Một nghiên cứu cải tiến về việc áp dụng các thủ thuật siêu nhận thức trong việc học từ vựng của sinh viên tại chức Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ - Đại học Quốc gia H

1

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES



LÊ THỊ LÂN



APPLYING METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES IN
LEARNING VOCABULARY FOR IN-SERVICE STUDENTS
AT HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND
INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, VIETNAM NATIONAL
UNIVERSITY: AN ACTION RESEARCH


(Một nghiên cứu cải tiến về việc áp dụng các thủ thuật siêu
nhận thức trong việc học từ vựng của sinh viên Tại chức trường
Đại học Ngoại Ngữ - Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội)


M.A. Minor Programme Thesis


Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60 14 10

Cohort: MA 16







HANOI, 2010


2

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES



LÊ THỊ LÂN



APPLYING METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES IN
LEARNING VOCABULARY FOR IN-SERVICE STUDENTS
AT HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND
INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, VIETNAM NATIONAL
UNIVERSITY: AN ACTION RESEARCH

(Một nghiên cứu cải tiến về việc áp dụng các thủ thuật siêu
nhận thức trong việc học từ vựng của sinh viên Tại chức trường
Đại học Ngoại Ngữ - Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội)



M.A. Minor Programme Thesis



Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60 14 10
Cohort: MA 16
Supervisor: Phan Thị Vân Quyên, MA





HANOI, 2010





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TABLE OF CONTENTS

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS ………………………………….
i

ACKNOWLEDMENTS ……………………………………………………….
ii
ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………….
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ……………………………………………………
iv
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES …………………………………………
vii
PART I: INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………
1
I.1. Background to the study………………………………………… ……….
1
I.2. Aims of the study …………………………………………………….…….
2
I.3. Scope of the study ………………………………………………………
2
I.4. Methods of the study ……………………………………………………
3
I.5. Organization of the study ………………………………………………
4
PART II: DEVELOPMENT …………………………………………………
5
Chapter 1: Literature Review …………………………………………………
5
1.1. Vocabulary learning……………………………………………………….
5
1.1.1. Definition of vocabulary ……………………………………………………….
5
1.1.2. Vocabulary classifications…………………………………… ……… ………
5

1.1.2.1. Semantics……………………… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……
5
1.1.2.2. Grammar…………………………………………………………… ……… …
1.1.2.3. Methodology…………………………………………………………… ………
6
6
1.1.3. The role of vocabulary learning………………………………………….
6
1.1.4. Factors affecting vocabulary learning ……………………………………….
8
1.1.4.1. Intralexical factors……………………………………………………………
8
1.1.4.2. Individual and social factors………………………………………………….
9
1.2. Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) ………………………………
10
1.2.1. Vocabulary knowledge…………………………………………………………
10
1.2.2. Vocabulary learning strategies ………………… …………………………….
10
1.2.2.1. Definition………………………………………………………………………
1.2.2.2. Classification…………………………………………………………………
1.3. Metacognitive learning strategies…………………………………………
10
11
13


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1.3.1. Definitions…………………………………………………………………………

1.3.2. Classifications……………………………………………………………………
1.4. Application of Metacognitive learning strategies in learning
vocabulary …………………………………………………………………….
1.4.1. Typical benefits of Metacognitive learning strategies application ……
1.4.2. Metacognitive learning strategies in practice …………………………
13
14
15

15
16
Chapter 2: Methodology ……………………………………………………….
18
2.1. Research questions ………………………………………………………
18
2.2. Action research…………………………………………………………….
18
2.3. Subjects of the study ………………………………………………………
20
2.4. VLS training procedure…………………………………………………………
20
2.5. Data collection instruments……………………………………………………
21
2.5.1. Questionnaires……………………………………………………………
22
2.5.2. Tests………………………………………………………………………
22
2.6. Data collection procedure…………………………………………………
2.7. Data analysis
23

25
Chapter 3: Data analysis and discussion of major findings………………
26
3.1. Questionnaire data analysis……………………………………………
3.1.1. The pre-training questionnaire results …………………………………
3.1.2. The post-training questionnaire results …………………………………
3.1.3. Pre-training and post-training questionnaire results …………………
3.1.4. Discussion of the pre-training and post-training questionnaire results
26

29
29
30
34

3.2. Pre- and Post- test data analysis………………………………………….
35
3.2.1. The pre-test and post-test results ……………………………………………
35
3.2.2. Discussion of the pre-test and post-test results ……………………………
37
PART III: CONCLUSION …………………………………………………….
38


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III.1. Conclusions ………………………………………………………………
38
III.2. Implications for English teachers ………
39

III.3. Recommendations for further study ……………………………………
40
REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………
42
APPENDIX 1: PRE-TRAINING QUESTIONNAIRE ………………………
I
APPENDIX 2: PRE-TRAINING QUESTIONNAIRE ……………………
IV
APPENDIX 3: PRE-TEST VOCABULARY ……………………………
VII
APPENDIX 4: POST-TEST VOCABULARY ……………………… …
XI
APPENDIX 5: PRE-TEST VOCABULARY ANSWERS KEY…………….
APPENDIX 6: POST-TEST VOCABULARY ANSWERS KEY…………
XV
XVI

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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES


Table

Table 1.1. Intralexical factors that affect VL…………………………………
8
Table 2.1. Organization of the questionnaires …………………………………
Table 3.1. Pre-training and post-training questionnaire results………………
Table 3.2. Frequency of use of planning, monitoring and evaluating
strategies
Table 3.3. The changes in some metacognitive strategies before and after
VLS training
Table 3.4. The pre-test and post-test results……………………………………


22
27
30
31

36


Figure

Figure 2.1. Five phases of an action research …………………………………

19

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PART I: INTRODUCTION
This part helps to provide the background as well as the context for the study. Background
to the study, aims, scope, methods, and organization of the study will be discussed in
details in this section.
I.1. Background to the study
The wide use of English as an international language in different fields of life
makes the teaching and learning of English gain great momentum. However, educational
achievements are still far from being satisfactory even though teaching approach has been
improved significantly. One main cause is that the teaching and learning are both so far
from the learner-centered approach. In order to meet the economic and social demands of
modern society, English teachers need to pay attention to the development of learners‟
competence and focus on an effective learning method. As a learner, setting up a schedule
for learning something new every day in addition to class assignments is really necessary.

This is particularly true of vocabulary.
The quotation of Wilkins (1974) „Without grammar very little can be conveyed,
without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed‟ emphasized that vocabulary plays an
extremely important role in language and the important role of vocabulary learning in
capturing a language as well. The importance of vocabulary was also mentioned by
Vermeer (1992, p.147) „Knowing words is the key to understanding and being understood.
The bulk of learning a new language consists of learning new words. Grammatical
knowledge does not make for great proficiency in a language‟. In short, the teaching and
learning of vocabulary is obviously a very significant aspect in foreign language
methodology and English methodology.
Moreover, most work in the area of vocabulary so far has been concerned not with
lexical meaning as such, but with management of vocabulary learning: how to reduce the
vocabulary load, how to handle specific difficulties or how to teach specific learners. To be
successful in language learning, a learner needs to control the way they learn by paying
attention to procedure and strategies that work best for them in different language learning
situations. However, there still exist some problems in teaching and learning English in
Vietnam educational settings. It is the inadequate teaching of vocabulary. Firstly,


11
grammatical knowledge is often firstly focused. In other words, little attention has been
given to vocabulary teaching so far. In Vietnam, „handicapped‟ vocabulary is the term that
should be used to describe current situation of learning. Students are just provided with
words‟ meanings rather than be explained the usage or be trained how to learn effectively.
It is a fact that in spite of the efforts in learning new vocabulary items such as using flash
cards, notebook, referring to bilingual and monolingual dictionaries, giving some
synonyms and antonyms to decipher the meaning of words, vocabulary is by far the most
sizable and unmanageable component for language learners.
The answer to the problem of vocabulary is applying vocabulary learning strategies
in their learning process to make them become independent and gain active positions in

learning the vocabulary knowledge. The purpose of this study is to shed light on the issue
of vocabulary strategy learning by applying metacognitive strategies. It aims at exploring
what lies behind this phenomenon and examines the effectiveness of application.
I.2. Aims of the study
The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of metacognitive strategies on
by students‟ vocabulary acquisition, then help them to save the time and effort in their
vocabulary learning process. The study aims at finding answers to the two questions:
 What are the most and least frequently used metacognitive vocabulary learning
strategies by in-service English students?
 How do metacognitive strategies help students make progress in their vocabulary
acquisition?
I.3. Scope of the study
To investigate the vocabulary learning strategies employed to learn new words, the
study focuses on in-service English students who do not have much time invested in
learning and find out ways that could help improve their vocabulary learning.
This study aims at training metacognitive learning strategies in vocabulary learning
for in-service English students at Hanoi University of Languages and International studies,
Vietnam National University in Vinh Yen province. All learners have finished three years
studying at college with English as a major. Currently, they are teachers-learners who are


12
working as teachers of English at different high schools in Vinh Yen and spending their
weekend pursuing higher qualification.
The course book is NEW HEADWAY Intermediate level which is supposed to be
completed after ten weeks. The focuses are on Vocabulary, Grammar and other skills are
mostly studied at home by students.
The concept of metacognitive assessment is relatively new and complicated to
approach although in recent decades there have been efforts to develop suitable measuring
instruments. The repertoire of metacognitive skills has been shown to be among the factors

explaining the differences between good and poor readers. Metacognitive assessment is not
an addition to teaching and learning, but it is integrated in the two, informing and guiding
them. Metacognitive knowledge is frequently refined into person, task, and strategy
variables, or declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge (Brown, 1980). However,
metacognitive self-regulation which is the focus of this study is regarded as the
implementation of planning, monitoring and evaluating.
I.4. Methods of the study
An action research was applied to this current study with the teacher as a
researcher. With an aim to support the research with varied and valid data, the quantitative
approach was used with two questionnaires and two written tests before and after doing the
action research.
The first questionnaire was done before the training to identify the students‟
employment of metacognitive strategies in their vocabulary learning. The second one was
distributed immediately after the training to see how students changed their VLS
application. The effect of the metacognitive strategy instruction on students‟ language
acquisition was accessed by the results of the pre- and post-vocabulary tests. The tests
were designed with the purpose of exploring the effects of metacognitive strategies on
students‟ progress in vocabulary-learning after training. Therefore, the data collected from
the test results was computed, analyzed, and reported.




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I.5. Organization of the study
The minor study will be divided into three parts namely Introduction, Development
and Conclusion. Part two includes 3 chapters: Literature Review, Methodology, Data
analysis and major findings.
In the first part, the reasons that trigger for the study together with the aims which
could be taken into consideration regarding the significance of this study are presented.

To set the background to the study, in chapter 1, a review of the literature of
vocabulary learning strategies is conducted and a subset of strategies is identified for the
focus of the study. Moreover, vocabulary and metacognitive strategies in vocabulary
learning will be discussed in details that would help identify the problems and give
inspirations for carrying out the research.
Chapter two is the main section which deals with the process of this action research
on Metacognitive vocabulary learning strategies. It presents the methodology for the study
and the procedure to carry out the research.
In the next chapter, the results of the analysis are presented and discussed.
Part three takes a closer look at what the previous chapters discuss before and to
my limited knowledge and experience, recommendations for some applications that in
some way be useful for further future study or research on the same problem will be
presented.
Two other supplementary parts are the appendices consisting of the first and second
questionnaires, the pre- and post- tests in vocabulary and the table results of them.










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PART II: DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 1: Literature Review
As what has been mentioned in Introduction part, this chapter is to set the background to
the study, and discuss in details the metacognitive strategies that would be a focus in

learners‟ vocabulary learning.
1.1. Vocabulary learning
1.1.1. Definition of vocabulary
Linguists propose different definitions for vocabulary depending on the criteria that
they consider the most important in terms of linguistics, semantics, lexicology, etc.
Penny Ur in his book „A Course in Language Teaching‟ defined vocabulary
roughly as „the words we teach in the foreign language‟. To be more specific, Pyles and
Algeo (1970) said „it is true that vocabulary is the focus of language with its sound and
meaning, which interlock to allow us to communicate with one another‟.
Intuitively, vocabulary could be defined as a dictionary or a set of words. In my
own viewpoint, it is logical to say that vocabulary of a language is all its words,
compounds and idioms used to convey and receive information in oral and written
communications. In other words, acquiring vocabulary is the process of transferring words
from passive to active or in other words. When we talk about vocabulary, we mean the
words we know and the ability to use them.
1.1.2. Classifications of vocabulary
Vocabulary can be classified in different ways:
1.1.2.1. Semantics: In terms of meaning, vocabulary can be divided into:
 Notional words: Their meanings are lexical, form a great mass of the speaker‟s
vocabulary. Those words name objects, actions, qualities and have meanings
themselves. In terms of part of speech, they can be nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs and so on.
 Functional words: They are grammatical words, which only have their meanings in
relation to other words with which they are used. They can be particles, articles,
prepositions, etc.
1.1.2.2. Grammar: In terms of structure, vocabulary is divided into different parts of
speech such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc.


15

1.1.2.3. Methodology: In terms of the way to obtain, vocabulary can be divided into:
 Active words: Active vocabulary includes all words which can be understood,
pronounced correctly, and can be used effectively in speaking and writing.
 Passive words: Passive vocabulary includes all words which the learners can
recognize and understand when they occur in a context, but which learners cannot
produce or use correctly themselves even when they attempt to.
In addition, some other methodologists follow communicative Language Approach divide
vocabulary into productive and receptive. The productive words can be used effectively to
produce information in speaking and writing while the receptive ones are used to receive
and understand information in listening and reading.
These classifications should be known by the teachers and learners, then, they
would know what aspects of the words should be learnt to widen their vocabulary
knowledge.
1.1.3. The role of vocabulary learning
Rivers (1981) emphasizes the important position of vocabulary in a language:
„Language is not dry bones. It is a living growing entity, clothed in the flesh of words‟
(cited in Hoang, 1985 p.23). The extreme significance of vocabulary in a language is also
stressed by Saville and Troike (1976, p.87) by saying:
„Vocabulary is most important for understanding and knowing names for things,
actions and concepts. We can appeal to our common sense and experience in
making this decision about priorities. Many of us have gotten along in foreign
countries, even shopping, getting directions, etc if we just knew the names of what
we wanted although we had no idea how to structure grammatical utterances‟.

From what have been discussed above, it can be concluded that with non-native
speakers, vocabulary is needed as first in order to survive. If a learner has a wide
vocabulary, he can get himself understood and understand others easily; on the contrary, if
it is limited, he will surely have difficulty in doing so. Therefore, vocabulary is a „must‟ for
all English learners to acquire by all means.
The importance of vocabulary raises question of how can learners increase their

vocabulary knowledge. Prator and Murcia (1979, p.3) pointed out that „Vocabulary is
expanded as fast as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary is considered more
important than grammatical skill‟. Consequently, it goes without saying that teaching and
learning vocabulary is a very crucial aspect in foreign language methodology.


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It is always thought that learning vocabulary seems to be one of the easiest things
about learning a language. However; it is also one of the hardest things to do, especially
when you have reached a certain level. Vocabulary learning or acquisition (in this study,
learning and acquisition could be interchanged) is significant in learning a language, as
cited in Le, Pham H.H (2002, p.4) „„Zimmerman [….] points out that meaning is the heart
of language and nothing is more fundamental to meaning than vocabulary.‟ She continues
by mentioning learning vocabulary as a process requiring time and effort investment. She
states that in vocabulary teaching, teachers are advised to organize various learning
activities to create motivation for learners. To this point, learning process is synonymous
with changing input into intake. After provided with new information drawn from an input
such as words‟ meaning and examples, learners are probably required to rewrite or retell
the whole message of the text. When students can make sense of a new word that is the
process of changing a new input becoming intake. In other words, that is the process
toward meaning and usages of that new word. Learning vocabulary should focus on
remembering words and using them automatically in the right contexts (McCarthy, 1984).
Faerch, Hasstrup and Phillipson (1984) as cited in Waring (2002) also considers
vocabulary knowledge as a link between being able to know meaning and usage of a word
and know how to use it in appropriate situations with suitable manners.
However, forgetting vocabulary that has been 'learned' earlier is one of the biggest
problems in vocabulary learning. The problem here is the burden or the big number of new
words to remember that would make learners easy to forget the old ones. Nation (2005)
recommends the term „learning burden of a word‟ and then clarifies it by listing typical
questions pertaining to meaning, form and use of a word. That burden is different from

word to word due to its connection with learners‟ existing language knowledge. Evaluating
the vocabulary learning is recommended to help learners to deal with this fact.
As a learner of English, our teachers have to face with the same difficulty as their
students that there are too many words to learn but they do not have enough time to learn
them in. Thus, the teacher needs to decide which words worth learning, and learn how to
organize his or her vocabulary learning. It is very important for most learners to have an
idea of whether they are making progress or not. Finding that they are actually making
progress can be a big help to their confidence.
1.1.4. Factors affecting vocabulary learning


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There is a range of factors that affect choices in learning strategies, including
vocabulary learning strategies. According to Ellis (1994, pp.540:545), there are two broad
categories of such factors:
 Individual learner differences: age, learning style, personality type, and
motivation.
 Situational and social factors: learning setting, type of task, and gender.
It is extremely difficult to list all the significant factors and the ways in which they
influence vocabulary learning because of the differences exist among different researches.
Following are some factors considered by researchers having strong impact on vocabulary
learning process:
1.1.4.1. Intralexical factors
There are some features inherent in the word itself which might affect the ease or
difficulty with which it is learned. These were: pronounceability, orthography, length,
morphology, synformy, part of speech, abstractness and register restrictions, idiomaticity
and multiplicity of meaning. Those factors will be shown in the below table:
Table 1.1. Intralexical factors that affect VL (Laufer, 1997, p.154 cited)
Facilitating factors
Difficulty-inducing factors

Factors with no clear effect
Familiar phonemes
Presence of foreign
phonemes

Phonotactic regularity
Phonotactic irregularity

Fixed stress
Variable stress and vowel
change

Consistency of sound-script
relationship
Incongruency in sound-script
relationship



Word length
Inflexional regularity
Inflexional complexity

Derivational regularity
Derivational complexity

Morphological transparency
Deceptive morphological
transparency

Synformy



Part of speech


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Concreteness/abstractness
Generality
Specificity

Register neutrality
Register restrictions


Idiomaticity

One form for one meaning
One form with several
meanings

1.1.4.2. Individual and social factors
There are discussions about individual and social factors affecting students‟ vocabulary
learning as following:
 The influence of first and other language:
The learners tend to find the equivalent hypothesis in their own language. However, due to

Swan (1997), this may fail and lead to erroneous conclusions because there are not exact or
no equivalents in two language at all.
 The role of memory:
The role of memory is crucial in any kind of learning and vocabulary learning captures no
exception. Learning of lexical items is not linear process. The learning and teaching of
vocabulary needs to be planned following principles if it is to be efficient.
 The source of vocabulary (exposure to linguistic input)
Carter (1992) asserts that a significant amount of vocabulary can be successfully learnt
through the often criticized rote learning. An important source of vocabulary in second
language (L2) learning is a wide range of contexts.
 Individual learner differences
Other factors such as motivation, attitudes towards vocabulary learning, fear of failure, etc
also account for individual learner differences should be paid attention in making
conscious efforts to notice new lexical items, selective attending, context-based inferencing
and storing into long-term memory.
 Role of teacher and teaching strategies
One has to admit that achieving the goals of L2 vocabulary instructions is no easy matter.
There are some additional factors also discussed regarding the effects of learning strategies
including time frame for classroom learning, individual lexical needs whether they are
professional or academic particularities, and modern technology applications such as the


19
form of the Internet cable and satellite TV, film and television programs on digital video,
etc.
In conclusion, it is argued that vocabulary is an important ingredient of language
and vocabulary learning is an essential part of second or foreign language learning.
Learning new vocabulary is a challenge to foreign language students but they can
overcome by having access to a variety of vocabulary learning strategies. One way to help
learners to enhance their knowledge of L2 vocabulary is through equipping learners with a

variety of vocabulary learning strategies
1.2. Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS)
1.2.1. Vocabulary knowledge
In their book, when giving comments on Nation and Waring‟s ideas, N. Schmitt &
M. McCarthy (Eds.) present three dimensions needed for an adequate description of a
person‟s word knowledge including: the number of words known (vocabulary size or
breadth), the amount of knowledge presented for each word (depth of knowledge), and the
speed of utilizing that knowledge (automaticity).
Many researchers assert that knowing a word requires more than just being familiar
with its meaning and form. In their book, Nation (1990) and Richards (1976) claimed that
to know and master a word entirely, it is required that learners could grasp its
orthographical and phonological form, meanings, grammatical behavior, associations,
collocations, frequency and register. There is a distinction between language learning
strategies and language use strategies, the former being strategies for learning tasks such as
remembering, and the latter being strategies for language use, such as communicating in
L2. In order to have good vocabulary knowledge and improve their vocabulary
proficiency, vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) play a key role and should be employed
in students‟ vocabulary learning process.
1.2.2. Vocabulary learning strategies
1.2.2.1. Definition
Schmitt (1997, p.203) asserts that learning is „the process by which information is
obtained, stored, retrieved, and used‟. Therefore, vocabulary learning strategies could be
any which affect this broadly defined process. According to Nation (2001, p.217), VLS are
defined by the following important features:


20
(1) they involve choice; that is, there are several strategies to choose from
(2) they are complex, i.e. consisting of several steps;
(3) they require knowledge and benefit from training; and

(4) they increase the efficiency of vocabulary learning and use.
Rivers (1981, p.463) has also commented:
„Vocabulary cannot be taught. It can be presented, explained, included in all kinds
of activities, but it must be learned by the individual. The vocabulary we
understand and the vocabulary we can use varies in nature and in quantity from one
person to another even in our native language‟.

In short, VLS may include some such as guessing a word‟s meaning from the
context, identifying the grammatical category of a word, looking up words or recognizing
cognates. They are steps of learning vocabulary chosen by the individual learner to get
information on words and learn how to use them correctly in contexts.
1.2.2.2. Classification
VLS constitute a subclass of language learning strategies which are applicable to a
wide variety of language learning tasks, ranging from the more isolated (vocabulary,
pronunciation, grammar) to integrative tasks like oral communication and reading
comprehension. One of the first attempts at providing a comprehensive overview of
language learning strategies can be found in Oxford (1990). She identified two distinct
approaches to language learning, direct (memory/cognitive/compensation) and indirect
(metacognitive/social/affective) strategies. Oxford defined direct approach as a way of
learning in which the focus is pointed at learning words, wordlists and doing excises only.
In a broader view, indirect approach expands the focus on vocabulary performance through
other learning skill spoken or written messages.
In the area of VLS taxonomy development, the most notable efforts in terms of
classifying range of strategies considered are Stoffer (1995) and Schmitt (1997). Schmitt‟s
goal was to develop a comprehensive inventory of individual VLS, and classify them along
two dimensions. The first classification dimension was adopted from Oxford (1990), who
grouped learning strategies into four categories (social (SOC), memory (MEM), cognitive
(COG), and metacognitive (MET). In order to account for the case where meanings of new
words are discovered without recourse to other people‟s expertise, Schmitt introduced a
fifth category, determination (DET) strategies. These seem to be roughly equivalent to the

21
“guessing intelligently in listening and reading” part of Oxford‟s compensation strategies.
The second classification dimension was proposed by Nation (1990) and reflects the
distinction of initial discovery of word meanings (discovery strategies - DISCOV) and
remembering (consolidation strategies - CONS).
To discuss the results of our study, the strategy system by Oxford (1990) which
consists of both direct and indirect was adopted by the researcher:
Direct strategies require mental processing of the target language. There are three
main groups of direct strategies. Each group processes the language differently and for
different purposes.
a. Memory strategies Sometimes called mnemonics, these involve mental processes used
in arranging information in order, making associations, and reviewing.
b. Cognitive strategies - These involve processing the target language so that meaning
becomes clear through processes such as reasoning and analyzing.
c. Compensation strategies - These enable learners to make up for gaps in their knowledge
and skills, by, for example, guessing meanings and using gestures.
Indirect strategies, on the other hand, support and manage language learning often
without involving the target language directly. There are three groups of indirect strategies:
a. Metacognitive strategies - These enable learners to plan, coordinate, evaluate, and direct
their own learning as well as to monitor errors.
b. Affective strategies - These help learners gain control over their emotions, attitudes, and
motivation through anxiety reduction, self-encouragement, and self-reward
c. Social strategies - These are ways of involving other people in enhancing learning
through questions, cooperation and increased cultural awareness.
Creating mental linkages, repetition and memorization, and translating from first
language (L1) to L2 which are direct strategies in Oxford‟s book (1990) are unconsciously
or consciously used sometimes by students. However, in comparison with the use of direct
strategies, indirect strategies are easily neglected for they are not directly involved in both

teaching and learning process. To build up the confidence and autonomy in learning a
word, in teaching new vocabulary items, the teacher should make students aware of the
importance of using metacognitive strategies in combination with vocabulary learning
strategies. For this reason, indirect strategies, which may change and strengthen learning
process, will be emphasized in this study.


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1.3. Metacognitive learning strategies
1.3.1. Definitions
Metacognition refers to higher order thinking which involves active control over
the cognitive process engaged in learning. More specifically, Taylor (1999) defines
metacognition as „an appreciation of what one already knows, together with a correct
apprehension of the learning task and what knowledge and skills it requires, combined with
the ability to make correct inferences about how to apply one‟s strategic knowledge to a
particular situation, and to do so efficiently and reliably‟. Activities such as planning how
to approach a given learning task, monitoring comprehension, and evaluating progress
toward the completion of a task are metacognitive in nature.
So far, metacognition has been used to refer to knowledge about cognition or the
regulation of cognition. Knowledge about cognition may include applying thoughts about
the cognitive operations of oneself or others, while regulation of cognition includes
planning, monitoring, and evaluating a learning or problem-solving activity (Brown and
Palincsar 1982; Brown et al. 1983). It seems that metacognitive strategies, that allow
students to plan, control, and evaluate their learning, have the most central role to play in
this respect, rather than those that merely maximize interaction and input .Thus, the ability
to choose and evaluate one's strategies is of central importance. (Graham, 1997, pp. 42:43)
Another definition was that metacognitive are higher order executive skills that
may entail planning for, monitoring, or evaluating the success of a learning activity
(Brown et al. 1983). For example, when learning vocabulary, you may notice that
pronouncing words out loud helped you remember them better than reading them silently.

Determine which excises seem to help you most and for which kind of tasks: translations,
mechanical drills, answering questions, compositions, and so forth. Ask other students how
they got the right answers or how they successfully learned something, and then see if their
strategies will also work for you. Sometimes, it is helpful to look at how others organize
their notes, rules, and vocabulary lists as well.
In short, metacognitive strategies are sequential processes that one uses to control
cognitive activities, and to ensure that a cognitive goal has been met. These processes help
to regulate and oversee learning, and consist of planning and monitoring cognitive
activities, as well as checking the outcomes of those activities. In the next part, the ideas
offered by Oxford (1990) and O‟Malley (1997) will be chosen to present on the


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classifications of metacognitive strategies.
1.3.2. Classifications
Metacognitive strategies (MS) are named in terms of their function and are
applicable to various kinds of learning tasks. Wenden (1991) describes three kinds of
metacognitive knowledge: personal knowledge (knowledge about learning or learners
themselves as learners), task knowledge (refers to what learners need to know about
procedures involved in the task in order to complete it successfully) and strategic
knowledge (knowledge about strategies, i.e. what learners works best and knowledge about
general approaches to language learning (LL) that can guide their selection of strategies).
Concerning importance of metacognitive knowledge, Oxford emphasizes that MS is to
help learners not to lose focus of their LL and to control their own learning process and
progress.
Another classification was provided by O'Malley et al. when he identified 26
learning strategies. The metacognitive strategies were to use advance organizers, directed
attention, selective attention, self-management, advance preparation, self-monitoring,
delayed production, self-evaluation and self-reinforcement.
Metacognitive strategies are said to include: using English-language media (songs,

movies, newspapers, etc.); testing oneself with word tests; using spaced word practice;
skipping or passing new word; and continuing to study word over time. Compared to other
classification schemes, Oxford‟s taxonomy is probably the most extensive, and has the
advantage of being organized around an established scheme of language learning
strategies.
Oxford (1990) subdivided metacognitive strategies into eleven subcategories
including: „overviewing and linking with already known material’, ‘paying attention’,
‘delay speech production to focus on listening’, ‘ finding out about language learning’, ‘
organizing’, ‘ setting goals and objectives’, ‘identifying the purpose of a language task’,
‘planning for a language task’, ‘seeking practice opportunities’, ‘self-monitoring’, ‘self-
evaluating’. However, only eight out of eleven subcategories are chosen for consulting in
the study and concluded in the detailed procedure of training.
Paying attention strategy assists learners in deciding what aspects of the language
or situational details to be paid attention to and what to be ignored.


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Finding out about language learning strategy: learners make efforts to find out
how language learning work by reading books and talking with other people , and then
using this information to help improve their own language learning.
Organizing strategy: to understand and use conditions related to optimal learning
of the language, to organize one‟s schedule, physical environment and language –learning
notebook.
The skill of setting goals and objectives- setting aims for language learning.
Learners are able to set long-term goals such as learning by heart 500 units of vocabulary
by the end of the semester or to accomplish short-term objectives i.e. finishing the
vocabulary exercises by Saturday or completing a particular language task involving
vocabulary acquisition.
Seeking practice opportunities: Learners seek out or create opportunities to
practice the new language, such as watching a foreign language firm, or joining a foreign

language speaking club.
Self-monitoring: the ability to identify errors in understanding or producing the
new language, to determine which ones are serious, to point out the source of important
error and try to eliminate such errors.
The last metacognitive component mentioned is self-evaluating skill. This skill
allows learners to evaluate their own progress in the new language either general language
progress.
The detailed procedure for metacognitive strategy training would be illustrated,
based on the three components of metacognitive strategies (planning, monitoring,
evaluating).
1.4. Application of Metacognitive learning strategies in learning vocabulary
1.4.1. Typical benefits of Metacognitive learning strategies application
It has been shown that most forgetting occurs soon after the end of a learning
session. A learner can maximize the effectiveness of his or her practice time if it is
scheduled and organized rather than random. Metacognitive strategies involve both
knowledge about learning (metacognitive knowledge) and control or regulation over
learning (metacognitive strategies). To make it short, Metacognitive Strategies involve a
conscious overview of the learning process and making decisions about planning,
monitoring, or evaluating the best ways to study. In other words, Metacognitive strategies


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are to planning, monitoring, and evaluating the best way to study. As a result, using
metacognitive strategies make a true learning process. Once metacognitive strategies are
grasped, students will transfer use of these skills from their school lives to their personal
lives and will continue to apply them as they mature. The use of metacognitive strategies
ignites one's thinking and can lead to more profound learning and improved performance,
especially among learners who are struggling.
In regards to metacognitive benefits, many researches show that an explicit focus
on metacognitive knowledge about learning processes- in other words, „learning how to

learn‟- is necessary if learners are to be able to transfer use of the strategy in question in
learning tasks. The more students are aware of their thinking processes as they learn, the
more they can control such matters as goals, dispositions, and attention. Self-awareness
promotes self-regulation.
1.4.2. Metacognitive learning strategies in practice
Jurkovic (2006, p.27) states that there are two approaches toward language and
vocabulary learning strategy training. Learners are provided with benefits and learning
situations of strategy applied in direct approach, but are not supplied the same information
in indirect approach.
In practice, a number of significant research studies have investigated how learners
use vocabulary learning strategies. Research on training second language learners to use
learning strategies has been limited almost exclusively to applications with vocabulary
tasks. Dramatic improvements in vocabulary learning tasks presented in one-on-one
training have been reported in these studies. Teachers should realize this and help their
students by teaching vocabulary strategies and set priorities about vocabulary learning.
Strategy training has included such aspects as teaching ways of learning vocabulary
(e.g. using mnemonics, keywords and word chains), teaching techniques for listing,
teaching strategies for reading such as semantic mapping, and teaching a variety of
metacognitive strategies and self-awareness. It also appears that attempts to characterize
good and poor language learners according to the strategies they use are oversimplistic. A
number of studies indicate that unsuccessful learners actually employ the same strategies
as those used by successful learners. Various model for teaching of language learning
strategies has been proposed.


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However, it is a fact that the teacher-centered approach still has a dominating
position in many Vietnamese schools. Students are really passive in this process and they
just commit the new words into memory by rote though the past decade saw a host of
studies on vocabulary strategies (Gu, 1996; Schmitt, 2002; Fan, 2003). To better the job, a

teacher needs the same training in vocabulary teaching, especially in terms of
metacognitive strategies application. Our in-service English students or high school
English teachers would be trained in regard to metacognitive strategy application and then
carrying them out in their own working with the learners.
In addition, even if the importance of vocabulary in a language is realized, there
still exist some problems in teaching and learning English in Vietnam educational settings.
It is the inadequate teaching of vocabulary, the focus is made on grammar, and little
attention has been given to vocabulary teaching so far. The importance of vocabulary in
language acquisition raised question of how to teach and learn vocabulary in the most
effective way. The above discussion discussed the definitions, characteristics and
subcategories of metacognitive strategies. The training of them will help students and
teachers to reach the high vocabulary proficiency.
















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Chapter 2: Methodology

Action research was employed as the research design of this study. In this chapter, the
research design with its characteristics, a model of action research steps, research
procedure and data collection and analysis instruments are offered with detailed
descriptions.
2.1. Research questions
To reach the aims of the study as mentioned in chapter 1, the study will offer the
answers to the two research questions following quantitative approach:
 What are the most and least frequently used metacognitive vocabulary learning
strategies by in-service English students?
 How do metacognitive strategies help students make progress in their vocabulary
acquisition?
The hypotheses coming from the second research question can be addressed as follows:
- Null hypothesis: There is no effect of metacognitive strategy instruction on
students‟ language acquisition.
- Alternative hypothesis: There is an effect of metacognitive strategy instruction on
students‟ language acquisition.
The study was carried out under the assumption that the null hypothesis is true.
2.2. Research method
Action research is the suitable research method for the study because the core
purpose of the study is to “evaluate” the application of metacognitive strategies in
vocabulary learning. Secondly, it is the way the teachers respond to the changing demands
of a teaching situation- in this case is the constant call for an effective vocabulary learning
methodology. Thirdly, it involves “small-scale intervention” when a specific problem is
identified; specific actions are implemented to bring about the changes and solutions to
solve the problems (Nunan, 2005). Specifically, in the current research, all the interesting
and problematic area of vocabulary learning strategies are stored and viewed in a
structured way for “small group professional practice” (Wallace, M. 1998, p. 18). Finally,
the context of the research can satisfy the multi-source requirement of doing an action

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research when teachers and students can collaborate with each other to carry out research
instruments to evaluate the effective of metacognitive strategy training. In brief, action
research approach is carefully chosen for and applied in the study with a hope to bring out
a picture of metacognitive strategy training in vocabulary learning activities.
When using the action research approach, the current researches follow the five
phases proposed by Susman:

Adapted from Susman 1983, cited in Wallace, 2001
Figure 2.1. Five phases of an action research
In this light, the study starts when the lack of the awareness of metacognitive
strategies application in vocabulary acquisition is identified and data is collected for a
more detailed diagnosis. This is followed by designing a course with characteristics
coming up to the expectations of the teaching staff. After that, a single plan of action
emerges and is implemented when the course takes place. Data on the results of the
intervention are collected and analyzed, and the findings are interpreted in light of how
successful the course has been.