research questions are
answered and major findings are discussed in this section.
Part C– Conclusion: In this part, the main points of the study as well as the findings are
summarized. The limitations of the research and recommendations for further studies are
also presented.
Besides, the list of references and the appendixes are also parts of this study.

5


PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW
1. 1.Teaching speaking skills:
1.1.1. Definition of speaking:
Speaking can be understood differently by different authors or researchers. According to
Chaney(1988:13), speaking is ―the process of building and sharing meaning through the
use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts‖. Fowler & Thompson
(2000) share the same view that speaking is ―the action of conveying information or
expressing one‘s thoughts and feelings in spoken language‖. According to another
researcher Brown (1994:103), speaking is ―an interactive process of constructing meaning
that involves producing and receiving and processing information‖. In a related study,
Bygate (1987:3) had a detailed definition which states that ―speaking is the skill by which
learners are most frequently judged and through which they make and lose friends. It is
also the medium through which much language is learnt‖. Orwig (1991:1), on the other
hand, defines speaking as the productive skill in the oral mode. It is complicated and
involves more than just pronouncing words. Nunan (2003:48) think that ―speaking is the
productive oral skill. It consists of producing systematic verbal utterance to convey
meaning.‖
From the above definitions of speaking, it is obvious that speaking is one of the basic and
crucial skilsl that students have to learn so as to communicate inside or outside the
classroom. Moreover, when students are able to express their ideas orally in a confident
and comfortable way, they can interact better in real daily situations.
1.1.2. Components of speaking skills:
According to Canale & Swain (1980: 27-31) and Canale (1983:22-25), speaking includes
four components which are grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic
competencies. Grammar competence includes knowledge of phonology, orthography,

vocabulary, word function and sentence formation. Sociolinguistic competence includes
knowledge of sociocultural rules of use and deals with the use of appropriate grammatical
forms for different communicative functions in different sociolinguistic contexts.
Discourse competence involves learners‘ mastery of understanding and producing texts in

6


the modes of listening, speaking, reading and writing. It deals with cohesion and coherence
in different types of text. Strategic competence refers to compensatory strategies in case of
grammatical or sociolinguistic or discourse difficulties.
From Syakur (1987:3-5) point of view, he claims that speaking is a complex skill because
at least it concerns with components of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and fluency.
The description is as follows:


Pronunciation is the students‘ way to utter English well and it deals with

phonology. There are two features of pronunciation; phonemes and supra segmental
features. A speaker who constantly mispronounces a range of phonemes can be extremely
difficult for a speaker from another language community to understand (Gerard, 2000:11)


Grammar concerns with how to arrange to correct sentences in conversation. The

utility of grammar is to learn the correct way to gain expertise in a language both in oral
and written form. Heaton (1978: 5) states that grammar involves student‘s ability to
manipulate structure and to distinguish appropriate grammatical form in appropriate one.


Vocabulary means the appropriate diction which is used in conversation. Without

having a sufficient vocabulary, one can‘t communicate effectively.


Fluency and accuracy: Fluency can be defined as the ability to speak fluently and

accurately suited with professional necessity. Basically, being fluent means being able to
keep the language coming. Fluency in speaking is the aim of many language learners.
Signs of fluency include a reasonably fast speed of speaking and only a small number of
pauses and ―ums‖ or ―ers‖. These signs indicate that the speaker does not have to spend a
lot of time searching for the language items needed to express the message

(Brown.

1997: 4).
1.1.3. Characteristics of a successful speaking activity:
In order to organize speaking activities successfully, it is essential to identify the
characteristics of a good speaking activity. Klippel (1985:3-4) thinks that an effective
speaking lesson needs to have three features:
a. Message oriented communication which indicates the moments in foreign language
when target language is used as a vehicle of communication.

7


b. It has learner – centered activities in which students‘ feelings, purposes and ideas are
the focus.
c. In speaking lesson, active learning, cooperation and empathy which emphasize the
students‘ active participation in the speaking process.

According to Ur (1996:120), a successful speaking activity needs to have four typical
characteristics:
a. Learners talk a lot: As much as possible of the period of time allocated to the activity is
in fact occupied by learners talk. This may be obvious, but often most time is taken up with
teacher talk or pauses
b. Participation is even: Classroom discussion is not dominated by a minority of talk
active participants. All get a chance to speak and contributions are fairly evenly distributed
c. Motivation is high: Learners are eager to speak because they are interested in the topic
and have something new to say about it, or they want to contribute to achieve a task
objective
d. Language is of an acceptable level: Learners express themselves in utterances that are
relevant, easy comprehensible to teach other and of acceptable level of language accuracy.
1.2. Action research:
1.2.1. Definition of action research:
The term ―action research‖ can be defined by many authors, researchers and linguists. It
can be seen as ―the systematic collection and analysis of data relating to the improvement
of some aspect of professional practice‖ (Wallace,1998:1) or simply a ―small-scale
intervention in the functioning of the real world and a close examination of the effects of
such intervention.‖ (Cohen and Manion,1994:297). Hopkins (1985: 32) suggests that the
combination of action and research renders that action a form of disciplined inquiry, in
which a personal attempt is made to understand, improve and reform practice. Ebbutt
(1985: 156), too, regards action research as a systematic study that combines action and
reflection with the intention of improving practice. Cohen, Manion and Morrison(1994:
186) define it as ‗a small-scale intervention in the functioning of the real world and a close
examination of the effects of such an intervention. Kemmis & Taggart (1988: 16) define

8


action research as ―a group activity‖ and ―a form of collective self-reflective enquiry

undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and
justice of the own social or educational practices, as well as their understanding of these
practices and the situations in which these practices are carried out.‖ Sharing the same
viewpoint, Sagor (1992:7) says that ―action research is conducted by people who want to
do something to improve their own situation‖ and that ― action researchers undertake a
study because they want to know whether they can do something in a better way‖. It can be
concluded from these different opinions that in general action research is collaborative and
it aims at changing things.
1.2.2. The stages of an action research:
According to Lewin (1946:34), an action research is conducted based on seven stages:
Stage 1: Identifying, evaluating or formulating the problem.
Stage 2: fact finding to draw a full picture of the situation to clarify the nature of the
problem.
Stage 3: A critical review of the problem in stage two. Usually, in this stage, the researcher
generates hypotheses which attempt to enlighten some of the facts of the problem.
Stage 4: Gathering relevant information to test hypotheses proposed in the previous stage.
Stage 5: Discussions, negotiation and decisions of on the selection of research procedures.
Stage 6: Determination of circumstances and methods of data collection, classification and
analysis; monitoring the task and considering the choice of evaluative procedures.
Stage 7: Interpretation of data collected and the overall evaluation of the research.
Nunan (2001:2-3) also divides the research process into seven steps with some differences:
Step1: Initiation - A problem triggers the idea of action research
Step 2: Preliminary investigation - Baseline data are collected to help understand the nature
of the problem.
Step 3: Hypotheses - A hypothesis is formulated after reviewing the initial data.
Step 4: Intervention - A number of strategies are devised and applied.

9

Step 5: Evaluation - An assessment is carried out to evaluate the intervention. Some steps
may be repeated.
Step 6: Dissemination - A report of the research is published. Ideas emerged from the
research are shared.
Step 7: Follow-up - Alternative solutions for the problem are continually investigated.
Sagor (1992:8), however, indicates that there are only three steps for an action research to
be carried out, which are:
Step 1: Initiating action.
Step 2: Monitoring and adjusting action.
Step 3:Evaluating action.
In conclusion, different writers can choose among alternative steps by different
researchers. In this research study, the author decided to follow seven steps by Nunan
(2001) because the sequence of the steps fully and specifically reflects her action research
procedures.
1.3. Discussion:
1.3.1. Definition of discussion:
According to Parker (1997:18-21), discussion is ―competent deliberation that is rooted in
knowledge‖. It can also be understood as a thoughtful consideration of relationships
involved in the topic or the problem under study. These relations are to be analyzed,
compared, evaluated and conclusions are drawn. Discussion is an interactive endeavor, and
reflective dialogue engenders listening and responding to ideas expressed by one's peers (
Harwood, Angela & Carole 1990:2). On the other hand, Larson (2000: 54-55) says that
discussion is an engagement in and a practice of the activities of thought and
communication. According to Larson (1997) citing Wileen & White (1991), discussion is
characterized as a structured conversation among participants who present, examine,
compare and understand similar and diverse ideas about an issue. Discussion can also be
thought to be a useful teaching technique for developing higher-order thinking skills (skills
that enable students to interpret, analyze, and manipulate information). ( Larson 2000:662).

10

1.3.2. Purposes of classroom discussions:
According to Barton and Alan (2007:2), students who regularly take part in classroom
discussion are more likely to: Vote in later life, support basic democratic values, take part
in political discussions, follow political news in the media, be interested in the political
process and have confidence in their ability to influence public policy. Classroom
discussions has two purposes : (1) discussion as a method of instruction, where the purpose
is to help engage students in a lesson by encouraging verbal interactions; and (2)
discussion competence as the subject matter (as the desired outcome of instruction and an
end in itself) (Larson 2000:662). Gall (1985) points out that discussion is an effective way
to promote higher-level thinking, develop student attitudes, and advance student capability
for moral reasoning (cited by Larson 1999: 125).
1.3.3. How to have a good classroom discussion:
Students' enthusiasm, involvement, and willingness to participate affect the quality of class
discussion as an opportunity for learning. Your challenge is to engage all students, keep
them talking to each other about the same topic, and help them develop insights into the
material (Davis 1993:1)
Early investigations of the effects of discussion indicated that students who participated in
classroom discussions often reported more positive political attitudes and higher
participation in political activities (cited by Harwood, Angela& Carole 1990:8). According
to experts, for discussion to be effective in the classroom, teachers must know how to
allow the students to take control of the discussion, but at the same time, direct and instruct
the students in how to have meaningful discussion. This would obviously be important,
because students must know how to have a discussion and where they are going with the
discussion for the discussion to be useful and meaningful to them. In reference to the
teacher‘s role in classroom discussion, Dillon (1979) states that students have a propensity
to elaborate more fully in response to their peers‘ comments or questions than to those of
the teacher. This seems logical, since students are more likely to debate and discuss
various subjects and materials with an individual on their intellectual level rather than with

an individual who they feel is on a higher, more advanced intellectual level, such as their
teacher. Larson (1997) points out that teachers have multiple conceptions of classroom

11


discussion; and a number of factors influence the type of discussion they use ( cited by
Larson 1999:125).
Productive classroom discussions—those that enable students to invent, create, imagine,
take risks, and dig for deeper meanings—can only take place in a climate in which students
feel safe to offer their ideas. Teachers can create such a climate by being mindful of the
essential conditions of interactive teaching (Wassermann 2010). She also suggests some
tips for a successful classroom discussion:
- Listen, attend and apprehend.
- Clarify what students mean.
- Give students time.
- Appreciate students‘ ideas.
- Accept lack of closure.
-Balanced classroom instructions.
1.4. Controversial topics:
1.4.1. Definition of controversial topics:
A controversial issue can be defined as an issue on which there is disagreement (Harwood,
Angela & Carole 1990:2). Controversial is a word that is used as a noun to refer to a
dispute, argument or debate which concerns a matter in which there is a strong
disagreement. Controversies unlike most disputes are usually carried by the press or public.
Controversy, conflict, and disagreement are integral elements of college teaching, and all
instructors must anticipate controversy and plan to use it productively (Barton and Alan
2007). According to Frost (2013), there is nothing like a controversial topic to get the
blood flowing through your veins, and nothing like defending your corner of the moral
landscape against the opinions of others who ―just don‘t get it!‖ Controversy lights up tired

lecture halls, and treads provokingly through the pages of dissertations the world over.
Johnson and Johnson (1988:59), on the other hand, state that controversy is a type of
academic conflict that exists when one student‘s ideas, information, conclusion, theories
and opinions are incompatible with those of another and the two seek to reach an
agreement.

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1.4.2. Definition of discussion on controversial topics:
A controversial issues discussion is defined as reflective dialogue among students, or
between students and teachers, on which there is disagreement ( Harwood, Angela &
Hahn, Carole 1990:2). Freeley & Steinberg (2005) argues that discussions on controversial
topics refer to the process of considering multiple viewpoints and arriving at a judgment,
and its application ranges from an individual using debate to make a decision in his or her
own mind to an individual or group using debate to convince others to agree with them.
1.4.3. Controversy , conflict and debate:
According to Johnson and Johnson (1988:61), controversy and debate share a lot of
similarities when they both derive conclusions by categorizing and organizing information
and experiences. Moreover, they are challenged by opposing views, the correctness of own
views are uncertain and they cause active representation and elaboration of position and
rational. However, these two authors also point out that controversy has high espistemic
curiousity while that of debate is moderate. The same things occur with conceptualization
and productivity when the these of the former is high but of the later is moderate.
Conflict involves incompatible activities; one person‘s actions interfere, obstruct, or in
some way get in the way of another‘s action (Deutsch, 1973). Although conflicts can
emphasize differences in expectations, coordination, and preferences, nearly all conflicts
involve ideas and have intellectual aspects. For example, angry persons were found to
manage their conflicts more effectively when they open mindedly discussed their evidence
and interpretations for why they were angry (Tjosvold & Su, 2007).

Originally, we had assumed that controversy was a special kind of conflict that was likely
to be constructive (Tjosvold, 1985; Tjosvold & Johnson,1977); similarly, researchers have
argued that task conflicts are productive, whereas relationship conflicts are disruptive
(Jehn, 1997). Research to be reviewed indicates that how conflict is managed, not the kind
of conflict, directly affects its dynamics and outcomes. Conflict and controversy should be
clearly distinguished from competition defined as incompatible goals. Traditionally,
conflict has been defined in terms of divergent goals and opposing interests, but people in
cooperation can and often do disagree (Tjosvold, 2006). In addition, considerable research

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indicates that taking a competitive approach to controversy makes it difficult to develop
constructive dynamics and outcomes (Tjosvold, 2007).
1.4.4. Advantages of using controversial topics:
It is undeniable that using controversial topics is useful in that they motivate students and
encourage students to think critically and actively. Learning and discussing controversial
issues in school helps students become more informed and more active citizens. Sharing
the same viewpoint Johnson, Johnson, & Smith (1997) and Oulton, Day, Dillon, & Grace
(2004) believe that the ability to engage in a constructive discussion of controversial topics
fosters an appreciation of opposing viewpoints and is a key element of good citizenship.
The benefits of engaging students in controversial issues discussion are well-established in
international scholarship. Encouragingly, there is empirical evidence that such efforts can
succeed and that classroom discussions, in which several sides of an issue are explored and
in which students feel comfortable expressing their views, are associated with a range of
positive outcomes. (Barton and Cully 2007:1). Teaching the pros and cons of controversial
issues in a structured conflict format can help "focus student attention," increase
motivation, "produce higher levels of cognitive reasoning," "produce higher levels of
achievement and retention," as well as increase "levels of creativity and divergent
thinking" and "students' self-esteem." (Johnson & Johnson 2009:237-239). Carolyn

(2007:83) cites that debating a controversial subject improves listening and public
speaking skills, enhances appreciation for the complexities of a controversial subject, and
challenges prior beliefs (Bell, 1982). On another study, Carolyn and Joseph (2007:87)
have found out that the students enjoyed the debate and believed that it helped them
discuss sensitive or controversial topics more easily. Half of the students who participated
in the debate believed that being an effective speaker and working with their teammates led
to a feeling of empowerment. Harwood, Angela & Hahn, Carole(1990:3-4) also point out
some tips for a successful performance of teaching controversial issues, which are
selecting issues, preparing students for discussion, providing adequate information sources,
establishing an open discussion climate, maintaining focus and direction, ensuring
intellectual balance, encouraging equal participation and the expression of teacher‘s
personal view. Torney-Purta, Lehmann, Oswald & Schulz‘s seminal 2001 international
study on citizenship education revealed how open discussions of controversial social issues

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have a positive impact on the democratic commitments of youth. Feldman, Pasek, Romer
and Jamieson‘s studies from 2007 and 2008 as well as McDevitt and Kiousis‘ 2008 study
also demonstrated that classroom discussions on current events and controversial issues
lead to a measurable increase in the following areas: critical thinking, tolerance, civic
knowledge, political interest, confidence, social integration and intentions to vote.
1.4.5. How to deal with controversial topics:
To make the discussions work well, the teacher has to choose an appropriate technique to
keep the controversy under control. Controversy may result in positive or negative
consequences depending on whether the context is cooperative, the level of group
members‘ social skills, and group members‘ ability (Johnson & Johnson 2009:230). In her
report, Fournier (2013: 3-4) suggested that to run a successful controversy, it is necessary
to encourage participation by having students choose the topics up for discussion and
allowing students to have a say in the topics of discussion; have students write down their

views before engaging in discussion; start with small group discussions. Starting
discussions of controversial issues in small groups allows students to test out their opinions
before facing the whole class. The topics used for discussions should reflect the real world.
According to Clarke and Silberstein (1997:51), classroom activities should parallel the real
world as closely as possible. He has high approval of content-based instruction in which
there is interaction between the learners. Moreover, meaningful and purposeful interaction
is created through the use of language and the best way for it to be created is by using
content as the driving force of classroom activities. Harwood, Angel & Hahn, Carole
(1990:4) state that conducting beneficial discussions of controversial issues is an art that
requires skill and practice. Teachers must pay careful attention to preparation for
discussions, and the role they will take during the conduct of the discussion to ensure that
interaction can be fruitful. They also suggest tips for running a good controversial topics
discussion including: selecting issues, preparing students for discussion, providing
adequate information sources, establishing an open discussion climate, maintaining focus
and direction, encouraging equal participation and the expression of teacher‘ personal
views. Other authors Johnson & Johnson (1988:61) suggest four stages of

a good

controversy ( a discussion on controversial topics) are choosing the discussion topic,
preparing instructional materials, structuring the controversy and conducting the

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controversy. They also cited Johnson‘s (1981), Johnson and Johnson‘s (1982) words that to
manage controversy constructively, students need collaborative and conflict management
skills (1988:62).
1.5. Definition of classroom participation:
Heyman and Sailors define class participation as a form of active learning in which

students publicly discuss the course material (2011:605). These two authors also cite that
classroom participation has been shown to improve critical reading and understanding of
material (Dancer and Kamvounias 2005; French 1992), increase classroom engagement
(Elliot 1993), advance active learning (Bean and Peterson 1998; Peterson 2001; Petress
2006; Wooldridge 2008), improve work habits (Turner and Patrick 2004), enhance a
variety of professional skills (Hayes and Hayes 1973;Kamvounias 1996; Lord and Melvin
1994; Wooldridge 2008) and liven up dry material (Magel 1996) (p.605). Participation can
also be seen as an active engagement process which can be sorted into five categories:
preparation, contribution to discussion, group skills, communication skills, and attendance
(Dancer & Kamvounias, 2005, cited by Kelly A. Rocca 2010:187). Participation also has
been defined as ‗‗the number of unsolicited responses volunteered‘‘ (Burchfield &
Sappington, 1999:290). Wade (1994:237) consider the ‗‗ideal class discussion‘‘ as one in
which almost all students participate and are interested, learning, and listening to others‘
comments and suggestions. Participation is a way to bring ‗‗students actively into the
educational process‘‘ and to assist in ‗‗enhancing our teaching and bringing life to the
classroom‘‘ (Cohen, 1991:699). According to Petress Ken effective student class
participation involves students being actively engaged, supportive of each other, and civil
in their exchanges (2006:821).
1.6. Related studies:
A lot of research studies about teaching speaking skills have been conducted so far. It can
not be denied that a successful speaking lesson requires students to have adequate
motivation so as to have sufficient participation into classroom activities. Therefore,
various kinds of techniques have been implemented by different types of researches in
alternative contexts. Hung (2008) wrote a thesis paper on the use of group-work and
questioning technique to increase students‘ participation in communicative activities.

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