Emotions in early confucianism 3

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Chapter 3

Nù
1


3.1. Nù as seen philologically
3.1.1. Nù at first glance
To those less conversant with the field, it may appear easier to make sense of nù
initially because, unlike xǐ, which is semantically similar to a number of Chinese
characters such as yuè and lè, nù stands out prominently from other emotional terms. This
is analogous to “anger” in the English language; unlike “happiness,” which is difficult to
differentiate semantically from “pleasure” and “joy,” “anger” seems to stand out in
English the way nù does in Chinese.
2
Both terms are so distinctive in meaning that nù
carries almost the same emotional weight as “anger.”
Nevertheless, there is still a need to refrain from over-exuberance in linguistic
assimilation as the two languages function under different hermeneutical frameworks.

1
I benefitted from Professor Kwong-loi Shun’s lectures during my visit to the Chinese University of Hong
Kong in the summer of 2008. In his lectures on Ethics, Prof. Shun explored the Christian deadly vices using
Gabriele Taylor’s Deadly Vices. The lecture on “Pride and Anger” highlighted Taylor’s position in seeing
“aggressive anger” and “resentfulness” as “sophisticated anger” involving a “high degree of self-
consciousness”. This delineation was insightful and helped shape my view with regard to the different
forms of anger in this chapter. For a detailed analysis of what constitutes “sophisticated anger,” see

Gabriele Taylor, Deadly Vices (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 70-91.
2
Emotive terms such as “indignation,” “fury” and “irritation” are synonymous with, and often viewed as
subsets of, “anger,” with “anger” taking on an encompassing nature. This is unlike “happiness,” for it is
controversial as to whether “happiness” is really a kind of “joy,” or otherwise.


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For instance, in the English language, “anger” is not always the opposite of “happiness”
the way nù is seen to be in a dichotomous manner to xǐ in Chinese. In fact, as shown in
Chapter 2, this special symmetry in the Chinese understanding, understood in the context
of the qì-theory, is instrumental in our distinguishing xǐ from yuè and lè.
In the case of nù, when one’s qì is not in sync with the internal body systems, it
becomes trapped within; over time, an accumulation of qì may lead to an emotional
release of pent-up feelings. There are also other emotional terms in the Chinese language
with meanings similar to nù, albeit less confusing as compared with xǐ. I will clarify what
I mean in this section, where I focus on the related emotional terms yùn 慍, fèn 憤, fèn*
3

忿 and on the more distant, but very important notion of yuàn 怨.
To start with, the Shuō Wén Jiě Zì does not help in clarifying differences among
these emotional concepts. Classifying all four characters above as having xíngshēng 形聲
etymological roots, it actually defines yùn as nù, nù (and yuàn) as huì 恚, and huì as hèn
恨 (synonymously related to “hatred”), neither of which is found in any of the primary
texts. More importantly, hèn deviates too far in meaning from nù and yuàn.
As for fèn, it is defined as mèn 懑, a very pictorial character, with a mǎn 滿 (full)
on top and a xīn below, suggesting a heart that is filled (with an emotion,) but again, mèn
is not found in the primary texts and is further defined as fán 煩 (near-synonymous to
“vexed”) which, again, departs from the original meaning of fèn. The definition for fèn*

3
To differentiate between and , I transcribed them as fèn and fèn* respectively.


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is also not helpful but in a different way—fèn* was defined as juān 悁, and juān as fèn*,
and is thus, circular. In addition, juān is also not found in the primary texts.
4

3.1.2. Yùn, fèn and fèn*
Many modern etymological dictionaries explain anger-related emotional terms
using nù as a benchmark. Yùn, for that matter, is described as a milder form of nù in the
Gǔcíbiàn, and fleshed out as “dissatisfaction” (bù mǎn 不滿).
5
It is correct to say that yùn
is often suppressed, though it can also be shown through facial expression (yùn sè 慍色).
For example, Zǐwén 子文 was said to be without yùn sè when he was thrice removed
from office in Analects 5.19. However, I do not agree that yùn is a lesser form of anger; I
am more inclined to see it is as stronger form of anger, and, as I shall explain in the later
part of this chapter, a more dangerous one, as it could hinder Confucian cultivation.
In the Analects, yùn is typically evoked when one feels under-appreciated. The
first passage in the Analects leaves us with a question that carries the emotional term of
yùn:
“Is it not gentlemanly not to take offence when others fail to appreciate your
abilities 人不知而不慍, 不亦君子乎?” (Analects 1.1)
Perhaps the fact that Confucius evokes this question together with the yuè one
gains in learning and practice, and the lè in receiving like-minded friends from afar,
shows the Master accepting and expecting that it is part and parcel of Confucian life to be

under-appreciated. Perhaps Confucius understood that in the process of cultivation, a

4
Shuō Wén Jiě Zì, 221.
5
Gǔcíbiàn, 843.


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Confucian individual must face the challenge and learn to come to terms with yùn as he
will likely encounter situations where he finds himself sorely under-appreciated.
To dismiss yùn as a mild form of anger is to underestimate its implication. Yùn is,
in reality, similar to the destructive emotion of “resentment,” which will be discussed in
the next section.
6
Although yùn can be detected from one’s facial expression, it is a form
of anger that is largely suppressed or contained, revolves around issues of self-respect
and self-esteem, and is often kindled when one realises that one is slighted or under-
appreciated.
7


6
Prof. Kwong-loi Shun has rightly pointed out to me the constraints and even inaptness of assimilating yùn
with the western concept of “resentment.”
7
This interpretation of yùn is in line with those found in the pre-Confucian classics. In the Zuǒzhuàn, Gōng
Chú was unhappy with the position he was offered; rather than voicing his opinion and triggering a
potential conflict, he chose to exit by turning down the position ( ) (“Xiāng Gōng 23.5”);

The Jìn lady of Dào was angry with the decision of the Duke of Jin in the appointment of Shū Hóu
as the governor of Qí Tián but had to control her anger and remonstrate tactfully ( :
“ , , .”)(“Xiāng Gōng 29.11”); Chán Bān was angry over the
cession of his city but instead of demanding it back, went away in indignation ( )(“Āi Gōng 17.7”).
All these three instances point towards displeasure that is suppressed due to one’s inferior social position.
On the other hand, the two occurrences of yùn in the Shījīng pertain more to the grudges bore against one
by inferior men and foes: “my heart is full of trouble, being resented by small men ( , )”
(“Bó Zhōu ” in The She King, 39-40); “Though he cannot eliminate the grudges of his foes, he did
not let fall his fame ( )” (“Mián ” in The She King, 441).


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Fèn is similar to yùn in that it is also an emotion accumulated and built up within
the self. However, fèn may not be related to anger at all. It occurs twice in the primary
texts—both in the Analects, where the term is used with a positive connotation: “bracing
up.” In Analects 7.8, Confucius sees fèn as a necessary condition for enlightenment, qǐ 啟
; and in 7.19, he even sees himself as a person who forgets about his meals when
studying hard (fā fèn wàng shí 發憤忘食). It is perhaps in this meaning of fèn that we can
understand why the great péng 鵬 was described as “rising in nù (nù ér fēi 怒而飛)” in
the first chapter of the Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 much later.
The crux of this matter actually lies in the heavy dosage of qì-theory. Whether as
a gentleman bracing himself for long periods of study, or a gigantic bird mustering
strength for flight, both contexts are understood as a welling-up of qì within oneself.
8
The

8
Recall Cáo Guì’s well-known theory in warfare as recorded in Zuǒzhuàn, where the mustering of qì
is linked with the raising of morale of the troops and instrumental to the victory of an army. See “Zhuāng

Gōng 10,” James Legge trans., The Ch’un Ts’ew with the Tso Chuen, in The Chinese Classics vol. V,
(from here, the Tso Chuen), 84-87. In fact, in a lesser-known account in “Xī Gōng 15.4,” there is an
interesting remonstrative account on how xuè and qì function in horses, which also interestingly involves
the notion of fèn: “Now for the fight that is before us, you are using horses of a different State. When they
become afraid, they will change their usual way, and go contrary to the will of their driver. When they
become confused, they will get excited. Their timorous blood will flush all their bodies, and their veins will
everywhere stand out. Externally they will appear strong, but internally they will be exhausted. They will
refuse to advance or retire; they will be unable to turn around. Your lordship is sure to repent employing
them. , , . , , , . ,
, .” (Ibid., 167-168.)


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understanding of fèn helps us in our comprehension of nù, for they operate in the same
hermeneutical framework with regard to emotions. Fèn retains this meaning and it is only
much later that it includes the element of anger, as is often used in modern Chinese
phrases like “qìfèn 氣憤 (angry).”
Fèn*忿, on the other hand, has everything to do with the emotion of anger in
early Confucianism. In fact, if we are to take an open display of anger as a criterion for
categorizing different forms of anger, then yùn and fèn* probably lie at opposite ends of a
continuum. If yùn is subtle, then fèn* is forthright; if yùn is accumulated within, then fèn*
is dissipated outright. In Analects 12.21, fèn* is seen as a sudden fit of anger that makes
one forget the safety for self and parents;
9
and in Analects 17.16
10
as well as the “Zūn Dé
Yì (Esteeming Virtues and Rightness),”
11

fèn* is used together with lì 戾 (near to the
meaning of “ill-tempered” or even “tyrannical”). Without doubt, in the Confucian


9
To the question from Fàn Chí about “misguided judgement (huò ),” Confucius replied
rhetorically: “To let a sudden fit of anger make you forget the safety of your own person or even that of
your parents, is that not misguided judgement? ( , . ?)”

10
When comparing ancient people with his contemporaries, Confucius pointed out that “in antiquity, in
being conceited, men were uncompromising; today, in being conceited, they are simply ill-tempered (
, ).”
11
The “Zūn Dé Yì” identifies the riddance of one’s ill-temper and conceitedness as the responsibility of a
better man. ( , .) See “Zūn Dé Yì” slip 1, Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 173.


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context, extreme anger in the form of fèn* is often seen as undesirable.
12

3.1.3. The nù in yuàn
Another important concept is yuàn, often translated as “grievances,”
“lamentations” or “complaints,” though one can see it more as an emotional behavior,
rather than an emotion per se. To draw an analogy, “complaint” is to “anger” like
“laughter” is to “joy.” Yet I chose to focus substantially on yuàn in this chapter because a
presence or absence of yuàn is often used as a gauge to reflect the presence or absence of
an emotion, and for that matter, oftentimes an undesirable one. Confucius, for example,

in his advice to Zhòng Gōng 仲弓 in Analects 12.2 on what rén is, puts “free from yuàn

12
It is perhaps worth noting that can be a noun meaning “quarrel,” which is still in line with our
interpretation of it as forthright and undesirable anger. For now, there is a need to explain the three
occurrences of xiǎo fèn* (small fèn*) in the Zuǒzhuàn. “Small fèn*” does not imply that fèn* in these
contexts are small in magnitude. All three instances are, in fact, found in remonstrative arguments for the
restraining or resolving of short-term and mindless fèn* which might lead to disastrous undesirable
consequences. For example, in “Dìng Gōng 6.2,” Gōng Shū Wén Zǐ remonstrated to the duke
that “your own son and the sons of us your ministers you were ready to give as hostages… does it not seem
improper that for a small occasion of anger you should now cover over your former kindly feeling and
action? ( , , … , ?” (The Tso
Chuen, 763.) On that note, we also need to be aware of the fact that unresolved fèn* can lead to suppressed
and accumulative resentment, as seen in “Xī Gong 24.2,” where the two other instances of fèn* are found:
“… although brothers may have small quarrels among themselves, they will not for them cast away their
relative affection. But now, when Your Majesty, unable to bear the resentment of a slight quarrel, is casting
away the affection of Qing [qīn], what is to be said? (… , .
, ?)” (Ibid., 192).


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in the country or family (在邦無怨, 在家無怨)” as the desired ethical outcome of being
rén.
The emotions involved here are actually very complex, and we can see a certain
element of anger involved, whether the anger is directed at others or at oneself.
I shall use a contemporary analogy to illustrate this inter-connectivity. Supposing
someone aspires to a certain position within a company, and when he does not succeed,
displeasure in the form of anger may build up. He may be angry with others (perhaps his
friends, for not helping him to secure the position); he may be angry with himself (for not

possessing the ability or seizing the opportunity for promotion) or he may feel envy or
“red eyed” over the benefits that did not come his way or jealousy for his colleague who
was promoted instead.
13

This example is probably very similar to the circumstances faced by the early
Confucians. Because of the chaos and politics of the times, a Confucian may not be
named an official even though he was sufficiently capable; through cultivation, he then
had to learn to deal with his anger how events turned out.
This brings us to a very important passage in the Analects:
…The Master said, “I do not complain against Heaven, nor do I blame Man. In
my studies, I start from below and get through to what is up above. If I am

13
This does not mean anger has replaced envy/ jealousy, for it is envy and jealousy that fuels anger. This
can be easily proven: when envy/ jealousy is removed, one stops being angry. To use the example above,
when one realizes the heavy responsibility involved in taking up the new position, one may stop being
jealous/ envious and thus stop being angry. In this particular context, it is perhaps appropriate to see anger
as a “second-order” emotion compared with envy/ jealousy.


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understood at all, it is, perhaps, by Heaven.” 子曰: “不怨天, 不尤人; 下學而上達
. 知我者, 其天乎.” (Analects 14.35)
To say that one does not yuàn Heaven or blame men carries certain
assumptions—a person with similar circumstances in life would be, precisely, inclined
towards doing the otherwise. And if we were to scrutinize the emotion involved where a
person laments his plight, it would seem that there is an element of anger involved or, at
the very least, a sense of frustration. In fact, if we read deeper into the passage, one could

almost sense Confucius’s frustration in not being able to find someone who understands
him; hence, his wish to focus on his study humbly, to know more about “what is up
above,” and concluding that if “anyone” at all could understand him, it was likely “what
is up above.” I will look into this unique form of anger in the closing section to this
chapter.
14

3.1.4. Conclusion
Nù is an easier emotional concept to clarify than xǐ, though not necessarily easy to
understand. Like its English counterpart “anger,” nù is more of an encompassing term.
15

When events in life do not take place according to an individual’s wishes, nù results in
degrees from irritation to resentment, to more extreme forms of anger. The major
difference among various forms of nù lies in whether one keeps the emotion largely

14
Note that yuàn also takes on a melancholic stance, especially with regard to lamenting over the death of
loved ones, which I will discuss in the next chapter on āi.
15
As pointed out previously, this is not applicable to its near-parallel, xǐ, which is not used as an
encompassing notion.


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suppressed (yùn) or gives vent (fèn*). This welling-up of nù is similar to the building-up
of fèn but it is only much later that fèn comes close to nù in the similar semantic sense of
“anger.”
In this section, I set out to identify the different possible candidates of nù, setting

each apart and preparing the platform to discuss philosophically. I highlighted yùn and
fèn* as two forms of nù, with yùn being practically hidden, and fèn* being entirely overt.
In the discussion, I clarified fèn as its semantic link with nù did not take place until much
later. I have also shown how yuàn comes into the picture and complicates matters by
adding in elements of envy and jealousy.
In the next section, we shall consider the rightfulness of anger in the early
Confucian context, before exploring the implications of yùn in Confucian cultivation and
how yùn is at least as vicious as—or more so—than fèn*. I will then conclude with a
discussion of yuàn in the light of nù, and in particular, an interesting kind of yuàn, that
which is held against Heaven.
3.2. Nù as seen philosophically
3.2.1. Nù as anger
Perhaps let us begin with the desirability of nù. A reference to Aristotle’s well-
known approval of anger as recorded in the Nicomachaean Ethics would probably start
us off in the right direction:
There is praise for someone who gets angry at the right things and with the right
people, as well as in the right way, at the right time, and for the right length of
time…. The deficiency, whether it is a kind of non-irascibility or whatever, is
blamed, because people who do not get angry at things that they ought to get


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angry at are thought to be foolish, as are those who do so in the wrong way, at the
wrong time, and with the wrong people. Such a person seems to be insensible and
to feel no pain, and, because he does not get angry, not the sort to stick up for
himself; and it is slavish to put up with being insulted oneself or to overlook
insults to those close to one….
16

Aristotle continues to elaborate on the opposite case of excess where one is
“angry with the wrong people, for the wrong reasons, as well as to a greater degree, more
quickly, and for a longer time than is right.”
17
In short, he sees being angry in the
appropriate context as a desirable mean between the excess of “irascibility” and the
deficiency of “non-irascibility.”
What is interesting here is that, comparatively, we can see a similar trend in the
Chinese idea of nù. Nù only occurs once in the Analects, used by Confucius in describing
his exemplary disciple. Asked which of his disciples was eager to learn, Confucius
identifies Yán Huí, who neither vents his anger unto an innocent person (不遷怒) nor
repeats the same mistake.
Notice that Confucius did not praise Yán Huí for being insusceptible to nù, nor
did the Master compliment his disciple for being able to control his anger. Instead, he
esteemed Yán Huí for not venting his nù unto a person who is not blameworthy.
Presumably, Confucius must have recognized the fact that there are many things in life
that may cause frustration and anger, and it takes a gracious gentleman not to put the

16
Roger Crisp, ed., Nicomachean Ethics IV.5, 1126a (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 73.
17
Nicomachean Ethics, 74.


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blame on the easy targets in his bid to seek an outlet for venting his emotions. But this
does not mean one should not feel nù. Instead, it is perhaps legitimate for one to feel nù
over the right things and even vent one’s displeasure appropriately. In this aspect,
Confucius’ attitude towards nù is similar to that of Aristotle on anger.

Although there are instances in the classics and other early Confucian texts where
nù is considered an undesirable emotion, it is more often deemed appropriate, legitimate
and even as an emotion to be fearfully respected.
Looking through the Shījīng,
18
there are random odes attributing negative
connotations to nù, warning its reader that anger can, for example, affect the relationship
of a married couple;
19
how a gentleman should deliver instructions without impatience
and frustrations;
20
and perhaps how the office of superior men should appease the anger

18
Perhaps some may ask whether the early Confucians gave a new ethical meaning to nù different from its
pre-Confucian usage, such as with the notion of jūnzǐ, which took on an additional ethical bent in early
Confucianism in addition to its pre-Confucian association to a social class. The answer to this is no. In fact,
the early Confucians seemed to draw inspiration from pre-Confucian classics on what constitutes the
“right” form of nù, as seen from their frequent quotes when substantiating their points.
19
“[Husband and wife] should strive to be of the same mind, and not let angry feelings arise ,
,” in “Gǔ Fēng ,” The She King, 55.
20
“Blandly he looks and smiles; without any impatience he delivers his instructions , ,”
in “Pàn Shuǐ ,” The She King, 617.


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of the people.
21
Most odes in the Shījīng recognize the legitimacy of anger, and some are
pleas not to be angry or to stop being angry.
22

More importantly, if one searched the number of times nù appears in the Shījīng,
one would find more than half referring to the anger of either a righteous man or an
anthropomorphized Heaven:
…Disorder then comes to the birth ,
When the first untruth is received .
Its further increase ,
Is from our sovereign’s believing the slanderers 君子信讒.
If he were to be angry [with them] ,
The disorder would probably quickly be abated ;
If he were to show his joy [in the good] ,
The disorder would probably quickly cease .
23

As suggested by this ode, the righteous anger of a person in power can actually
bring about peace and harmony to society, and in chaotic times as that of early




21
“Let superior men do justly, and the animosities and angers would disappear. , ,” in
“Jié Nán Shān ,” The She King, 312.
22
See for examples, The She King, 97; 365; 379.

23
“Qiǎo Yán ,” in The She King, 341.


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Confucianism, many seem to have thought this to be the case.
24

The people in Shījīng seemed to believe in the existence of an anthropomorphized
Heaven (Tiān ), and viewed disasters as meted upon them by an angry Heaven:
Revere the anger of Heaven ,
And presume not to make sport or be idle .
Revere the changing moods of Heaven ,
And presume not to drive about [at your pleasure] .
Great Heaven is intelligent ,
And is with you in all your goings !
Great Heaven is clear-seeing ,
And is with you in your wanderings and indulgences !
I shall discuss the nature of Tiān in greater detail when we look at the interesting
idea of people bearing anger towards Heaven and, also related, Confucius’ religious
position later. Suffice it here to say that there is at least an enduring train of thought in the
historical context of early Confucianism that attributes the occurrence of disasters to the




24
There are substantiating texts for this in the Shījīng: “The king rose majestic in his wrath; He marshaled
his troops, to stop the invading foes ( , , )” (in “Huáng Yǐ ,” The She

King, 453); and “The king aroused his warlike energy, As if he were moved with anger ( ,
)” (in “Cháng Wǔ ,” The She King, 558).


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works of an angry and awe-inspiring Heaven.
25

Given this, if we notice how nù is used to connect the emotion of a righteous man
with that of an awe-inspiring Heaven in the Shījīng, it should not be difficult for us to see
how nù is approved upon normatively in early Confucianism.
26
This is perhaps
exemplified by Mencius’ appeal to the “outbursts of rage which brought peace to the
people (一怒而安天下之民)” in history in his rebuttal to King Xuān 宣 of Qí 齊 on the
meaning of true valour:
“Great are your words,” said the King, “but I have a weakness. I am fond of
valour.”
“I beg you not to be fond of small valour. To look fierce, putting your hand on
your sword and say, ‘How dare he oppose me!’ is to show the valour of a
common fellow which is of use only against a single adversary. You should make
it something great…. In one outburst of rage King Wen brought peace to the

25
Other good examples from the Shījīng include “I was born at an unhappy time, to meet with the severe
anger of Heaven , ”; and “Reverent to the intelligent Spirits, I ought not to be thus the
object of their anger , .” (in “Sāng Róu ” and “Yún Hàn ,” The She King, 521;
533.)
26

There is also another train of thought reminding us of the potential dangers of nù. The “Yǔcóng Èr” and
“Cóng Zhèng (Administering Governance)” warn us that nù will lead to shèng , which is generally
agreed to mean “rashness”; Mencius 4A18 also reminds us that a gentleman should not educate his own
son, as the nature of things is such that he will get angry if he fails to correct his son, which will lead to
father and son hurting each other. (“Yǔcóng Èr” slip 26, Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 204; “Cóng Zhèng” slip
3, Shànghǎi Bówùguǎn Cáng Zhànguó Chǔ Zhú Shū, part B vol.2, 235.)


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people of the Empire…. If there was one bully in the Empire, King Wu felt this to
be a personal affront. This was the valour of King Wu. Thus he, too, brought
peace to the people of the Empire in one outburst of rage. Now if you, too, will
bring peace to the people of the Empire in one outburst of rage, then the people’s
only fear will be that you are not fond of valour.”
王曰: “大哉言矣, 寡人有疾, 寡人好勇.” 對曰: “王請無好小勇. 夫撫劍疾視曰:
“彼惡敢當我哉!”此匹夫之勇,敵一人者也.王請大之…文王一怒而安天下之
民… 一人橫行於天下, 武王恥之; 此武王之勇也. 而武王亦一怒而安天下之民.
今王亦一怒而安天下之民, 民惟恐王之不好勇也.” (Mencius 1B3)
To the early Confucians, a gentleman should feel angry over the right incidents,
or more specifically, over the wrong ones. Mencius has not only justified the Zhōu kings’
acts of removing the last king of the Shāng Empire, under which they once served as
subjects, he has also attached an emotional element into this controversial historical
episode. Not only is the anger of a man rightful, it is also an emotion to be revered.
3.2.2. Yùn as suppressed anger
From the above, anger can be desirable in the Confucian context. I shall now
explore a different form of anger that is considered undesirable.
The “Yǔcóng Èr” states explicitly the relationship between nù and our
dispositional attitudes —that wù (dislikes) come from our xìng, and nù, in turn, from our
dislikes (惡生於性, 怒生於惡).

27
Wù, like hào, is part of us and the emotion of nù is
naturally generated when a person meets objects and events that he dislikes. In fact it is

27
“Yǔcóng Èr” slip 25, Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 204.


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better if we can, instead of suppressing and controlling our emotions, follow our likes and
dislikes and react accordingly.
28
Mencius once mentioned to Wàn Zhāng that a
benevolent man never harbors anger or nurses a grudge against a brother (仁人之於弟也,
不藏怒焉, 不宿怨焉).
29
However, the question is, if nù follows naturally from our
dislikes, what would the early Confucians recommend when nù is generated with no
immediate avenue for regulation? How harmful to one’s cultivation is the accumulation
of nù within oneself?
The particular type of nù I am interested in is yùn. Yùn, as explained previously, is
an emotion similar to, in short of a better word, “resentment.” It is a complicated form of
anger that is kept within oneself and allowed to accumulate and grow. Robert C. Solomon
summarized the essence of resentment accurately when he observed the complications
involved in this emotion:
Resentment is the villain of the passions. It is among the most obsessive and
enduring of the emotions, poisoning the whole of subjectivity with its venom,
often achieving moodlike scope while still maintaining its keen and vicious focus

28
This is perhaps what the author of “Xìng Zì Mìng Chū” meant when he claimed that nù is better gathered
than scattered ( ). See “Xìng Zì Mìng Chū” slip 64, Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 181.
29
Mencius 5A3. The question is whether the last two clauses mean the same thing. I would see the latter as
a development of another—when one is angry over a particular incident and he suppresses his anger, the
yuàn that results “stays” (which is the literal meaning of sù ) with him.


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on each of the myriad of petty offenses it senses against itself.
30

Indeed, resentment is characterized by its subtleness, and a resentful person often
attempts to hide it. As such, before resentment is shown in the form of complaints and
outspoken grievances, its gravity is often underestimated. Unhappiness towards a person
or one’s circumstances often has deep roots, and the final onslaught of expressing this
unhappiness often goes beyond the last straw that breaks the camel’s back.
The notion of yùn, or suppressed anger, is one that is rarely explored in Chinese
Philosophy, though there are a number of good articles written by Western scholars on its
near-counterpart “resentment”, cutting across different fields such as psychology,
philosophy and sociology. The scarcity in discussion within the Confucian context is
strange, given the importance Confucius placed on this emotion, or rather, the control of
and relief from it.
As pointed out earlier, yùn is an emotion evoked when anger is suppressed and
often channeled inwardly. This often happens when we are not paid the due respect we
expect from others, and is thus very much related to the way we view ourselves, as well
as our expectation of others. In other words, resentment often comes in when the

treatment one receives does not agree with one’s esteem of oneself. A strong element of





30
Robert C. Solomon, The Passions: Emotions and the Meaning of Life (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1993), 290.


103

pride is involved.
31

As pointed out previously, the first book in the Analects starts off with three
questions, with the appropriate corresponding emotional responses implicitly suggested,
one of which deals with the emotion of yùn. Perhaps the emotion of yùn is a major
stumbling block in Confucian moral cultivation, and an inability to control yùn hinders
one’s path in becoming a gentleman.
In fact, this advice is repeated in the Analects, although the character yùn is not
used:
The Master said, “It is not failure of others to appreciate your abilities that should
trouble you, but rather your failure to appreciate theirs.”
子曰: “不患人之不己知, 患不知人也.” (Analects 1.16)
The Master said, “It is not failure of others to appreciate your abilities that should
trouble you, but rather your own lack of them.”

31

As commonly understood, the degree of yùn one feels varies from person to person, and the intensity of
this feeling is also, in many cases, contextual. As P. F. Strawson has pointed out, with regard to resentment,
“if someone treads on my hand accidentally, while trying to help me, the pain may be no less acute than if
he treads on it in contemptuous disregard of my existence or with a malevolent wish to injure me. But I
shall generally feel in the second case a kind and degree of resentment that I shall not feel in the first.” See
P. F. Strawson, “Freedom and Resentment,” in Freedom and Resentment and other essays (London:
Metheun & Co., 1974), 5. Strawson focused mainly on intentions and to what extent one should be
responsible having done an act resulting in resentment by another. However, this criterion of intention is,
interestingly, not applicable in the Confucian context, for we see, in the Analects, a lack of contextual
discussion in the line of intentionality, which seems more in line with 19
th
-century Western concepts of
criminality.


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子曰: “不患人之不己知, 患其不能也.” (Analects 14.30)
Both passages involve the shifting of paradigms. When one fails to be recognized,
one should either put oneself in the shoes of others to understand how it feels to be under-
appreciated; or one should examine oneself and see if the treatment one received from
others is justified. This is similar to Analects 4.14, where the Master is quoted as saying:
“Do not worry about the lack of appreciation of your abilities on the part of others. Seek
to be worthy of appreciation. (不患莫己知, 求為可知也.)”
Though these two thoughts seem different, they are oriented towards one
direction—that of the self. In Confucian cultivation, external factors are invariably
redirected to a focus on and examination of the self. As Confucius put it:
The Master said, “Men of antiquity studied to improve themselves; men today
study to impress others.” 子曰: “古之學者為己; 今之學者為人.” (Analects
14.24)

Learning and the acquisition of knowledge is, for Confucius, directed towards the
perfection of oneself, after which success in officialdom will come naturally, and in
occasions where one is under-appreciated, what one has to do is, again, look inwards
reflectively. It should not be difficult to see the connection between Analects 1.16 and
14.30: when mistreated, one examines oneself, and if there is something to correct on
one’s side, one amends while at the same time, reminding oneself to treat others with due



105

respect. This thought is, in fact, in line with other important passages in the Analects.
32

Looking at other early Confucian passages related to yùn, it appears that yùn is
also closely related with the emotion of yōu 憂, often translated as “worries,”
33
though it
is not known which came first. Although the “Xìng Zì Mìng Chū” puts yōu as coming
after yùn in a series of emotions,
34
we find, in the “Yǔcóng Èr,” both “yùn shēng yú yōu
慍生於憂” (yùn comes from yōu) and “yōu shēng yú yùn 憂生於慍” (yōu comes from
yùn.)
35
This is interesting because we can see how anger evolves when one feels slighted
and this is related to the worry about one’s esteem or social standing being endangered,
for in a situation when one feels secure, one does not worry about self-respect and
reputation being threatened. It is precisely when one feels insecure that one develops
anger when slighted.

36


32
For example, in Analects 4.17, Confucius advises his disciples: “When you meet persons of exceptional
character, think to stand shoulder to shoulder with them; meeting persons of little character, look inward
and examine yourself ; .)” It is perhaps also interesting to note the
emotion involved in Analects 1.16 and 14.30 when one is under-appreciated is huàn (“anxiety” or
“fear”), which we shall explore more in the next chapter. When one is not appreciated, there is a potpourri
of emotions dependent, again, on the personality of the parties involved and the context.
33
I shall examine yōu again when I discuss other fear-related emotions in the next chapter.
34
“Yùn sī yōu ,” in “Xìng Zì Mìng Chū” slip 34, Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 180.
35
They are found, respectively, in “Yǔcóng Èr” slip 7 and 30, both in Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 204.
36
The yōu one feels within oneself could also be from the yùn in others. For example, Mencius 7B19
quotes from the Shījīng when describing the life of Confucius, for he did experience a nagging state of yōu
when he faced yùn from petty people ( , ).


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There are many reasons why one would choose to suppress one’s anger and it is
impossible to exhaust them here. One could be the offense is a minor one, and one does
not want to be seen as being petty; another might be the person who offended one is a
person of a higher social standing, and an outbreak of anger could have negative
repercussion. In these two instances, the anger is internally channeled, and could continue
to build up and eventually lead to giving vent such as when one continues to suffer

similar mistreatment to a point where one cannot control one’s anger anymore. In such
cases, grievances or complaints (yuàn) take form.
However, it will be inaccurate to say that all yuàn are overt expression of
emotions for one can yuàn within oneself, the same way a person can feel bitter and
grumble within himself. In other words, when yùn develops into an explicit display of
anger, yuàn takes form, be it through words or actions, but that does not mean there is no
element of yuàn in yùn.
That said, although it is true that an absence of resentment means an absence of
anger-related grievances, it is also often the case that the presence of the latter reduces the
intensity of the former; and though the early Confucians often linked resentment with the
narrow-mindedness of a “small man,” or petty behavior,
37
it is not correct to say that all
grievances are undesirable. In fact, Confucius encouraged individuals to make known
their unhappiness rather than hide it, which, in line with folk psychology, is a healthy

37
In Analects 17.25: The Master demonstrates his frustration in dealing with small men and women in
one’s household: “If you let them get too close, they become insolent. If you keep them at a distance, they
feel badly done with ( , ).”


107

way of resolving resentments. However, given our understanding of Confucius’ thinking,
it is unlikely that he sought to change another person’s behavior by doing so. The
materialized yuàn is, rather, one of being faithful to one’s genuine feelings and moral
inclination. In fact, according to Confucius, it was morally wrong to resent another and
yet hypocritically befriend him:
The Master said, “Cunning words, an ingratiating countenance and utter servility,

these things Tsuo-ch’iu Ming [Zuǒqiū Míng] found shameful. I, too, find them
shameful. To be friendly towards someone while concealing a sense of grievance,
this Tsuo-ch’iu Ming [Zuǒqiū Míng] found shameful. I, too, find it shameful.” 子
曰: “巧言、令色、足恭, 左丘明恥之, 丘亦恥之. 匿怨而友其人, 左丘明恥之,
丘亦恥之.” (Analects 5.25)
According to Confucius, one of the reasons for studying Shījīng is precisely
because they can be used as an avenue for airing grievances:
The Master said, “Why is it none of you, my young friends, study the Odes? An
apt quotation from the Odes may stimulate the imagination, and endow one with
breeding, enable one to live in a community and give expression to grievances…
子曰: “小子! 何莫學夫詩? 詩: 可以興, 可以觀, 可以群, 可以怨… (Analects
17.9)
38


38
This is also Mencius’ rebuttal in Mencius 6B3 against Gàozǐ’s view that poems which carry yuàn are
undesirable.


108

As we know, the Odes also served as an avenue through which the ruler in early
China understands the grievances of his people. The early Confucian texts warned its
readers to avoid incurring yuàn, especially that of subordinates and commoners:
The Duke of Chou [Zhōu] said to the Duke of Lu, “The gentleman does not treat
those closely related to him casually, nor does he give his high officials occasion
for complaint because their advice was not heeded. Unless there are grave
reasons, he does not abandon officials of long standing. He does not look for all-
round perfection in a single person.” 周公謂魯公曰: “君子不施其親, 不使大臣

怨乎不以. 故舊無大故, 則不棄也. 無求備於一人. (Analects 18.10)
39

We should also conduct ourselves in a way that yuàn will not be evoked in others
as well. On the government level, the existence of complaints and grievances perhaps
suggests the inadequacies of their policies, which endanger the peace and harmony of
society.
40


39
In Analects 20.2, Confucius listed “works others hard without their complaining ( )” together
with “generous without its costing him anything ( ),” “has desires without being greedy (
),” “is at ease without being arrogant ( )” and “is awe-inspiring without looking fierce (
)” as five excellent practices if one seeks to take part in government. “Working others hard without their
complaining” is achievable if one “chooses burdens the people can support ( ).”
40
The “Cóng Zhèng,” for example, talks about the elimination of the ten yuàn ( ) of the people.
However, most of the slips on the details of the ten yuàn could not be retrieved, leaving us with a slip that
reads “ , ” (matters pertaining to criminals and the failure to keep promises)
which are generally believed to be the last two of the ten yuàn. “Cóng Zhèng” part A slip 5, Shànghǎi
Bówùguǎn Cáng Zhànguó Chǔ Zhú Shū vol. 2, 219.


109

More specifically, on a more personal level, the avoidance of ill-will is dependent
on one’s behavior:
The Master said, “If one sets strict standards for oneself and makes allowances for
others when making demands on them, one will stay clear of ill will.” 子曰: “躬

自厚, 而薄責於人, 則遠怨矣!” (Analects 15.15)
One of the worst things a person can do is to treat himself generously while
treating others with stricter standards. By doing so, ill will is naturally incurred. As
pointed out earlier, in Analects 12.2, when asked by Zhòng Gōng about benevolence, the
Master said, “When abroad behave as though you were receiving an important guest.
When employing the services of the common people behave as though you were
officiating at an important sacrifice. Do not impose on others what you yourself do not
desire. In this way you will be free from ill ease whether in a state or in a noble family.”
The rule, thus, in treating others, is respect and reciprocity of goodwill. One’s actions
should not be guided by self-interest, especially at the expense of others.
From the above, it is clear that resentment was often seen as undesirable in the
Analects. Not only does a gentleman need to refrain from bearing grudges, he must also
try his best to prevent doing things that could possibly incur the wrath of others. When
caught in situations where he found himself to be slighted, a gentleman should turn
inward and reflect on how he can change himself, rather than seek the good opinions of
others. However, that does not mean he is condescending, he is firm if he finds himself to
be in no wrong, and seeks to learn from his experience and refrain from doing the same
thing to others. Only then can he, as a ruler or an official, do things in a just manner so as