Ngữ pháp 2

Ngữ pháp 2
- What is grammar?
Grammar drived from Greek “grammatike” meaning “to write”
- Kinds of grammar:
Prescriptive grammar: to be phrased as prohibition - standard grammar
Descriptive grammar: to describe the grammatical system of a language (e.g to describe
how to play football: using a ball, hand and a basket...)
- Grammar development:
• Traditional grammar: grammar teaching at school, parts of speech, The traditional
categories
• Immediate constituents: using techniques for displaying sentence structure is the use
of immediate constituent (IC) analysis
• Phrase structures and transformational grammar:
- Phrasal structure: the division of a sentence into parts, or constituents, and the
division of those constituent into subparts.
- the transformational rules can be informally thought of as an instruction to change
one structure to another
• Functional grammar: showing grammar communicating meaning in social
interaction.
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Branches of
linguistics
Phonology (©m vÞ häc)
Segmental-®o¹n (vowels,
consonants) – supra
segmental (stress rhythm,
intonation
Grammar
Morphology-h×nh th¸i häc
(morphemes)
- Syntax (phrases –

clauses- sentences)
Semantics
Words – Phrases –
Clauses – Sentences
- Utterances
Discourse analysis
Sentences – Paragraphs
- Texts
Pragmatics (ng÷ dông häc)
Implicit (hµm Èn ý) –
explicit (hiÓn m«n)
Grammar
Open class items
• It conveys content words (lexical
words).
• Too many of them, can not count them -
the number of this class is unlimited.
• Two members can go together - the
members of this class do not exclude
each other.
• Can always create new members.
Closed system items
• It conveys function words.
• Can count them - the number
of them is limited.
• Two members cannot go
together - the members of this
class exclude each other.
• Can never create new
members.

Example:
a car
N
act (v) actor (n)
actress (n) action (n)
activity (n) active (a)
actively (adv)
a school-girl (n)
new-born (adj)
good-looking (a)
Ex.: 12
a car
- one/ indefinite
- in general
- In particular
a/ my/ this/ the car
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Morphology
Classes of word (different parts of speech); -
Different grammatical categories of different
parts of speech.
Syntax
Deals with the combination of words to
make larger units of language
Parts of speech
Open class items
Nouns
Adjectives
Adverbs
Verbs

Closed system items
Articles
Demonstratives
Pronouns
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Interjections
Phrases
NP, AdjP, AdvP, PreP, VP
Clauses
Main clause - subclause
Finite - nonfinite - verbless
Sentences
Elements: S, V, C, O, A
Kinds: 2 kinds
- Simple
- Complex:
+ by using Coordinators
+ by using Subordinators
1, Is it right to say that right wrongs no man?
2, One can not right all the wrongs in the world.
3, Cure that cold with a drink of hot lemon before you go to bed.
4, Drink this quick! Don’t let it get cold.
5, Before the fire, there had been a plague, the like of which had not been known before and
has not been seen since.
6, It is a common failing to suppose we are not like other men, that we are not as other
people are.
7, As your doctor, I must warn you that the results of taking this drug may be very serious.
8, Growth in weight results in the development of muscles and fat.
9, Warm pan, sift dry ingredients and stir well.

10, Dry hair thoroughly with warm towel and comb.
Unit 1 - Phrases – clauses - sentences
1..PHRASES
1.1. Definition
A group of one or more than one words, equivalent to a part of speech.
A phrase consists of (Pre-modification) + Head + (Post-modification)
1.2. Kinds of phrase: 5
a, Noun phrase (NP): a phrase in which there is a noun as a head
girls
N
head

a beautiful girl
premod. N
head

a beautiful girl in the class
premod. N
head
postmod.
b, Adjective phrase (Adj.P): a phrase in which there is an adjective as a head
beautiful
Adj.
head

more beautiful than I am
premod. Adj.
head
postmod.
c, Adverb phrase (Adv.P): a phrase in which there is an adverb as a head

slowly
Adv
head

more slowly than I did
premod. Adv
head
postmod.
d, Prepositional phrase (Pre.P):
in the class
pre. NP
a noun phrase dominated by a preposition
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e, Verb phrase (VP): a group of one or more than one verbs in which there is a verb as a head.
- Structurally, there are 2 kinds of VP:

VP Finite VP ‘To’ Inf.NFVP
Nonfinite VP: - Infinitive NFVP Bare Inf.NFVP
- -Ing participle NFVP
- -Ed participle NFVP
• Finite verb phrase: a verb phrase whose verb element agrees with the subject in person
and number.
He is a student.
3rd person, sing. 3rd person, sing.
FVP – simple
I have learnt English.
FVP - complex
• Non – finite verb phrase: a verb phrase whose verb element does not agree with the
subject in person and number.
- Infinitive non-finite verb phrase:

+ “To” infinitive non-finite verb phrase: To learn English is difficult.
+ Bare infinitive non-finite verb phrase: Run away is what I could do then.
- -Ing participle non-finite verb phrase: My duty is learning English.
- -Ed participle non-finite verb phrase: Asked a lot of questions, she was tired.
Finite VPs
• Finite VPs (V, V-s & V-ed1, etc.)
have tense and mood of a certain
type.
They go there very often.
He goes there twice a week.
(Tense: past; mood : indicative)
We went there yesterday.
(Tense: past; mood : indicative)

• Finite VPs often have their own
subject.
If she liked, she could go.
S + V-ed1
• Finite VPs often appear in the
simple, compound or complex
sentence (making up finite clauses)
Non-finite VPs
• Non-finite VPs (to V, V-ing & V-
ed2) do not have tense and mood.
They want to go there then. She
enjoyed watching TV.
Can be used either with Present or Past
tense)
• Non-finite VPs may have but more
often do not have their S.

For him to go there is difficult.
S + to infinitive
• Non-finite VPs often perform the
function of S, O, C or A of the
main finite clause and make up the
complete complex sentence.
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2. CLAUSES
2.1 Definition a part of a sentence, conveying an independent supposition
2.2. Clause elements : S,V,O,C,A
a. Object: - Direct object (Od.): I like him.
S V Od
- Indirect object (Oi) + Od: I gave him a book.
S V Oi Od
b. Complements:
- Subject complement (Cs): to describe or indicate the characteristics or feature of the subject -
after copular verbs (link verbs)
+ BE group: be, appear, seem, feel, look, see, sound, smell, taste…, expressing the current
attribute:
He appears tired.
S V Cs
+ BECOME group: become, come, get, go, grow, turn,…, expressing the resulting attribute:
He becomes famous.
S V Cs
- Object complement (Co): to describe or indicate the characteristics or features of the object:
She painted the door red.
S V Od Co
He drove me mad.
They elected him chairman.
I have my car repaired.

I saw her sleeping in the garden.
He made me cry.
They found her a good wife.
S V Oi Co
They found him a good wife.
S V Oi Od
They found a good wife for him.
He gave a book to me.
- Adjective complements (Cadj.)
I’ m happy to meet you.
S V Cs Cadj.
- Prepositional complement (Cpre.)
She is interested in making up all day.
S V Cs Cadj.
- Adverbials:
+ Semantically: adverb of time, place and process (manner)
He worked hard at school then.
S V Amanner Aplace Atime
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+ Functionally: 3 kinds
Adjuncts: integrated in the structure of the clause
He worked carefully.
S V A adjunct (How)
Disjuncts: peripheral to the structure of the clause
Carefully, he worked .
A disjunct S V
(generally speaking, in fact, to be honest, to tell the truth…)
Conjuncts: peripheral to the structure of the clause and connective function
Secondly, you have to learn French.
A conjunct S V Od

(finally, on the other hand, in brief, that’s why, in other words, in addition,
moreover, in conclusion, what’s more, further more...)
Ex. 5, 7
2.3 Classification
a, According to usage: 2
- Independent clause:
+ Simple sentence : Tom saw Mary.
+ Compound sentence: Tom saw Mary and he ran away.
+ Complex sentence: When Tom saw Mary, he ran away.
+ Dependent clause: When he saw Mary, he ran away.
b, According to clause elements and verb complementation: 7 kinds
S, V, O, C, A
SV
SVA
SVC
SVO
SVOA
SVOC
SVOO
- S + V(intransitive) : He has arrived.
- S + V(intensive) + Adverb : He is in the garden.
- S + V(intensive) + Cs : He looks tired.
- S + V(mono transitive) + Od : I love you.
- S + V(complex transitive) + O + A : They put him in a good position.
- S + V(complex transitive) + Od + Co : He made me happy.
- S + V(di transitive)+ Oi + Od : He gave me his book.
INTENSIVE
V intransitive
EXTENSIVE mono-transitive
transitive di-transitive

complex transitive
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Ex. 98
c, According to Verb phrase structures (Structural classification): 3
Finite clause
Infinitive “to” inf. NFC
Cl Non-finite clause bare inf. NFC
-Ing participle NFC
- Ed participle NFC
Verbless
C1, Finite clauses: a clause whose verb element is a finite verb phrase.
He is a student.
FCl.
C2, Non – finite clauses: a clause whose verb element is a non -finite verb phrase.
- Infinitive NFC:
+ “To” infinitive non – finite clause:
To learn English is difficult.
+ Bare infinitive non – finite clause:
All I did was hit him on his head.
-Ing participle non – finite clause:
The teacher being ill, we missed our lesson.
- Ed participle non – finite clause:
Given a beautiful present, she was happy.
His job finished, he went home.
C3, Verbless clause: a clause whose verb element is absent
He went to bed angry.
verbless
ß> When he was angry, he went to bed.
She stayed at home jobless.
ß> Because she was jobless, she stayed at home.

Ex: 11
d, According to syntactic function of the clauses: 2
- Independent clauses (main/super ordinate) :
He ran away when I turned out.
- Dependent clauses (sub-clause/subordinate)
What he wants is what I want.
Functionally : I think that you can do it if you try.
c
b
a
‘a’ is the superordinate to ‘b’ or ‘c’ is the subordinate to ‘b’
‘b’ is the superordnate to ‘c’ ‘b’ is the subordinate to ‘a’
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Structurally:
FCl
FCl
FCl
Cl.elements + V.complementation:
s v

S V O A
e, According to the syntactic functions of sub-clauses: 4 kinds
- Nominal clauses: (S, O, C)
What I want is not what he wants.
I wonder whether he’ll come or not.
I know you are rich.
I enjoy listening to music.
I want to learn English.
- Relative clauses:
The man who was standing at the door is my brother.

Defining relative clause
- Comment clauses:
Generally speaking, he is honest.
- Adverbial clauses:
After having breakfast, he went to school.
Ex: 4, 6
Chart of clauses classification
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I n d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e : W h e n T o m s a w M a r r y , h e r a n a w a y
D e p e n t d e n t c l a u s e : W h e n T o m s a w M a r r y , h e r a n a w a y
U s a g e
S + V ( i n t r a n s i t i v e ) : H e h a s a r r i v e d
S + V ( i n t e n s i v e ) + A : H e i s i n t h e g a d e r n
S + V ( i n t e n s i v e ) + C s : H e l o o k s t i r e d
S + V ( m o n o t r a n s i t i v e ) + O d : I l o v e y o u
S + V ( c o m p l e x t r a n s i t i v e ) + O + A : T h e y p u t h i m i n a g o o d p o s i t i o n
S + V ( C o m p l e x t r a n s i t i v e ) + O d + C o : T h e y m a d e m e h a p p y
S + V ( d i t r a n s i t i v e ) + O i + O d : H e g a v e m e h i s b o o k
C l a u s e e l e m e n t & v e r b c o m p l e m e n t a t i o n
F i n i t e c l a u s e : H e i s a s t u d e n t
" T o " i n f i n i t i v e n o n - f i n i t e c l a u s e : M y d u t y i s t o r e m i n d h i m o f h i s t a s k
" B a r e " i n f i n i t i v e n o n - f i n i t e c l a u s e : A l l I d i d w a s h i t h i m o n h i s h e a d
I n f i n i t i v e n o n - f i n i t e c l a u s e
- I n g p a r t i c i p l e n o n - f i n i t e c l a u s e : G o i n g h o m e , I d i d s o m e s h o p p i n g
- E d p a r t i c i p l e n o n - f i n i t e c l a s u e : H i s j o b f i n i s h e d , h e w e n t h o m e
N o n - f i n i t e c l a u s e
V e r b l e s s c l a u s e : W h e n a l i t t l e g i r l , I u s e d t o g o t o s c h o o l o n f o o t
V e r b p h r a s e s t r u c t u r e
I n d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e
N o m i n a l : I b e l i v e y o u a r e r i g h t

R e l a t i v e : T h e m a n w h o i s s t a n d i n g a t t h e d o o r i s m y b r o t h e r
C o m m e n t : G e n e r a l s p e a k i n g h e i s h o n e s t
A d v e r b : A f t e r h a v i n g b r e a k f a s t , h e w e n t t o s c h o o l
D e p e n d e n t c l a u s e
S y n t a x t i c f u n c t i o n
C l a u s e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
3. SENTENCES
3.1. Definition
An English sentence must have the subject that governs the verb and a finite verb phrase.
3.2. Sentence elements
1. Traditional classification: Subject + Predicate
2. Modern classification: S-V-O-C-A
Obligatory: 7 pattern clauses
Optional: Adverb of place/time
She went to London last Sunday.
Aplace Atime
The plane took off immediately.
Ex: 99
3.3. Classification
a. According to communicative functions (purposes of utterances): 4
a. Statements (Declarative): usually with the word order: S-V
- Affirmative: I’ll speak to him tonight. (+)
- Negative: I won’t speak to him. (-)
b. Questions (Interrogative): Normally with the inversion of the first auxiliary verb or
modal verb - called the operator - and the subject.
Do you like cat?
Op S
Questions are sentences marked by one or more of these three criteria:
- The placing of the operator in front of the subject (S-operator inversion):
Do you like coffee?

- The initial positioning of an interrogative or “Wh-” element:
What do you like?
- Rising intonation: You know him?
Ex: 15
c. Commands (imperative): sentences which have no overt grammatical subject and whose
verb element is in imperative
V
Don’t + V
- Without subject: Be careful.
Don’t be silly.
- With subject: Someone open the door.
Don’t someone open the door.
- With ‘let’ Let’s go.
Let him know.
Don’t let him go.
Let him not go.
Ex: 118
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d. Exclamations: sentences which have an initial phrase introduced by “what” or “how”
without the inversion of subject and operator.
How + adj/adv + S + V! How beautiful she is!
What +NP + S +V! What a beautiful girl she is!
Sometimes, we have verbless utterances in exclamation (in spoken language)
b. According to their structures:
I like you.
FCl
I told him this but he didn’t believe me.
1st indep. cl. 2nd indep. cl.
I know that you’re honest.
__ S V C = sub. clause

S V O = main clause
Cf: Phrases – Clauses - Sentences
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S i m p l e C o m p o u n d C o m p l e x s e n t e n c e M i x e d
T r a d d i o n a l
S i m p l e C o m p l e x
M o d e r n
Grammatical units
Sentences
are analyzed into
Clauses
are analyzed into
Phrases
are analyzed into
Words
are analyzed into
Morphemes
Sentences
are used to build
Clauses
are used to build
Phrases
are used to build
Words
are used to build
Morphemes
Unit 2 - Noun phrases
1. Nouns
1.1. Classification (Kinds of noun)
- Common nouns: count - mass

- Proper nouns
1.2. Grammatical categories:
- Numbers
- Genders
- Cases (cách)
Ex: 51, 53, 56, 57
1.3. Syntactic function of Nouns
1. Subject Tom is a teacher.
2. Direct object I gave him a book.
3. Indirect object
4. Object complement They elected him chairman.
5. Subject complement My mother is an actress.
6. Attribute
In pocessive This is Tom's house.
In direct address (vocative) Tom, come in please.
In apposition My friend, Tom, is a teacher.
7. As modifier of other noun I went to grocer store
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Ex: 54, 56, 57, 58
2. Noun phrases
2.1. Definition: NP is a phrase, in which there is a noun as a head.
2.2. Kinds of NP: 2 kinds: Basic Noun phrases and complex noun phrases
2.2.1. Basic NP (BNP):
a. Definition: Basic NP (BNP) is:
- a NP
- consists of (Pre-modification) + Head
- functions in the sentence as S, O and C.
b. Elements of the BNP:
1. Basic noun phrase is only one word:
Books are friends. She is my friend.

S Cs S Cs
2. The head of the Basic noun phrase is realised by:
- A common noun with zero modifier:
Pens are used for writing.
- Proper noun with/without modifier realised by closed system items:
(A) Mr John wants to see you.
- Common Noun with closed system item:
a/my/this book
- Pronoun with zero modifier:
I like him.
S Od
Nothing compares to you.
S – Indef.Pro Cpre.
- Numerous:
Three are absent to day.
3. Pre-modification of a BNP:

Basic NP
Closed system items Head
Pre-determiners Determiners Post-determiners
- as whole - articles - numeral
- multipliers - demonstratives - quantifiers
- fractions - pronouns
- interrogative deter.
- indefinite deter.
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- quantifiers
* Determiners
- Articles
Definite indefinite

the child a child
the children some children
the water (some) water
- Demonstratives: this, that, these, those, e.g: this book, this boy
- Pronouns: my, your, his, her, thier e.g: my brother, thier discussion
- Interrogative deter.: whose, which, what e.g: which coulour, whose books.
- Indefinite deter. : some, any, each, e.g: some water, any car (s), every student,
- Quantifiers: much, e.g: much water
* Pre-determiners
- As whole (inclusives): all, both, hlf, e.g: all the book
- Multipliers: double, twwice, three times, e,g: dounle your salary
- Fractions: one-third, two-thords; e.g: one-third of this book
* Post-determiners
- Numeral: + Close-system: many, little, few. e.g: many books, few apples
+ Open class: alot of, good deal of, a great number of
e.g. a lot of book, a great deal of oil
- Quantifiers: + Cardinal: one, two, three; e.g: one book, two books
+ Ordinal: first, second, third, e.g: first book, second book.
2.2.2. Complex noun phrases
a. Definition:
- a noun phrase
- 3 components: Premodification + Head + Postmodification, 3 types:
+ Premodification + Head
+ Head + Postmodification
+ Premodification + Head + Postmodification
- Function as S, O, C
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Basic Noun phrase Complex noun phrase
- are noun phrases (N.P)
- Functions: S, O, C

- Premodification + Head
- Premodification: Closed system items
- Permanent features
- Can be only one word
- Premodification + head
- Premodification : closed
system items
- Only permanent features
- Premod. + head + postmod.
- Premodification:
+ open class items (chiefly)
+ closed system items (optional)
- Premod. (perm.) + Head + Postmod (temp)
- Permanent and temporary features
b. The elements of a CNP
- The head: the item around which the other components cluster and which dictates
concord with other elements in the NP.
- Premodification of a CNP
- Postmodification of a CNP
Complex Noun Phrase
Premodification Head Postmodification
Closed sys. Items Open clas. Items
Pre-deter. Deter. Post-deter. Adjs Parts. N Adv/ Prep. NFCl. Rel.Cl
inclusives art. numeral
multipliers dem. quantifiers
fraction pron.
inter. deter.
indef. deter.
quantifier
Optional Chiefly (để phân biệt với BNP)

e.g: beautiful girl CPN
Grocer stores CPN
N N-head
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All my first student BCN
Premodification and postmodification: (self-study) trang 18,19,20,21 SGK
Ex: 248, 249, 250
2.3. Multiple Premodification and Multiple postmodification
2.3.1 Multiple Premodification
- The items can be premodifiers:
Predeter. + deter. + postdeter. + adj. + part. + N + Nhead
all the three beautiful black young little dancing school girls
prede deter post adj.gen. colour age size part. Ns N-head
- Any change in set sequence will lead to change in meanings:
a beautiful black young girl - a beautiful young black girl
his last interesting novel - his interesting last novel
- Cases of premodified premodifiers:
the consumer goods prices increase control
the extremely out dated point of view
Ex: 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262
2.3.2. Multiple postmodification
- The items can be postmodifiers:
N
head
+ Adv/ Pre.P + NFCl + Rel.Cl.
Predet. + deter. + postdet. + adj. + part. + N + N
head
+ Adv/Pre.P + NFCl+ Rel.Cl.
all the three beautiful black young little dancing girls in the corner talking to the director
who waved to you when you entered

- Any change in set sequence will lead to change in meanings.
- Cases of modified postmodifiers:
the construction of the northern part of our country
a young son from his first marriage to a British actress
Ex: 252, 253, 254, 255
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Unit 3 – adjectives and adverbs
1. Adjectives
1.1 Definition: a word belonging to an open class which generally denotes quality: good,
hot, little, young, fat, etc.; colour: black, white, etc. or shape: square, round....
1.2. Forms: no agreement with nouns
1. Simple adjs (root):
good, big, long, rich, nice, …
2. Derived adjs: (prefix or suffix + root)
beauty (n) => beautiful (a) (suffix can create a new part of speech)
happy (a) => unhappy (a) (prefix can create a new lexical meaning)
3. Compound adjs (root + root): good-looking, kind-hearted
4. Adj phrases: a six year old boy
a far more easily intelligible speech
5. Nouns as adj: a silver cup; a church lower
6.Participles as adjs:
-Ing parti.: indicating characteristics, features, functions, quality of the noun
-Ed parti.: expressing sth affected or attitude to sth
This film is very interesting.
We are interested in this film.
7. Advs as Adjs: the up train, the above statement
1.3. Syntactic features: 4
1. They freely occur in an attributive position, i.e. they can pre-modify a noun :
- Attributive position:
determiners adjectives nouns

some attractive places
several more clever pupils
attributive
This pre-noun position is called attributive because the adjective attributes a quality or
characteristic to the noun.
a love relationship (adjectival attributive) (functioning attributively)
- Sometimes, adjectives can be postpositive attribute (post-modifier):
There’s nothing new, but something important.
I have a house larger than yours.
2. They can freely occur in predicative position, i.e. they can function as: Cs & Co:
The man seemed old.
They painted the door blue.
3. They can be pre-modified by intensifiers :
very, quite, rather, ….
The children are very happy.
This is so difficult.
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4. They can take comparative and superlative forms whether inflectional.
The children are happier now.
They are the happiest people.
(beautiful - more beautiful - the most beautiful).
1.4. Syntactic functions of adjectives: 5
a. Modifiers: Pre-modifier and post-modifier:
- Adjectives are attributive when they pre-modify nouns:
This beautiful painting is his.
The only child can do it.
His main argument is on how to learn well.
- Sometimes, adjectives can be post-modifier (or postpositive attribute):
Anyone intelligent can do it.
There’s nothing new, but something important.

I have a house larger than yours.
b. Complements:
Predicative adjectives can be:
(i) Cs (in intensive relationship with S):
Your daughter is intelligent.
He’s rather careless.
(ii) Co (in intensive relationship with O):
I consider him foolish.
c. Head of a noun phrase:
- Substantivised adjectives (the + adj.) can function as heads of NPs (as S, C, O and
Cprep.):
The poor are causing the nation’s leaders great concern.
They will help only the humble poor.
d. Supplementive adjective clauses:
Nervous, the man opened the letter.
The man, quietly assertive, spoke to the assembled workers.
When ripe, the apples are sweet.
e. Exclamatory adjective sentences :
How good of you!
How wonderful!
Excellent!
1.5. Sub-classification of adjectives :
a. According to syntactic functions: central, attributive, predicative.
- Central adjectives can function both attributively and predicatively.
a hungry man ∼ The man is hungry.
- Attributive adjectives can be attributive (=modifier) only, e.g.
The political situation...
My former friend...
He’s an out and out scoundrel/ an utter fool / a mere boy.
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- Predicative adjectives can be predicative (=complement) only.
He’s afraid to do it.
I’m sorry (about/for).
The doctor made the patient well.
S V Od Co
b. According to Semantic functions:
b1. Stative/ dynamic:
- Stative adjectives: be characteristically stative:
It’s a male cat.
- Dynamic adjectives: can be seen as dynamic,
It’s an old blue jacket.
b2. Gradable/non-gradable adjectives:
- Gradable adjectives: can be modified by intensifiers and include comparison:
very young, so plain,
useful - more useful - most useful
These include all dynamic adjectives and most stative adjectives.
- Non-gradable adjective: principally technical adjectives and adjectives denoting
provenance
atomic, British
wonderful, fantastic, perfect
1.6. Comparison of adjs: self-study
Ex: 68, 69, 70, 74, 75
2. Adverbs
2.1. Definition: belonging to an open class, often used as:
- adverbials:
They’re waiting outside.
He spoke to me about it briefly.
- modifiers:
That was a very funny film.
She has a really beautiful face.

2.2. Kind of Advs: 9
1. Adv of time: yesterday, this morning, at 6 o’ clock ...
2. Adv of frequency: always, every month, once a week . . .
3. Adv of duration: some time, for a while, for a long time . . .
4. Adv of place: on the table, in the office, at work . . .
5. Adv of direction: around the world, to the airport, forwards . . .
6. Adv of distance: near, next, far a way, a long way . . .
7. Adv of manner: badly, quickly, fast . . .
8. Adv of means and instrument: by bus, with a knife, without a ruler. . .
9. Adv of degree: very, too, extremely, absolutely, completely . . .
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2.3. Forms
1. Simple: too, very, always, often, ever, never, far
2. Derived of adverbs: generally, backward, quickly, clockwise
3. Compound adv: whole-heartedly, shamefacedly, self-confidently
4. Adv phrases: now and again, five years ago, since three o’clock
5. Adj and adv of same form:
Adjective Adverb
an early train The train arrived early
a wrong answer You’ve got it wrong
a long rest You mustn’t stay too long
6. Advs having 2 forms:
a) The same meaning:
I bought this car cheap/cheaply. He has to drive slow/slowly.
b) Different meaning:
They’re working hard. I did hardly any work today.
I’ll tell you directly, he comes. The train goes there direct.
7. Correspondence between adj and adv:
He answered the question very well.
~ He gave a very good answer to the question.

It is badly decided. ~ It is a bad decision.
He spoke to John sharply. ~ He spoke to John in a sharp manner.
2.4. Syntactic functions of adverbs:
a. Adverbials :
- Adjuncts: They’re waiting outside.
- Disjuncts: Frankly, I’m tired.
- Conjuncts: (They tried to listen.) However, they heard nothing.
b. Modifiers:
- Modifier of adjective:
It is extremely good of you to say this.
They are very / quite tired now.
- Modifier of adverb:
They smoked very heavily.
They knocked the man right out.
- Modifier of prepositional phrase :
The nail went right through the wall.
This deals exactly with the right answer.
- Modifier of determiner:
About a week is enough for this practice.
She gave me almost the largest piece of cake.
- Modifier of noun phrase:
He told such a funny story. It was rather a mess.
He was quite some player. How tall a man he is.
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c. Complement of preposition (Cprep):
- Preposition + Adverbs (time):
Since: lately, recently, then, today, yesterday,
till/until: now, tomorrow, tonight, after, afterwards, later,
- Preposition + Adverbs (place):
up: here / there

from: above, abroad, below, downstairs, indoors, inside, outside, upstairs,...
2.5. Comparison of adv: self-study
Ex: 67, 77, 78
Unit 4. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
1. Components of prepositional phrases:
1.1. Structure of prepositional phrases:
Preposition + Prepositional complement
for freedom
according to these rules
1.2. Prepositional complements may be realised by:
a. Noun phrases:
He was surprised at her remark.
b. -Ing participle clauses:
He was surprised at her saying that.
c, Wh- interrogative clauses:
He was surprised at what she said.
d, Yes/no interrogative clauses:
It depends on whether he would win the match or not
e, Nominal relative clauses:
I was interested in whatever he was saying at the time.
f. Adv: Since then, I’ve been very happy.
2. Syntactic functions of prepositional phrases:
2.1. Adjuncts: He talks to her in a friend way.
She comes here on foot.
2.2. Disjuncts:
in fact, of course, to my surprise, to some extent,
in some way, by all means
2.3. Conjuncts:
on the other hands, in other words, at last, in short, apart from, in addition, in a word, in
brief, instead of

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Other functions:
2.4. Post modifier in a NP:
The book on grammar is difficult to read.
I’m a woman in love.
2.5. Complementation of a verb:
Everything depends on the weather.
Everyone is looking for that picture.
2.6. Complementation of an adj.:
I’m afraid of a dog.
I’m interested in reading books.
Ex: 79,80,85,90
Unit 5 - VERB PHRASES
1. Categories of verbs (classification)
According to their functions of these items in the same verb phrase: auxiliary
(grammatical) and lexical verb (semantic) verbs.
I shall have been being followed.
auxiliary lexical
Lexical verbs (semantic verbs)
V
Auxiliary verbs (grammatical verbs)
1.1. Auxiliary verb: help complete the meaning of the verbs phrase (that has grammatical
function in the verb phrase)
shall => tense
have => the aspect (perpective aspect)
been => voice
being => the aspect (continuous aspect)
à Grammatical device (tất cả trên gọi là công cụ ngữ pháp)
Auxiliary verbs gồm 3 loại:
- Primary auxiliary verbs: be, do, have

- Modal auxiliary verbs: 10 modal verbs
- Semi-modal auxiliary verbs: dare, need
1.2. Lexical/semantic verb: carries full dictionary meaning / that denotes action or state.
2. Auxiliary verbs:
2.1. Syntactic features of primary auxiliaries: self-study (trang 28 SGK)
a, Their forms:
Periphrastic: Do Perfect: Have Progressive: Be Passive: Be
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b, Forms of the verbs following them:
do + V lexical
have + V-ed2 of lexical/ auxiliary
be +V-ing of lexical/auxiliary
be +V-ed2 lexical
c, Used as operator:
They didn’t go there.
Why did she come late?
She hasn’t done it?
d, Used as proform ( pro-verb):
She went there but I didn’t.
Have you finished ?Yes, I have.
e, Only ‘Do’ can be used as emphatic auxiliary:
Do come in and sit down.
Ex: 26, 14
2.2. Modal auxiliaries: their syntactic features: self-study
a, List of items: can, may, must, shall, will, ought to; dare, need
b, Their own forms:
Present: can, may, shall, will, must, ought to, need, dare
Past: could, might, should, would
c, Form of the verb following them:
Modal + V (base) of the lexical / auxiliary verb following it.

You can go.
They must have gone out.
d, Used as operator:
She can't do it now.
He couldn't swim.
What must we do now?
Why shouldn't they have taken photographs then?
e, Used as pro-form:
You must go there but they mustn't (needn't).
2.3. Semantic features of modal verbs: (trang 30 SGK)
Semantically modal verbs form a scale of modality when they are use withc lexical
rebs:
a, Ability: (Khả năng)
- Present: He can speak 3 foreign languages
- Past: He could play the guitar when he was 3
be able to V
be capable of
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know how to do something
b, Possibility: dùng can. Cho người - Có thể; cho vật-Có lẽ
c, Permission: Cho phép
be allowed to V
d. Obligation: be obligatory for somebody to do something
must, have to
e, Necessity: be necessary for (somebody) to do something
f, Advisability: should/ ought to
g, Suggestion: Shall, why don’t you
h, Habituality:
Past: be used to do something
Present/future: get used to V_ing

i, Volition: Will go
j, Prediction: be going to do something
be about to do something
k, Futuriry: will do. shall do
Some auxiliary verbs
1. Can
- Ability: (to be able to/ to be capable of)
He can speak English.
(He is able to speak E)
- Ask for permission: (to be allowed to, to be permitted to)
Can I use you dictionary?
(Am I allowed to . . ./Am I permitted to . . .?)
- Possibility (objective): (to be possible to )
The road can be blocked.
(The road is possible to be blocked.)
2. Could
- Past ability: (was/were able to)
I could swim when I was 8.
(I was able to swim when I was 8)
- Permission in the past: (was/were allowed to)
I could use anything available in the office
- Present or future permission (polite): (to be allowed to)
Could I smoke in here ?
- Present possibility: (to be possible to)
The road could be blocked.
(The road is possible to be blocked.
It is possible that the road is blocked)
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3. May
- Permission: (to be allowed to)

May I borrow your bicycle?
- Possibility of present or future: (to be possible to)
The road may be blocked.
4. Might
- Permissional present or future: (to be allowed to)
Might I smoke in here?
(Am I allowed to smoke in here.)
- Possibility of present or future: (to be able to)
What you say might be true.
5. Shall
- Willingness on the part of the speaker (second or third person)
He shall get his money.
You shall do exactly as you wish.
(It is certain that . . . . . . . . . .)
- Intention of the part of the speaker (first person)
I shalln’t be here longer.
(I don’t intend to be here longer)
- Insistence (second or third person)
You shall do as I say.
(You must do as I say / It is obligatory for you to do as I say)
6. Should
- Obligation:
They should be home by now.
(It is necessary/obligatory for them to be home by now.)
- Necessity:
You should do as he says.
(It is necessary/obligatory for you to do as he says)
- Putative use: “it”
It is odd that you should say this for me.
7. Will

- Willingness:
He’ll help you if you ask him.
(He will be willing to help you if you ask him.)
- Intension (contrasted – the first person):
I’ll write as soon as I can.
- Insistence:
You’ll do whatever you say.
You shall do whatever you say.
- Prediction:
The game will be finished by now.
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8. Would
- Willingness:
Would you excuse me ?
(Are you willing to excuse me ?)
- Insistence:
It is your own fault you would take your baby with you.
- Characteristic activity in the past:
Every morning he would go for a long walk.
9. Must
- Obligation:
You must be back by 10 o’clock.
(It is obligatory for you to be back by 10 o’clock)
- Certainty:
They must be a mistake.
(It is certain that there is a mistake.)
10. Ought to
- Obligation (should):
You ought to start at once.
- Necessity:

You ought to be here by now
Ex: 39, 40, 42, 43, 44
3. Lexical verbs:
3.1. According to these abilities to be used in the progressive form (aspect), verbs are
classified in 2: stative and dynamic.
a. Stative: a verb that expresses state, experience, condition . . . It has no continuous
forms, expressing:
- Feelings and emotion:
admire hate mind adore detest loathe appreciate
desire respect fear care for like dislike
- Thinking and believing:
argue mean realise see assume know
recall suppose believe forget recollect think expect feel
remember understand
- Wants and preferences: prefer, want, wish
- Perception and senses: perceive, recognize, see, hear, feel, taste
- Being, seeming, having, owning:
be appear possess become own seem
look have owe sound belong
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