Teaching grammar to High school students through communicative tasks a quasi-experimental study = Dạy ngữ pháp cho học sinh trung học phổ thông qua các hoạt độn20150227

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Table of contents


Page
Certificate of the study project report……………………………………………………i
Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………… …ii
Abstracts……………………………………………………………………. ……………iii
Tables of contents……………………………………………………………………… iv
List of tables and figures………………………………………………………………….vi
List of abbreviation…………………………………………………………………… vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTIOn. ………………………………………………………1
1.1. Rationale ………………………………………………… …… 1
1.2. Aims of the study……………………………………………… …………………… 2
1.3. Research hypothesis and questions……………………………… 2
1.4. Research hypothesis and questions……………………………… 2
1.5. Significance of the study………………………………………….……………… 2
1.6. Scope of the study …………………………………………………………………….3
1.7. Organization of the study ………………………………………… 3
1.8. Summary……………………………………………………………………………….3
Chapter 2: Literature review…………… ………………… …… ……….4
2.1. The role of grammar in foreign language teaching and learning………………… 4
2.1.1. Arguments in favor of grammar teaching…………………………… …………… 4
2.1.2. Arguments against teaching grammar……………………………………………… 5
2.1.3. Grammar in communicative activities… 7
2.2. Approaches to grammar………………………………… ………………… 7
2.2.1. The deductive approach………………………………………………………………7
2.2.2. The inductive approach………………………………….…… ………… 8
2.2.3. Focus on form and focus on forms …………………………………………………10

2.3. Task-based language teaching……………………………… 12
2.3.1. What is TBLT?…………………………………………………………………… 12
2.3.2. Definition of task……………………………………… ………………………… 14
2.3.3. The basic characteristics of TBLT……………………………… 15
2.3.4. Studies on TBLT…………………………………………………………… 16
2.4. Task-based grammar teaching…………………………………………………… 18
2.4.1. Why task-based grammar teaching…………………………………………………18
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2.4.2. Steps in Task-based grammar teaching…………………………………………… 19
2.4.3. Characteristics of the Task-based Grammar Class …………… ………………… 20
2.4.4. Studies on task-based grammar teaching………………………….……………… 21
2.5. Summary…………………………………………………………………………… 22
Chapter 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……………………………… …… 23
3.1. The syllabus of grade 10…………………………………………………………… 23
3.2. The subjects ………………………………………………………………………….24
3.3. Rationale for using quasi- experiment …………………………………………… 24
3.4. Research design……………………………………………… 25
3.5. Procedures………………… ………………………………….……………………27
3.6. The tasks…………………………………………….……………………………… 28
3.7. Findings……………………………………………………………………………….30
3.7.1. Comparison of the pretest and posttest scores, the gain value between the
two groups……… …………………………………………………………………31
3.7.2. The subjects' attitudes towards the new teaching method-teaching
grammar through communicative tasks…………………………………………… 32
3.8. Discussion.……………………………………………………………. …………… 35
3.8.1. The impact of the TBLT on grammar acquisition……………… 35
3.8.2. Students' attitudes towards teaching grammar through communicative tasks………36
3.9. Summary……………………………………………………… 36

Chapter 4: Recommendations and conclusions…………………… 38
4.1. Some recommendations……………………………………… 38
4.2. Limitations of the study…………………………………………………………… 38
4.3. Summary ……………………………………………… … ……………………… 39
References…………………………………………………………………………….40
Appendix 1. The Pretest……………………………………………………………………I
Appendix 2. The Posttest…………………………………………………………………III
Appendix 3. Post-questionnaire program for the experimental students…… …… V
Appendix 4. Tasks for teaching conditional sentence type 2…………………………. VI
Appendix 5. Tasks for teaching should or should not……………………………… VIII
Appendix 6. The results of the pretest and posttest of the two groups……………… X



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List of figures and tables

Figure 2.1. A framework for analyzing communicative tasks
Figure 3.1 The difference in gain values obtained by both group after the
experiment
Table 2.1 The deductive and inductive approaches
Table 2.2. The differences between FoF and FoFs
Table 3.1. Background information about the subjects
Table 3.2. Descriptive statistics for the pretest of the experimental and control
groups
Table 3.3. Subjects' attitudes toward teaching grammar through communicative
tasks

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List of abbreviations



EFL English as Foreign Language
ELT English language Teaching

ESL English as Second Language
FLTL Foreign Language Teaching and Learning
FoF Focus on Form
FOFs Focus on Forms
HSUSS Ha Giang Specialized Upper Secondary School
M Mean
N Number
SD Standard Deviation
SPSS Statistic Package for Social Science
TBA Task-based Approach
TBT Task-based Teaching
TBLT Task-based Language Teaching
TGTCT Teaching Grammar Through Communicative Tasks
10 T 10 Toan class
10 H 10 Hoa class














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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale

Together with the development of society, English has been used as a tool for
communication among nonnative speakers. More than a half of one billion English
speakers of the world learn English as a second language. More and more people have to
learn English in nearly every field. Learners have different reasons why they study
English, and this has a great influence on their motivation of learning English. At upper
secondary schools, English has become a compulsory subject in the state examination and
it is one of three subjects for some universities‘ entrance exam. Besides the aim of passing
their exams and getting some further studies for their future life. Therefore, there is a must
to equip learners with a good learning method as well as teachers with new, good and
interesting teaching methods in order to attract learners and arouse their interest to help
them get effective result. While the traditional approach to grammar has been strongly
criticized as being infective.
Nowadays, English teaching has improved in method in the light of the
communicative, learner-centered which is adaptable to required objectives and give
students many opportunities to communicate in English. According to Prabhu, who
developed the idea of getting learners to acquire English through tasks in 1980s in India,
―learners may learn more effectively when their minds are focused on tasks, rather than on
the language they are using.‖. Furthermore, TGTCT has been promoted (Nunan, 1992).
And because of the features of task-based teaching approach, which widely promoted in
English teaching nowadays, and adopted in teaching language skills in the textbook at
upper secondary school in Vietnam, is mentioned later. I, myself, think that TBLT may
have significance or may be effective in grammar teaching- the important aspect of
language learning.
In order to know whether or not the task-based teaching approach is possible in

grammar teaching. And from these above reasons, I decided to choose “teaching grammar
to high school students through communicative tasks” for my thesis of the MA course.

1.2 Aims of the study
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The aims of this study are to experiment teaching grammar through communicative
tasks for grade 10 students. To be more specific, the primary objectives of the study were
set as followed:
- To experiment teaching grammar through communicative task for grade 10
students and test its result.
- To investigate the experimental students' attitudes towards teaching grammar
through communicative task.
1.3. Research hypothesis and questions
To achieve the aims and objectives, the study was designed to test the hypothesis:
Teaching grammar through communicative tasks is more effective to the
development of students' grammatical competence than the traditional approach which
emphasizes the memorization of rules and decontextualized practice
In order to identify the research hypothesis would be accepted or would be rejected,
the research questions were formulated and needed to be answered satisfactorily
1. Is students' grammaticality better as measured by their test scores than it is
taught in the traditional focus-on-forms methods?
2. What are the students' attitudes towards teaching grammar through
communicative tasks after experimental period?
1.4. Method of the study
This study employed a quasi-experimental method in order to determine the causal
relationship between teaching grammar through communicative tasks and the enhancement
of students' grammatical competence. It is quasi-experimental, rather a true experimental
because it did not randomize the samples. Instead two intact groups of students were

involved in the study, one group being the control group and the other, the experimental
group.
1.5. Significance of the study
Grammar in the TIENG ANH textbook series for high schools is presented in a
traditional way. In other words, discrete-point grammatical items are presented usually
with more than one grammatical items being presented in one Lesson Unit. This means
that a traditional approach to grammar, which focuses on decontextualized or sentence-
based presentation and practice of grammar. The study will give an answer to the question
of whether it is practical to teach grammar through communicative tasks in the context of
the high school in Viet Nam

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1.6. Scope of the study
The study was designed to test the hypothesis that it is possible to teach grammar
presented in the textbook following the Task-based model. Because of the time constraint.
The researcher could just carry out an experiment upon a small sample of grade 10
students who were no-randomly assigned to a control class and an experimental class, (30
students per each). The pretest and posttest scores were used to measure both groups'
English grammar knowledge before and after the trial period of first semester and half of
the second semester of the 2009-2010 academic year. The post- program questionnaire was
designed to get more feedback from experimental students. The result of the questionnaire
would give the researcher supplementary support for the conclusion drawing. So that, the
findings of the research could reflect the effects of TGTCT on the subject in the context
under consideration.
1. 7. Organization of the study
The study was divided into five main chapters, which are presented as followed:
Chapter one presents an overview of the study in which the rationale, the purpose,
the hypothesis and questions, research method, significance, aims as well as the

organization of the study.
Chapter two reviews the literature relevant to the study consisting of the role of
grammar in FLL, approaches to grammar, Task-based language teaching, Task-based
grammar teaching based on theoretical and practical evidence.
Chapter three deals with a detailed description of the study consisting of the
syllabus for grade 10 students, the subjects of the study, the rationale for using quasi-
experimental study, research design, procedures, the tasks and the findings which
concluding the comparison of the pretest and posttest of both control group and
experimental group, the students' attitudes towards teaching grammar through
communicate tasks. The discussions of the findings are presented in this chapter.
Chapter four points out the recommendations as well as some limitations of the
research and conclusions of the study, and suggestions for further study.
1.8. Summary
This chapter presents the rationale, the aims, the hypothesis to be tested and the
research method used in this study. Also the organization of the thesis is presented. The
next chapter reviews the literature.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter reviews literature which is relevant to the study. It begins by a
discussion of the role of grammar in foreign language learning. This will be followed by a
review of approaches to teaching grammar. Next, major issues of task-based language
teaching and the task-based approach to teaching grammar will be reviewed.
2.1. The role of grammar in foreign language teaching and learning
Grammar can be part of literature discussions. In fact, the role of grammar has
always been an argumentative focus in linguistic field. Grammar teaching has experienced

some representative periods. In the 1950s and 1960s, Chomsky‘s ―grammatical
competence‖ claimed that knowing a language equals to knowing the grammar of that
language. In the 1970s and the 1980s, with the birth of the concept ―communicative
competence‖, Hymes‘ idea that knowing a language should also include being able to use
the language for social and communicative interaction. According to the theory of
communicative competence, focusing on meaning rather than form does not mean that
grammar can be ignored. Instead, it should mean a balance between language system and
competence in its use, with an emphasis on meaning. The important role of grammar can
not guarantee the important status of grammar teaching. As early as 1966, Newmark
mentioned that grammar teaching interfered with language study and the language
analysis. In 1989, Nunan testified in his report that some linguists did hold an idea that
grammar teaching was not necessary. But since the 1980s, the view of neglecting grammar
teaching has been under serious challenge. To the question, ―Should teachers teach
grammar?‖, Ellis gives a positive response ―Yes‖
Talking about the role of grammar, the researcher wants to mention some
arguments of different people and various fields on language study.
2.1.1. Arguments in favor of grammar teaching
As early as in 1988, Long thinks that formal grammar teaching helps learners to
acquire L2 more rapidly and get higher achievement (cited in Ellis, 1999a). Ellis concludes
that though it does not enable learners to change the natural order of acquisition, grammar
instruction has an effect in helping learners to make more rapid progress along it, and has
lasting effect when it is indeed effective on learners (2002).
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Supporters of the Fine-tuning argue that grammar enables the learner to convey a
more intelligible and differential meaning than the simple stringing together of words. The
knowledge of syntax and morphology contributes to a better understanding of discourse as
it provides semantic clarification. Grammar improves production skills especially in
written language.

The Sentence-machine argument: It is impossible to use language creatively
without grammar. Grammar enables the learners to create an infinity of sentences.
The Fossilization – argument: Without attention to form the learners usually do not
progress beyond the most basic level of communication. Grammar enables the learners to
reach a higher level of language proficiency as the learner is aware of underlying
framework of the language.
The Syllabus argument: The guideline of the syllabus do not allow neglecting the
teaching of Grammar in school.
The Point of reference argument: Grammar serves the essential function of giving
the learner who does not process a natural feeling for language a point of reference for
using language property. Guidelines provide a sense of security and confidence for the
learners.
The Rule-of-law argument: Grammar satisfies the needs for rules, order the
discipline in institutional context such as school.
2.1.2. Arguments against teaching grammar
The fundamental role of lexis argument , lexis is the basic of language, as lexis is
the carrier of meaning. the focus of language of language teaching should therefore be on
lexis, not on grammar,
The knowledge- how argument: Language is learned by experimental learning –
learn by doing- like riding a bike. It is not learned by simply studying the language,
because learners have difficulties in transferring their knowledge into skills. Rather than
studying grammar, the learners need classroom experience that simulates the kinds of
condition in which s/he is going to use the language.
Supporters of a communicative approach to language teaching argue
communication is learned by communicating. The language should be used in order to be
learned. In this way, through activities that simulate life-like communication, the learners
will unconsciously pick up the grammar. ―Studying the rules of grammar is therefore
simply a waste of time‖
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Supporters of acquisition approach to language teaching, such as Krashen argue
that language acquisition is more successful than language learning, as comparison to
language acquisition, which is natural process, language learning results from formal
institutions and is not as useful for real communication.
Advocates of the natural order argue that learners are born with a Universal
Grammar (Chomsky). This (innate Universal Grammar) helps to explain similarities in the
developmental order of the first and the second language acquisition which is different to
the order in which grammatical items are presented in most textbooks. This argument
could also be called ― the obsolete approach to grammar teaching‖ as the order in which
grammar is taught need to be revised.
Supporters of learner expectation argue that, there are learners who want to focus
on communication and not on grammar, for instance, because they want to put their
knowledge of the language into use or because they do not like the learning of grammar
very much.
The role of grammar is perhaps one of the controversial issues in language
teaching. In the early parts of the twentieth century, grammar teaching formed an essential
part of language instruction so that so many other aspects of language learning were either
ignored or downplayed. The argument was that if you knew the grammatical rules strongly
challenged in the early 1970s. Knowledge of the grammar system of the language, it was
argued, was one of the many components which underlay the notion of communication
competence. To be considered a competence user of a language, one needs to know not
only the rules of grammar, but also how the rules are used in real communication.
The role of grammar in FLTL has been argued by many people in various fields as
shown above. Since I am an English teacher and subjects of my study are students who
have to do many English tests from low level to higher lever with many purposes for
example: leaving school examination, passing university examination, getting some further
studies for their future life. Such examinations require students to have good English
grammar knowledge to complete their tests. Without grammar knowledge, students can
not do their tests successfully. Therefore grammar is very important to our students so that

teaching grammar plays an important role to English teachers. The important question that
needs to be answered is: how do I teach grammar? In other words, how do I help students
learn the grammar they need. This question is deceptively easy. At first look, you might
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think that teaching grammar is just a matter of explaining grammar rules to students.
However, teaching grammar effectively is a much more complicated matter.
2.1.3. Grammar in communicative activities
Grammar within a communicative approach: (a) Current approaches to grammar
teaching point to the need to locate it within the communicative function. Understanding
the rules of grammar should not be an end in itself. Learners should be helped to recognize
the communicative value of grammatical structures. Grammatical structure appears to
develop in learners' speech in response to communicative need i.e. learners acquire a form
and the ability to use it productively when it assumes a critical role for the learner in
communicating essential information. (b) Formal and extensive grammar presentations
should be restricted. Exercises that require practice of mechanical drills in which students
have no choice in their answers are of limited utility. More effective learning may result
from exercises where the context requires students to choose between alternative
responses. Making the correct choice should arise from comprehension of the text rather
than purely displaying knowledge of the grammatical rule.
2.2. Approaches to grammar
In teaching, there are many theoretical approaches that have been developed to
promote the students' success in learning new information. In TESOL (Teaching English to
Students of Other Languages), there are two main theoretical approaches for the
presentation of new English grammar structures or functions to ESL/EFL students:
inductive approach and deductive approach.
2.2.1. The deductive approach
The deductive approach is one where the teacher directly presents the rule to the
students. It represents a more traditional style of teaching in that the grammatical

structures or rules are dictated to the students first (Rivers and Temperley 110). Thus, the
students learn the rule and apply it only after they have been introduced to the rule. For
example, if the structure to be presented is present perfect, the teacher would begin the
lesson by saying, "Today we are going to learn how to use the present perfect structure".
Then, the rules of the present perfect structure would be outlined and the students would
complete exercises, in a number of ways, to practice using the structure. (Goner, Phillips,
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and Walters 135). In this approach, the teacher is the center of the class and is responsible
for all of the presentation and explanation of the new material.
When grammar is taught deductively, the teacher: explains the rule to the learners,
provides no context or communicative purpose for the grammar, focus on form first and
then meaning, drills students to learn the rule mechanically, and assumes all responsibility
for student learning.
The deductive approach can be effective with students of a higher level, who
already know the basic structures of the language, or with students who are accustomed to
a very traditional style of learning and expect grammatical presentations (Goner, Philips,
and Walters 134). The deductive approach however, is less suitable for lower level
language students, for presenting grammatical structures that are complex in both form and
meaning, and for classrooms that contain younger learners (Goner, Philips, and Walters
134)
2.2.2. The inductive approach
The inductive approach is one where the teacher encourages the students to work
out the rule for themselves through relevant examples. It represents a more modern style of
teaching where the new grammatical structures or rules are presented to the students in a
real language context (Goner, Phillips, and Walters 135). The students learn the use of the
structure through practice of the language in context, and later realize the rules from the
practical examples. For example, if the structure to be presented is the comparative form,
the teacher would begin the lesson by drawing a figure on the board and saying, "This is

Jim. He is tall." Then, the teacher would draw another taller figure next to the first saying,
"This is Bill. He is taller than Jim." The teacher would then provide many examples using
students and items from the classroom, famous people, or anything within the normal daily
life of the students, to create an understanding of the use of the structure. The students
repeat after the teacher, after each of the different examples, and eventually practice the
structures meaningfully in groups or pairs. (Goner, Phillips, and Walters 135-136) With
this approach, the teacher's role is to provide meaningful contexts to encourage
demonstration of the rule, while the students evolve the rules from the examples of its use
and continued practice (Rivers and Temperley 110).
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When grammar is taught inductively, the teacher : allows the learners to formulate
and discover the rules (―to induct‖), Provides a context and purpose for use, focus on
meaning first and form second, helps learners discover the rule through meaningful
communication, and empowers the students to solve problem and learn how to learn a
language
The advantages of the inductive approach are that students can focus on the use of
the language without being held back by grammatical terminology and rules that can
inhibit fluency. The inductive approach also promotes increased student participation and
practice of the target language in the classroom, in meaningful contexts. The use of the
inductive approach has been noted for its success in EFL/ESL classrooms world-wide, but
its disadvantage is that it is sometimes difficult for students who expect a more traditional
style of teaching to induce the language rules from context. The two approaches to
grammar can be seen briefly in Table 2.1
Table 2.1: The deductive and inductive approaches
(modified after Stern 1992:150)

Deductive approach: General rule → Specific examples → Practice
Inductive approach: Specific examples → Practice → General rule

The inductive approach, instead of basing on a teacher-fronted transmission-style
classroom, is student-centered and allows learners to become deeply involved in the
language they are studying and offers potential for reflection. In the process of experiential
learning (learning-and-doing) they feel more important, and less passive, and do not get
bored so easily during the lesson. Therefore, the inductive technique can render great
service to teachers who have problems with keeping their students disciplined,
concentrated and occupied, as it partly obviates these problems. Knowing that they can
work out the rules from examples by themselves greatly increases learners‘ motivation,
makes them attentive, more actively involved in-and confident and enthusiastic about-the
learning process rather than simply passive recipients, and at the same time contributes to
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its effectiveness. The inductive method has the obvious advantage that what the learners
discover themselves, they are more likely to remember
In both approaches, the students practice and apply the use of the grammatical
structure, yet, there are advantages and disadvantages to each in the EFL/ESL classroom
(Rivers and Temperley 110). Understanding the disadvantages and advantages of both
approaches, may help the teacher to vary and organize the EFL/ESL lesson, in order to
keep classes interesting and motivating for the students (Goner, Philips, and Walters 129).
As many different characters of the two approaches above, and because of the purpose of
the study as well as characters of TBA, It seems to be that the inductive approach is more
appropriate to my study and it has many features of task-based teaching
2.2.3. Focus on form and focus on forms
Focus on form overtly draws students‘ attention to linguistic elements as they arise
incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is on meaning or communication (Long,
1991, cited in Doughty, 2001). Focus on form involves an occasional shift in attention to
linguistic code features — by the teacher and/or one or more students — triggered by
perceived problems with comprehension or production (Long and Robinson, 1998).

Focus on form: Within a communicative approach, referring to learners and
teachers addressing formal features of language that play a role in the meanings that are
negotiated. This is contrasted with a focus on forms, which emphasis formal aspects rather
than meaningful activities (Carter and Nunan, 2001).
Focus on forms entails the prior selection of a linguistic element which is presented
and practiced (e.g. PPP). Focus on forms "refers to instruction that seeks to isolate
linguistic forms in order to teach and test them at a time" (Ellis; 1994: 639) it is believed
that when the linguistic forms have been grasped, learners can "learn" the language, which
is presented by the grammar- translation method and based on the structural syllabus.
The differences between FoF and FoFs are studied by many famous authors,
Doughty and Williams( 1998: 4) point out that focus on forms( FoFs) and focus on form(
FoF) are ― not polar opposites in the way that ‗form‘ and ‗meaning‘ have often been
considered to be. Rather, a FoF entails a focus on formal elements of language, whereas
focus on forms is limited to such a focus, and focus on meaning excludes it.‖. Doughty
and Williams( 1998: 3) emphasize that the crucial distinction between FoFs and FoF is that
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― FoF entails a prerequisite engagement in meaning before attention to linguistic features
can be expected to be effective‖. A further distinction is pointed out by Ellis ( 2001: 15 )
who states that with FoF the attention to form must be ―brief and unobtrusive‖
Sheen ( 2002: 303 ) proposes that there is a fundamental difference between FoFs
and FoF, as far as the theoretical underpinnings of these two approaches are concerned.
According to Sheen FoFs is based on the assumption that when the learners learn a second
language in classroom situation they are learning a skill, and that they are utilizing general
cognitive processes to do so. As a skill- learning activity, the FoF approach is seen to take
place in three stages:
● Learners are brought to understand the grammar, by means of overt grammar
explanation, which often includes explanation in a first language and a comparison of the
first and the target language structures.

● Non- communicative and communicative exercises in the target grammatical
forms can be practiced.
● learners are provided with plentiful opportunities for communication, in which
they can use the target grammatical constructions, so that the use will all eventually
become automatic and accurate. ( Sheen, 2002: 304)
By contrast, FoF, according to Sheen (2002: 303),derives from the assumption that
the first and second language acquisition are to a certain extent similar processes. Both
these processes are seen to utilize ―exposure to comprehensible input arising from natural
interaction‖. FoF is, however, also based on the realization that there are significant
different between first and second language acquisition. Typically, learners‘ exposure to
the target language is insufficient for acquiring grammar, and in order to make up for this
lack of exposure learners‘ attention need to be focused on structural elements of the target
language, i.e. there needs to be some FoF. To understand more about FoF and FoFs, in
other words, because of the purpose of the study, it is necessary and important to make a
comparison between these two terms.



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Table 2.2:The differences between FoF and FoFs
Focus on form
focus on forms
(form instruction)
The word form refers to language form in
general
Learners first engage in meaning; then
explore some linguistic features
Occasional shift of attention to form

Triggered by perceived problems in
comprehension or production
Analytical approach
(forms-focused instruction)
forms refers to discrete, isolated, specific
language forms
Primary attention to form
Most attention to form
forms are taught in isolation
Synthetic approach
The above accompanying discussion of terms ‗FoFs‘ and ‗FoF‘ were presented in
an attempt to point out all possible distinctions between these terms. It is important to note,
however, these distinctions are theoretical, and that in the practice the two approaches are
not mutually exclusive. Although it is important to distinguish between ‗FoFs‘ and ‗FoF‘,
and to design materials and classroom methodology according to decisions informed by
theory about how attention to linguistic form, both FoFs and FoF could be used in the same
course and in the materials designed for it. Task-based language teaching involves "focus
on form"
2.3. Task-based language teaching
2.3.1. What is TBLT ?
TBLT is an approach to teaching a second/foreign language that seeks to engage
learners in interactional
authentic language use by having them
perform a series of tasks. It
aims to both enable learners (1) to acquire new linguistic knowledge and (2) to proceduralize
their existing knowledge
Task-based teaching approach, also called task-based learning, which was put
forward in the 1980, derives its idea from the process syllabus. It can be regarded as one
particular approach to implement the broader ―communicative approach‖. It is a teaching
method that put tasks at the center of the methodological focus. It considers learning

process as a set of communicative tasks that are directly linked to the curricular goals. The
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aim of task-based learning is to make language classroom approximate to the target
language environment, develop students‘ ability to communicate, and communication
takes place through using the grammatical system.
Nunan (1999, p.24) defines task-based language teaching as follows: ―task-based
language teaching is an approach to the design of language course in which the point of
departure is not an ordered list of linguistic items, but a collection of tasks.‖ Tasks provide
an entire language curriculum. Task-based language teaching provides learners with
opportunities to experiment with and explore both spoken and written language through
tasks designed to engage learners in authentic, practical and functional use of language for
meaningful purpose.
Task-based approach is a teaching technique that involves classroom activities and
the understanding and application of the target language and interaction among learners. It
focuses on the meaning rather than the form of language and the task itself should be a
complete unit which can be related to fulfilling an independent social activity. The
purpose of task-based approach is to provide learners a natural and real environment to
use language in which they will get many opportunities to communicate in the target
language when they are trying to complete the task so as to acquire those language skills.
Task- based approach has been widely applied since the 1980s. It profits from theories
like Krashen‘s second language acquisition, Vygotsky‘s constructivism theory and many
others. Task-based approach is a dynamic and developing teaching method which
advocates learning and training language knowledge and skills when completing tasks.
Teachers are no longer just initiators but guides, nor are learners just receivers but
principal agents. Through this approach, learners will learn how to make full use of their
own communicative ability to transfer from mother language to target language. It
provides an opportunity for them to learn together and mobilizes their potential abilities to
use and handle the target language skillfully. Unlike the traditional focus on forms

method, task-based language teaching involves ' focus on form ' (i.e. attention to form
occurs within the context of performing the task), a strong form of communicative
language teaching.
* Task cycle: Task cycle can be divided into three parts: task, planning and report.
i) Task. In this part, learners are given plenty of chances to express their ideas in
the target language. The fluency of language is emphasized. Learners implement tasks in
pairs or groups. Teachers supervise the process without interrupting their speech and
correcting their errors so that the learners feel safe to express themselves freely. Teachers
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should help learners gain confidence in language learning. Emphasis lays on
communication not accuracy of language.
ii) Planning. This part is preparation for report. Each group is getting ready to show
classmates their process and achievements of the task. Since learners have to report
publicly, emphasis of language naturally transfers from fluency to accuracy. In this part,
teachers should give suggestions and correct grammar.
iii) Report. Several learners report to the class while other learners should listen
carefully and compare those reports. In this way, all the learners are involved.
2.3.2. Definition of task
The meaning of "Task" has been given in various ways.
Long (1985: 89) defines "task" as a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for
others, freely or for some reward. In other words, by "task" it is meant for hundreds of
things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between.
Nunan (Li, 2004) the communicative task is a piece of classroom work which
involves learners in comprehending, producing and interacting in the target language while
their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form.
Willis, J. (1996: 53) gives the meaning of "task" as goal-oriented activity in which
learners use language to achieve a real outcome. Communicative tasks which involve the
four basic language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing are the centre of the

whole teaching framework. Learners start with experiencing the practice of language, and
end with reviewing the rules of language.
Skehan (1989: 95) lists characteristics of "task" as: 1) meaning is primary; 2) there
is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities; 3) task completion has
some priority; 4) the assessment of tasks is in terms of outcome.
Many definitions can be summarized from the above review. "Tasks" are a series of
correlative and purposeful activities in which learners perform when learning a language,
absorbing information, solving problems, and achieving goals with the target language as
they do in the real world. "Task" is an essential part of the whole course that leads to
influence in speaking the target language. It is also the process in which learners solve
simulative or real-world problems with the target language. It can help learners acquire
language knowledge and develop their comprehensive abilities in solving problems.
Nunan also suggests that tasks will contain some form of input data, which might
be verbal or non-verbal, and an activity, which in some way, is derived from the input. The
tasks will also have (implicitly or explicitly) a goal and roles for teachers and learners.
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Nunan (1989) develops a framework for analyzing communicative tasks, which
composed of 6 components. This framework is diagraphically presented in Figure 2.1
below
Figure 2.1: A framework for analyzing communicative tasks
(Adopted from Nunan, 1989:11)

Goals Teacher's role

Input TASKS Learners' role

Activities Settings
By using tasks in process teaching, learners are put in a meaning-focused context

and are given a chance to elaborate their grammar, so they may achieve the self-discovery
as discourse participants.
Before taking up the task of converting the textual content into various tasks, the
following points were noted and kept in mind by the investigators:
*The objective of the task must be stated very clearly
*The task must be appropriate for the level of the learners
*The task must equip the learners with the ability to apply classroom learning in new
situations.
*Tasks must be interesting and motivating to the students
*The form the input takes, must be clear to the teacher
*The roles of teachers and students must be specified clearly
*Through the task, learners must be encouraged to negotiate meaning
*The language that will be generated by the task must be predicted
*There should be variety and flexibility in the tasks
2.3.3. The basic characteristics of TBLT
1) Student-centeredness
Teachers should always be aware to plan a lesson for the aim of students‘ mastery
of how to use a language. Encourage students‘ involvement in the task activities.
(2) Meaning-focused instead of form-focused
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It is for the accomplishment of certain tasks that students use certain language
forms to communicate meaningfully with someone. The students don‘t note down all the
rules any more. Instead, they are involved in the meaningful and interesting activities.
(3) Authenticity
The task given to students should be clear and authentic to the life reality and have
some information transfer. Make sure the task designed is real in daily life. And tasks can
be available everywhere from having dinner to making a paper plane.
(4) Teamwork

Cooperation is greatly valued during the process of reaching an outcome of a task.
Students should help others, rely on others and learn from each other.
(5) Feedback and evaluation
Teachers should pay much attention to the process of feedback. Give students a
chance to report on their findings and experience their achievements. Without this step, a
task can hardly called a task in a TBL class. Teachers should give appropriate evaluation to
their outcome as well.
(6) Inside and outside class
Often an in-class task can lead to post-class tasks. It is natural that the excitement
of the whole class may lead to a further discussion after class.
2.3.4. Studies on TBLT
The researcher took some fundamental information on TBLT in Asian context from
the Asia TEFL Conference (Bangkok, August, 2000) into this study because they are very
useful and appropriate with the purpose of the study (language teaching context is the
same). In other words, these information help us to have a significant look on TBLT not
only in Vietnam but also in other Asian countries.
Nunan (2003) indicates that TBLT emerged as a central concept from a study of
curriculum guidelines and syllabi in the Asia-Pacific countries including Japan, Vietnam,
China, Hong Kong, Korea and Malaysia.
In China, the studies of Gatbonton and Gu (1994) and Yu (2001) on TBLT
practice point out that: the country lacks of qualified teachers, the teachers‘ low salaries
which affects directly to their teaching. And the conditions for teaching and learning, such
as: size of classes and teachers‘ preferences to textbook-based instruction, all affect their
teaching
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In Thailand, McDonough and Chaikitmongkol (2007) designed and experimented
a Task-based EFL course at Chiang Mai University) and found that TBLT encouraged
learner independence. Teachers need constant support with regard to supplementary

materials and pedagogical knowledge. Teachers need the freedom to follow the curriculum
rather than the prescribed textbook. TBLT satisfied learners‘ immediate academic needs. (a
task-based EFL course at Chiang Mai University)
In Vietnam, Canh (2008) pointed out that: Teachers are not only unfamiliar with
TBLT but also unconfident in using English, and teachers' knowledge base is still limited.
To the learners, they are unmotivated in learning as well as lack a clear goal of learning
English.
Through various results of studies on TBLT from many countries. There have been
many discussions on the TBLT in those countries that, the absence of a clear rationale to
implement TBLT begs the question of what is meant by TBLT and who, teachers or
curriculum developers, deem it appropriate to use across diverse classroom contexts.
TBLT is derived from the SLA research that students learn a language by performing a
task. Tasks are always performed in a particular social context while classroom practice
may be chaotic and unpredictable. Needs analyses must be the first step in curriculum
design. The success of TBLT is heavily dependent on teachers‘ and students‘ linguistic
resources. About the conditions of successful language pedagogy, they have discussed
these issues: Teachers should be informed of the rationale of new pedagogical practices,
Teachers‘ professional skills in adapting task. Power relationship in the classroom.
Students‘ motivation to make meaningful use of language to attain an objective Students‘
proficiency level. Hyper-rational whole sale appropriation of western-based TBLT model.
Inadequate consideration of contextual constraints, which include: a) top-down,
transmission-based educational culture b) shallowly-trained teachers. c) teachers‘ heavy
teaching schedule, but low salaries. d) teachers‘ lack of professional support.
New ideas and practices in ELT tend to be hastily adopted once the message is
sent from the western world under the pressure of the government policy without due
attention to contextual variables such as students‘ needs and the reality of the classroom.
Teachers are therefore refuse to accept the innovative ideas that are not based on their
realities.
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Need of Contextual Considerations: Pedagogical innovations must be implemented
and adapted according to local conditions, the strengths of individual teachers and
students, the available resources, the age of the learner, and the time available for teaching.
(Lightbown, 2000,p. 454).
For the success of TBLT in Asia countries: Curriculum developers should take into
consideration the contextual factors in order to adapt the theories to the local context.
Teachers need to be more thoroughly trained in using tasks and functional language.
Effective TBLT is dependent on teachers‘ informed pedagogy that reflect students‘ needs
and expectations, that take into account contextual resources and constraints and that is
based on sound theoretical assumptions. Teachers as key determinant
For teacher empowerment: Teachers should be empowered by being equipped with
tools to analyze the realities within their local contexts so that they can teach more
appropriately and effectively. No matter how modern western pedagogical ideas might be
they should be taken just as resources.
2.4. Task-based grammar teaching
2.4.1. Why task-based grammar teaching
The idea of getting learners to acquire English through tasks was developed in
India by Prabhu in the 1980s. Prabhu made a strong communicative approach project in
Banglore, South India. He puts forwards many kinds of tasks, and designs the learning
contents into all kinds of communicative tasks. He thinks learners may learn more
effectively when their minds are focused on tasks, rather than on the language they are
using.
Task-based language teaching approach can be viewed as within the framework of
communicative teaching and the study of task-based language teaching stems largely from
communicative language teaching (Nunan, 1989). It puts tasks at the center of the
methodological focus. It considers the learning process as a set of communicative tasks
that are directly linked to the curricular goals. It emphasizes the development of students'
communicative ability and communication takes place through using the grammatical
system of the language. It combines the teaching of language forms with teaching of

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language skills. Therefore, it may have significance or it may be effective in grammar
teaching.
The researcher has been teaching in Hagiang specialized upper secondary school
where students are non-major of English, most of whom are not very bad at English
subject comparing with the others of other high schools in Hagiang and they seem to be
more attracted to English since the adaptation of new textbook in which the task-based
theme had been being applied in teaching language skills. While the Language Focus,
including Pronunciation and Grammar, is based on a very traditional approach which
emphasizes the practice of discrete grammar points. As the matter of fact, at present most
of the teachers adopt the traditional teaching method in grammar class. Sometimes they
spend a lot of time explaining the grammar points, analyzing long and boring sentences
and expounding less useful but difficult words. It is so boring that it can not arouse
students‘ interest. as a teacher of English, I myself think of new method to teach grammar
to arouse students' interest.
There have been many opinions about task-based grammar teaching, some thought
that teaching grammar following task-based approach was not effective while others said
that teaching grammar following task-based approach was effective. I myself have thought
much about this and have wondered why language skills were designed following TBA in
the new textbook whereas grammar was not designed following TBA. To know whether
teaching grammar through communicative tasks is possible or not, I decided to make an
experiment on teaching grammar to 10 grade students through communicative tasks for my
MA thesis.
2.4.2. Steps in Task-based grammar teaching
1. Pre-task
Aim: To prepare student for the task, to engage their attention. Topics and tasks are
introduced in the pre-task stage. Teachers introduce tasks to learners. They present
necessary knowledge, explain the requirements and procedures of the task in detail and

help learners familiarize with the topic, vocabulary and expressions. In this stage, teachers
should take the individual differences among learners into account.
2. Task
2.1. Planning the task
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Aim: for the Ss to discuss about the works related to grammar points in group of
six.
Set a limited time of three or four minutes to discuss this. Circulate and listen to the
Ss doing the task, but do not correct any language at this moment.
2.2. Doing the task
Aim: For students to prepare an oral report of their task.
Stop the task. Tell the students to work together preparing a summary of their
discussion for later report to the whole class. They must write notes for this summary and
be prepared to report this orally to the rest of the class. Set a time limit of five minutes for
them to do this. When the students are ready, ask a spokesperson from each group to do
report. Rest of the class listen carefully
2.3. Presenting the product of the task
Aim: For students to get a provision of useful language input.
3. Post-task
3.1. language focus.
Aim: To raise students‘ awareness about the target language.
Let the students look at the passage again, picking out those sentences which
contain grammar points and write them on the board.
Check that the Ss understand the meaning of sentences( if necessary )
Ask Ss to write down the rules of form for grammar point
3.2. Language practice
Aim: To give the students some restricted written practice in the target language.
2.4.3. Characteristics of the Task-based Grammar Class

With accomplishing tasks and activities in real-life like situations becoming the
focus of each class, grammar class will show the following characteristics:
(1) The process of learning is a process of obtaining information, dealing with
information, analyzing problems and solving problems. When the students‘ attention is
focused on the problems or activities, it is much easier to learn the grammar items well.
(2) The purpose of language learning is not just learning grammar knowledge, but
the practical use of grammar knowledge. It is quite clear that grammar is the fundamental
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knowledge in English learning, since ―practice makes perfect‖, the best way to learn it well
is to practice, to use them in our daily life.
(3) Cooperative learning becomes accessible. In order to make the tasks more
meaningful and interesting, the grammar class asks for the students‘ cooperation. The
students can make great ideas by discussion and argument in a group with their partners.
(4) Student-centered class is highlighted. A teacher is no longer a dominator in
class but a facilitator of learning. The new class model welcomes different ideas from
every student. The class focuses more on the students‘ behavior and every has their own
right to express themselves.
(5) Students‘ individuality (creative way of thinking and personal views in
understanding and solving problems) is appreciated. In task-based class, there is not only
one answer to every question and there is no set answer. We appreciate new ideas from the
students. As long as the answer given by students is reasonable, it is acceptable.
2.4.4. Studies on Task-based grammar teaching
According to the results of Ma Li' s (2004) survey of teachers‘ attitudes towards
grammar teaching through tasks. Journal of Basic English Education 6/3. While task-based
language teaching has been promoted for several years, little has been researched on the
impact of a task-based approach to grammar.
Most of the teachers showed a positive attitude towards task-based grammar
teaching, from which they thought the students may benefit a lot. Tasks and activities

could make the classroom atmosphere much more relaxing. The focus of each class is on
practical use of grammar, which mean grammar teaching could occur in a more natural and
meaningful way. Cooperative learning through tasks and activities offered a good chance
to form good learning strategies and team spirit. And students‘ confidence would be
greater than before because their ideas were appreciated by teachers rather than criticized,
which as a result could work as an initiative to improve students‘ learning.
However, there are quite a lot of concerns about the application of task-based
approach to grammar teaching. Ma Li points out the following concerns:
1. Not every grammar item can be matched a good task set in real-life like
situations.