DSpace at VNU: Production Function of Planted Mangroves in Thanh Phu Nature Reserve, Mekong Delta, Vietnam

Production Function of Planted Mangroves in Thanh Phu Nature Reserve,
Mekong Delta, Vietnam
Author(s): Nguyen Thi Kim Cuc and Erik D. de Ruyter van Steveninck
Source: Journal of Coastal Research, 31(5):1084-1090.
Published By: Coastal Education and Research Foundation
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Journal of Coastal Research

31

5

1084–1090

Coconut Creek, Florida

September 2015

Production Function of Planted Mangroves in Thanh Phu

Nature Reserve, Mekong Delta, Vietnam
Nguyen Thi Kim Cuc†‡* and Erik D. de Ruyter van Steveninck§
†

Department of Natural Resources Management
Faculty for Water Resources Engineering
Water Resources University
Dong Da, Hanoi, Vietnam

‡
Mangrove Ecosystem Research Division (MERD)
Center for Natural Resources and
Environmental Studies (CRES)
Vietnam National University (VNU)
Ton Duc Thang, Hanoi, Vietnam

§

Water Science and Engineering Department
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education
Delft, The Netherlands

ABSTRACT
Cuc, N.T.K. and Ruyter van Stenvenick, E.D. de, 2015. Production function of planted mangroves in Thanh Phu Nature
Reserve, Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Journal of Coastal Research, 31(5), 1084–1090. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 07490208.
Through assessment of forest structure, biomass of mangrove plantations in the Thanh Phu Nature Reserve, Mekong
Delta, Vietnam was analyzed in correlation with diameter at breast height (DBH, i.e. at 1.3 m height). Study plots were
set up in 7, 11–22, and 26-year-old planted Rhizophora apiculata Blume plantations. There is a significant inverse
correlation between DBH and tree density (R2 ¼ 0.73; p , 0.01). To derive an allometric relation to estimate aboveground
biomass, 32 trees representing all ages were chosen randomly and harvested at ground level to examine allometric

relations. We measured the fresh and dry weight of stems (WS), branches (WB), leaves (WL), and aboveground stilt roots
(WR) in situ. Allometric relationships were satisfied best with DBH as an independent variable (R2 ¼ 0.72, 0.89, 0.87,
0.98, and 0.97 for leaves, branches, stilt roots, stem, and total aboveground biomass, respectively; p , 0.001). The total
aboveground biomass was estimated in the plantations to vary between 76 and 320 tons/ha. Of this, more than 50% of
total aboveground biomass was represented by stems. The estimated biomass value of this study is consistent with that
of other mangroves in the world. Total biomass of R. apiculata plantation in Thanh Phu Nature Reserve accounted for
about 170,057 tons dry weight or 8056 tons C.

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Mangrove plantation, Rhizophora apiculata, aboveground biomass.

INTRODUCTION
Mangroves are among the most important and productive
ecosystems in tropical and subtropical regions (Ong, 1993).
They provide a variety of ecosystem services, such as sources
of food (fish, shellfish, crabs, etc.) timber, fuel wood, and
nursery grounds for many commercially important aquatic
organisms. Mangroves stabilize coastlines and in many cases
promote coastal accretion, providing a natural barrier
against storms, cyclones, tidal bores, flooding, and other
potentially damaging natural forces (Alongi, 2008, 2009;
Giesen et al., 2007; Mitsch and Gosselink, 2007; Peter, 1999;
Tri, Adger, and Kelly, 1998).
However, mangrove forests have declined significantly in
SE Asia over the past four decades (1970s–2000s). The main
reasons for mangrove loss and degradation have been
population pressure resulting in wood extraction and conversion to other land uses such as shrimp ponds, agricultural
fields, salt pans, settlements, ports, and industrial estates.
The resulting environmental impacts have contributed to the
decline and degradation of mangrove resources (Hong, 1991;
Hong and San, 1993; Macintosh, Ashton, and Havanon, 2002;

DOI: 10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-13-00104.1 received 4 May 2013;
accepted in revision 21 July 2013; corrected proofs received
12 November 2013; published pre-print online 19 December 2013.
*Corresponding author:
Ó
Coastal Education and Research Foundation, Inc. 2015

Ong, Gong, and Clough, 1995). Recently, people have begun
to appreciate the true value of mangroves, and a growing
awareness of the impacts of forest loss has led to renewed
efforts to protect and restore mangroves. There are also
increasing efforts by governments, nongovernmental organizations, and local communities around the world to
conserve and rehabilitate mangroves and to manage them
in a more sustainable way.
In the context of climate change, mangroves are known to
provide options for both adaptation and mitigation. According
to Alongi (2008), mangroves function as coastal protection to
chronic disturbance events (including climate change). However, the future of mangroves in the face of global change is at
risk. In order to maintain mangrove functions and services,
both quantity and quality of mangrove forest should be
preserved. Therefore, to support the effort to protect, conserve,
and develop mangrove areas, quantitative studies on their
functions and services are essential.
Estimation of total biomass in woody ecosystems is
important because of its relevance to nutrient turnover and
the potential to store carbon. There are several studies on the
biomass of mangroves worldwide. However, their values are
very site specific. For example, in low latitudes, primary or
mature mangrove forests generally have high aboveground
biomass. On the other hand, the aboveground biomass is

always low in temperate areas and may be related to


Mangrove Production in Mekong Delta

1085

Figure 1. Study area in Thanh Phu Natural Reserve, Vietnam.

different climatic conditions, such as temperature, solar
radiation, precipitation, and frequency of storms (Komiyama, Ong, and Poungparn, 2008). This study focuses on a
quantitative assessment of aboveground biomass and its
partitioning over various tree components with the primary
objectives of deriving allometric regression equations for
total aboveground biomass and for leaf, branch, stem, and
stilt root biomass of Rhizophora apiculata in plantations in
Thanh Phu Nature Reserve, Mekong Delta, Vietnam.

RESEARCH SITE AND METHODS
Research Site
This study was carried out in 2010 and 2011 in Thanh Phu
Nature Reserve, Ben Tre Province, Vietnam (Figure 1). Ben
Tre is a coastal province in the Mekong Delta. Thanh Phu
Nature Reserve covers an area of 4800 ha and comprises the
section of the Mekong Delta coastal zone between the Co
Chien and Ham Luong estuaries (two of the mouths of the
Mekong River). It is strongly controlled by tides from the sea
and the water regime of the Mekong River. As is the case with
other sites on the eastern coastline of the Mekong Delta,
Thanh Phu Nature Reserve is strongly affected by erosion as

well as accretion. The coastal landscape at Thanh Phu is
made up of the following elements: natural mangrove
swamp, mangrove plantation, mudflat, sandy beach belts,
natural water ways, and shrimp ponds (Pham, 2003).
About 60 species of real mangroves were recorded in the
reserve. The dominant species in the site are R. apiculata,
Avicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis, Sonneratia spp.,
and Excoecaria agalloccha. More than 80% of the study site is
covered by R. apiculata plantation. Rhizophora apiculata is

found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the midintertidal
region. It is a hardy, fast-growing species that can grow up to
30 m. Although it can tolerate a salinity of 65 ppt, for optimal
growth a salinity range of 8–15 ppt is required (Robertson
and Alongi, 1995).
Several other communities consist of natural vegetation,
such as Sonneratia alba on mudflats inundated by low tide,
Avicennia alba on clay or sandy soils inundated by medium
tide, mixed communities of A. alba, A. officinalis, Rhizophora
mucronata, Bruiguiera sexangula on hard clay soil inundated
by medium tide, and R. mucronata, A. alba, A. officinalis, B.
sexangula on hard clay inundated by high tide. However, these
communities occur as fringes covering only small areas close to
channels or river banks.
These mangroves are an important habitat for a number of
aquatic organisms, including some with high economic value.
The site provides habitats for 60 bird species, 27 species of
reptiles, 8 species of frogs, and 16 species of mammals. Five
species of the 20 shrimp species are of high commercial value.
Ninety-eight species of fish use habitats at the site, including

63 saltwater fish, 32 brackish water species, and 3 fresh water
species. The site is very valuable to local communities for
extensive aquaculture (Pham, 2003).

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Coverage and Stand Structure
Current mangrove coverage in Thanh Phu Nature Reserve is
the result of long-term succession of the vegetation in the area
from a series of human impacts. Before the 1960s, 90% of Thanh
Phu was covered by natural mangroves (Sub-FIPI II, 1998).
During the war, the mangroves were destroyed by sprayed

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 31, No. 5, 2015


1086

Cuc and de Ruyter van Steveninck

Table 1. Area and stand age of planted mangroves in Thanh Phu Natural
Reserve, Vietnam.
Year Planted
1985
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1995
1996

1997
1998
1999
2000
2004
Total

Stand Age (y)

Area (ha)

26
22
21
20
19
18
16
15
14
13
12
11
7

24.9
77.7
84.7
91.4
61.8

18.9
145.6
61.5
144.8
42.8
4.0
41.0
4.8
803.9

dioxin. Most of the existing mangroves in Thanh Phu Nature
Reserve now are planted forest of R. apiculata. Another small
percentage of the area is natural regeneration of Sonneratia
caseolaris intermixed with A. alba and A. officinalis.
According to the Vo Van Nagan Head of Thanh Phu Nature
Reserve Management Board (personal communication, 2011),
R. apiculata was planted in mud flats with existing A. alba at a
density of 10,000 trees/ha. The forest that was planted before
1985 was totally harvested as production forest in 1995. All the
remaining mangroves in the area were planted from 1985 to
2004, with the highest proportion planted in 1995 and 1997
(Table 1).
Existing mangroves in the study site range from 7 to 26 years
old and cover an area of 803.9 ha. The highest proportion
belongs to 14 and 16-year-old forest covering more than 140 ha.
Thirty plots each of 10 m 3 10 m were set in 7, 11–22, and 26year-old planted R. apiculata forest. Following English,
Wilkinson, and Baker (1994) and Clough, Dixon, and Dalhaus
(1997), we measured the following variables of all the R.
apiculata trees present in the plots:
(1)

(2)
(3)
(4)

density of trees and stilt roots
root diameter and height
tree diameter at breast height (DBH), a height of 1.3 m
height from stratum (bed of sediment/sediment level) to
the first branch
(5) height from stratum to the first leaf
(6) height from stratum to the top of the tree
The number of trees of other species was counted.

Aboveground Biomass
Aboveground biomass was measured for 32 trees representing all ages to assess allometric relations. These trees were
chosen randomly and harvested at ground level. Fresh weight of
stems (WS), branches (WB), leaves (WL), and aboveground stilt
roots (WR) were measured in situ. Subsamples of each part were
taken for determining the fresh weight to dry weight ratio. Dry
weights were obtained after oven drying for 2 days at 808C. The
aboveground dry weight of trees (wAB) was estimated from the
dry to fresh weight ratios of the samples (wS þ wB þ wL þ wR).
Allometry makes use of the fact that there is proportionality
between the relative growths of two different parts of the plant.

Table 2. Mean 6 SD density, diameter at breast height (DBH), and height
of planted Rhizophora apiculata trees in Thanh Phu Natural Reserve,
Vietnam.
Stand
Age (y)

26
22
21
20
19
18
16
15
14
13
12
11
7

No.
of Plots
2
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
2

Density
(trees/ha)
2080
2867
1850
2500
3900
4500
3533
4000
10,100
4000
4000
7800
13,500

6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6

581
321
354
270
310
300
611
294
2095
298
289
2121
1697

DBH
(cm)
12.45
11.73
12.67
7.5
8.27
7.35
11.65
10.07
5.42
10.43
10.36
5.81
3.35

6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6

1.98
3.3
0.13
2.09
2.04
0.78
2.88
0.63
0.33
1.78
2.13
1
0.07

Height
(m)

13.22
9.77
8.88
8.35
10.02
9.86
11.56
12.40
9.77
7.92
8.29
7.99
8.05

6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6

1.27
2.03

4.08
3.35
2.14
1.87
2.31
1.93
1.22
2.17
1.51
1.51
1.79

The relationship between the two variables can be expressed by
the generalized allometric equation:
y ¼ b 3 xk

ð1Þ

where x is the independent variable, y the dependent variable,
and b and k are the allometric constants.
Following Boone et al. (2011), carbon content of trees was
calculated as the product of tree biomass multiplied by wood
carbon content. However, the content in different species and
structures is different. For example, in Micronesia in the
western Pacific Ocean, carbon content in Bruguiera gymnorrhiza was 46.3%, in R. apiculata 45.9%, and in S. alba 47.1%,
with an average for all species of 46.4% (Boone et al., 2011).
This carbon content of 45.9% for R. apiculata has been used to
calculate the partitions and aboveground carbon of mangrove
trees in the present study.

RESULTS
Coverage and Stand Structure
In the study area, R. apiculata accounted for more than 90%
of the number of trees. The two species, S. alba and Avicennia
spp. coexisted in the vegetation. The stem density of R.
apiculata in the area varied with stand age and ranged from
1850 to 14,700 trees/ha (Table 2). Correlation between density
and DBH of the mangrove trees in the study area is significant
at the 0.01 level with R2 ¼ 0.73 (Figure 2). The height of the
trees in the study area ranged from 7.92 m to 13.22 m.

Aboveground Biomass
Aboveground biomass correlated positively with stem DBH
for leaves, branches, stilt roots, stems, and total aboveground
biomass (R2 ¼ 0.72–0.97; p , 0.001; Figure 3). Combining these
equations with tree densities in the study plots, total
aboveground mangrove biomass ranged from 76 to 320 tons/
ha, depending on the age of the plots (Table 3). More than 50%
of aboveground biomass was accounted for by stems. Stilt root
and branches have almost the same proportion of 18%. The
smallest contribution came from leaves. Total biomass of the
planted mangroves in Thanh Phu Nature Reserve equals
170,057 tons dry weight, with an estimated 8056 tons of carbon
(Table 3).

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 31, No. 5, 2015


Mangrove Production in Mekong Delta

1087

Figure 2. Correlation (p , 0.01) between diameter at breast height (DBH at
1.3 m in cm) and tree density of the mangrove trees in Thanh Phu Natural
Reserve, Vietnam.

DISCUSSION
In newly planted plots, the density of the vegetation is mainly
dependent on mortality rates. Results from previous research
in the area show that density of planted mangroves was 8500–
8800 trees/ha in 2–5-year-old plantations (Sub-FIPI II, 2003).
Subsequently, density relies upon self-thinning and natural
regeneration processes. Besides natural processes, the density
of vegetation in the study area is affected by human activities.
Mangrove species are long-lived perennials with long
reproductive lives. According to Hutchings and Saenger
(1987), flower primordials develop on plants when they are 3
to 4 years old. Kandelia candel in Longhai, Fujian, China,
started flowering and producing propagules at about 8 years
old, and the number and density of flowers varied among plants
of different ages (Chen, 2000). In our study area, R. apiculata
begins to flower and produce propagules after about 5 years
(personal observation). Natural regeneration led to an increase
of tree density with stand age and to increased variation
between the smallest and the largest tree diameters, heights,
and basal areas. This early start of flowering resulted in an
increase of tree density in older plantations.
As Clough and Scott (1989) have pointed out, in dense
mangrove stands, height is not a parameter that can be
estimated rapidly for each tree over relatively large mangrove

areas, but since the simple form of the relationship (using only
DBH) provides an accurate estimate, there is no need for
additional input variables.
The coefficient of determination of the relationships between
DBH and weight of tree organs was the highest in stem weight,
and coefficients exceeded 0.8 for all components except weight
of leaves (R2 ¼ 0.72). These results agree well with those of
Clough (1992) that allometric relationships between stem
diameter and weight of leaves and propagules are generally
less robust than those for stem weight or total weight, because
leaves and propagules are more easily broken off the tree by
strong winds and waves. Moreover, weights of leaves and
propagules may have phenological variations even within trees
of the same age.
Selected allometric equations for various mangrove species
for aboveground biomass in relation to DBH (in centimeters)
are provided in Table 4.
The allometric relations were stronger when only DBH was
used as the independent variable. Several studies suggested

Figure 3. Allometric relations (p , 0.001) between diameter at breast height
(DBH at 1.3 m in cm) and leaves, branches, stilt roots, stem, and
aboveground biomass in Thanh Phu Natural Reserve, Vietnam.

that estimation of biomass on the basis of a combination of tree
height and stem diameter is less robust than when either are
measured alone (Clough, Dixon, and Dalhaus, 1997; Komiyama et al., 1988, 2000; Tam et al., 1995). Moreover, the height of
individual trees is difficult to measure accurately in an
extensive closed canopy. These factors make diameter easier
to obtain in the field than height, and thus DBH is a useful

variable for estimating mangrove biomass, in addition to the
accuracy of the allometric relation. Diameter at 1.3 m height
was also used to estimate biomass components of mangroves in
Biscayne National Park, Florida (Michael et al., 2001); in Satun
Province, southern Thailand (Komiyama et al., 2000); and in
the north of Vietnam (Cuc and Ninomiya, 2007).
Several studies that have used regressions to investigate
biomass adopt the DBH or the perimeter at breast height as the
independent variable (Soares, 1997). For mangrove communities the following studies have adopted these independent
variables: Amarasinghe and Balasubramaniam (1992); Cintron and Schaeffer-Novelli (1984); Clough and Scott (1989);
Fromard et al. (1998); Gong and Ong (1995); Imbert and Rollet
(1989); Ong, Gong, and Wong (1980, 2004); Ong et al. (1984);
Putz and Chan (1986); Silva (1988); Slim and Gwada (1993);
Steinke, Ward, and Raijh (1995); Sukardjo and Yamada (1992);
Tam et al. (1995). However, some studies used equations based
on height and DBH for the estimation of aboveground biomass
of mangrove species (Cintron and Schaeffer-Novelli, 1984;
Imbert and Rollet, 1989; Lee, 1990; Suzuki and Tagawa, 1983).
Mackey (1993) calculated the biomass of individuals using
predictive regression of biomass on height or girth. In the same
way, Sherman, Fahey, and Martinez (2003) found high
significant allometric relationships between tree parabolic

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 31, No. 5, 2015


1088

Cuc and de Ruyter van Steveninck

Table 3. Biomass of leaves, branches, stilt roots, stems, and total aboveground biomass and carbon content of planted Rhizophora apiculata in Thanh Phu
Natural Reserve, Vietnam.
Stand
Age (y)
26
22
21
20
19
18
16
15
14
13
12
11
7
Total

Leaves
(tons/ha)

Branches
(tons/ha)

Stilt Roots
(tons/ha)

Stems
(tons/ha)

Total Aboveground
biomass (tons/ha)

Total Carbon
(tons/ha)

Total Biomass of
Thanh Phu (tons)

Total Carbon of
Thanh Phu (tons)

22.92
27.96
21.13
9.75
18.58
16.84
33.97
28.53
20.25
30.66
30.24
18.03
10.10

37.16
44.65
34.42

13.88
27.12
23.84
54.16
43.81
26.50
47.51
46.77
24.02
11.68

38.62
46.80
35.68
15.50
29.88
26.71
56.82
46.93
31.01
50.64
49.90
27.83
14.63

119.39
143.88
110.47
45.69
88.90

78.57
174.58
142.25
88.52
153.99
151.67
80.01
39.74

218
263
202
85
164
146
320
262
166
283
278.59
149.89
76.15

100
121
93
39
75
67
147

120
76
130
128
69
35

5431
20,456
17,083
7752
10,165
2759
46,514
16,094
24,073
12,104
1114
6150
362
170,057

2493
9390
7841
3558
4666
1266
21,350
7387

1050
5556
511
2823
166
78,056

volume (which is based on height and DBH) and aboveground
biomass components (total, leaf, trunk, branch, and prop roots).
Ross et al. (2001) studying Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa, and Rhizophora mangle mangroves in America
used both simple and multiple regression models for the
estimation of aboveground biomass. They developed models for
stem, branch, leaf, stilt root, and total biomass estimation,
based on diameter at 30 cm above ground, height, and crown
volume. Fromard et al. (1998) also estimated the biomass of A.
germinans, L. racemosa, and Rhizophora. spp. through the use
of DBH as an independent variable. Komiyama et al. (2002)
explain that the allometric relationship for stem weight is
usually expressed as a function of stem diameter and height,
such as DBH2H, which differs between tree species, forcing the
determination of a series of allometric equations for all tree
species. The species-specific allometric relationships were
analyzed based on the specific gravity of stems, with the aim
of establishing a common equation for predicting the stem
weight of mangroves.
The total aboveground biomass of the mangrove stands
ranged from 76 to 320 tons dry weight (DW)/ha (Table 3). The
differences in biomass were due mainly to the differences in
stand age. The ratio of partitioning biomass to total aboveground biomass ranged from 10% to 55% for leaves, branches,

stilt roots, and stems. The proportion of stem biomass is
highest. This result is normal for woody plants that add
secondary growth. A similar trend of high biomass accumulation in nonphotosynthetic organs in mature forest was reported
by Komiyama et al. (1988).
The biomasses in this study are comparable with those of
some other primary forests, such as those in Halmahera,
Indonesia, and Andaman Island, India (Komiyama et al., 1988);
15-year-old R. apiculata in Phuket, Thailand (Christensen,
1978); and 28-year-old forest in Matang, Malaysia (Ong, Gong,
and Wong, 1982) of 357, 159, and 212 tons/ha, respectively, but
smaller than those estimated in some natural mangroves or
very mature forests (Komiyama et al., 1988; Putz and Chan,
1986) of 270 and 299 tons/ha, respectively. The variation in net
primary productivity of mangrove species may be related to the
geographical location (Clough, 1992), species, stand density,
and growing season (Aksornkoae, 1993), as well as stand age
(Ong, Gong, and Wong, 1985). Apart from the geographical
location and forest structural attributes, the net primary
productivity depends on abiotic factors such as hypoxic
conditions, tidal height, frequency of tidal inundation, availability of nutrients, salinity, and climatic factors (Aksornkoae,
1993; Hutchings and Saenger, 1987).

Table 4. Allometric relations between diameter at breast height (DBH at 1.3 m in cm) and aboveground tree weight (Wtop in kg) for various mangrove species.
Data compiled from Komiyama, Ong, and Poungparn (2008).
Species
Avicennia germinans
A. marina
Laguncularia racemosa
Rhizophora apiculata
Rhizophora mangle

Rhizophora spp.
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
Bruguiera parviflora
Ceriops australis
Xylocarpus granatum
Common equation

Allometric Equation
Wtop
Wtop
Wtop
Wtop
Wtop
Wtop
Wtop
Wtop
Wtop
Wtop
Wtop
Wtop
Wtop
Wtop
Wtop

¼
¼
¼
¼
¼
¼

¼
¼
¼
¼
¼
¼
¼
¼
¼

2.40

0.140 DBH
0.0942 DBH2.54
0.308 DBH2.11
0.102 DBH2.50
0.209 DBH2.24
0.235 DBH2.42
0.178 DBH2.47
0.128 DBH2.60
0.105 DBH2.68
0.186 DBH2.31
0.168 DBH2.42
0.189 DBH2.34
0.0823 DBH2.59
0.251 pD2.46
0.168 pDBH2.47

R2

N

DBH max (cm)

Sources (in Komiyama et al., 2008)

0.97
0.99
0.97
0.97
0.99
0.98
0.98
0.92
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.98
0.99

45
21
22
70
17
57
17
9

23
17
25
26
15
104
84

4
unknown
35
10
unknown
28
unknown
32
25
25
16
20
25
49
50

Fromard et al. (1998)
Imbert and Rollet (1989)
Comley and McGuinness (2005)
Fromard et al. (1998)
Imbert and Rollet (1989)
Ong, Gong, and Wong (2004)

Imbert and Rollet (1989)
Fromard et al. (1998)
Clough and Scott (1989)
Clough and Scott (1989)
Clough and Scott (1989)
Clough and Scott (1989)
Clough and Scott (1989)
Komiyama, Poungparn, and Kato (2005)
Chave et al. (2005)

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 31, No. 5, 2015


Mangrove Production in Mekong Delta

More and more mangroves around the world are affected by
human activities, and all may be influenced by global changes
in climate or sea level. Because mangrove coverage is being
reduced, we hope that future exploitation of mangroves will be
preceded by environmental impact assessments that will
include estimates of biomass.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Department of Agriculture and Rural Development of Ben Tre Province and Thanh Phu Nature Reserve’s
Management Board for their unstinting support for data
collection and field survey. The work reported here was
undertaken as part of the research programme ‘‘PRoACC—
Post-doctoral Research Programme on Climate Change
Adaptation in the Mekong River Basin.’’ The project is
funded by the Netherlands Ministry of Development Cooperation (DGIS) through the UNESCO-IHE Partnership Research Fund. This research project is a joint initiative of

UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education and many
partner institutions in the Lower Mekong countries and
China.

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