An investigation into language learning strategy use among male and female students at earnst thaimann high school a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master of arts in TESOL

STATEMENT OF THE AUTHORSHIP
I certify that this thesis, entitled “An investigation into language learning strategy use
among students at Ernst Thalmann high school”, is my own work.
Except where reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis contains no material
published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which I have
qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma.
No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of
the thesis.
This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any other
tertiary institution.

Ho Chi Minh City, 2018

Van Thanh Minh Trung

i


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Since the success and final outcome of this research required great guidance and
assistance, it is my honor and luckiness to receive great assistance and support from a
lot of people.
First of all, I would like to express my gratefulness to my supervisor, Dr. Nguyen Thuy
Nga, head of faculty of foreign languages of Ho Chi Minh City Open University, who
has helped and supported me a lot. Thanks to her useful advice and whole-hearted
feedback on each of my draft, finally I have completed my research.
Secondly, I would like to thank English teachers of Ernst Thalmann high school who has
given feedbacks on my questionnaire translation versions, grade-ten students of Ernst
Thalmann high school who contributed to the completion of data collection. In addition,
I also express my special appreciation to my principal and vice-principles who have
created the most convenient conditions for me to accomplish the research paper.

Last but not least, I express my eternal gratitude to my grandparents, parents, brothers,
sisters and close friends for their profound emotions towards me.
In conclusion, I will always treasure all of you in my heart.

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ABSTRACT
In the context of Vietnam to date, there has been a dearth of research studies about
language learning strategies and the relationship between the two genders in the use of
language learning strategies at high schools. In an attempt to removing that scarcity from
the context of Vietnam in general and the place where the researcher works in particular,
this research was done to investigate the frequency of language learning strategies among
male and female students at Ernst Thalmann high school in Ho Chi Minh city. The
present research also aimed at finding out whether there were significant differences
between the two genders in the use of language learning strategies.
Data in this research were gathered by two main instruments including a questionnaire
and an open-ended interview. A sample of 212 students (106 males and 106 females)
out of the total population of 457 students participated. Ten students representing these
212 students continued to be invited for the interviews.
The results indicated that the participants were strategy users at medium level with the
most frequent use of Memory strategies and the least of Affective strategies. No
significant difference was found between male and female subjects in this research both
in overall strategy use as well as in the specific categories of strategies, implying that
gender, in this research, did not have a significant impact on the students’ choice or
frequency of use in general or for any particular strategy category.
Finally, from the results of this research, theoretical and practical implications were
suggested in addition to limitations and recommendations for future research.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Statement of authorship................................................................................................ i
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... ii
Abstract ...................................................................................................................... iii
Table of contents ........................................................................................................ iv
List of Figures ........................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables............................................................................................................ viii
List of Abbreviations.................................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 1
1.1 Background of the research .................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of problem and personal motivation .................................................... 3
1.3 Aims and research questions ................................................................................. 5
1.4 Hypotheses and research model ............................................................................ 6
1.4.1 Hypotheses ..................................................................................................... 6
1.4.2 Research model ............................................................................................... 6
1.5 Significance of the research .................................................................................. 7
1.6 Structure of the thesis ............................................................................................ 8
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................. 10
2.1 Concept of language learning strategies ............................................................. 10
2.1.1 Background of language learning strategies ................................................ 10
2.1.2 Definition of language learning strategies ................................................... 11
2.1.3 Classifications of language learning strategies ........................................... 14
2.2 Language learning strategy use and gender ....................................................... 19
2.2.1 Overview of frequency of language learning strategy use and the effects of
gender on language learning strategy use.. .............................................................. 19
2.2.2 Research into frequency of language learning strategy use and the effects of
gender on language learning strategy use ................................................................ 20
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2.3. Research gap ...................................................................................................... 27
2.4 Theoretical framework for the current research .................................................. 28
2.5 Summary ............................................................................................................. 30
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ......................................................................... 31
3.1 Research design ................................................................................................... 31
3.2 Research site........................................................................................................ 32
3.3 Participants .......................................................................................................... 33
3.4 Data collection instruments ................................................................................. 35
3.4.1 Questionnaire ................................................................................................ 36
3.4.2 Semi-structured interview ............................................................................. 44
3.5 Data collection procedures .................................................................................. 46
3.6 Data analysis ....................................................................................................... 48
3.7 Summary ............................................................................................................. 49
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ........................................................................................ 50
4.1 The results from questionnaires .......................................................................... 50
4.1.1 Results pertaining to students’ overall language learning strategy use ...... 51
4.1.2 Results pertaining to each language learning strategy category use ........... 53
4.1.3 Results pertaining to the significant difference between genders in the use
of language learning strategies ............................................................................... 55
4.2 The results from interviews ................................................................................. 59
4.3 Summary ............................................................................................................. 68
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSIONS ............................................................................... 69
5.1 Research question 1: To what extent do grade ten students at Ernst Thalmann high
school use language learning strategies to support their learning? ........................... 69
5.2 Research question 2: What types of language learning strategies do the students
report using frequently? ............................................................................................ 71

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5.3 Research question 3: Is there a statistically significant gender difference in the use of
students’ language learning strategies? ..................................................................... 78
5.4 Summary ............................................................................................................. 81
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................ 83
6.1 Conclusion........................................................................................................... 83
6.2. Contributions and implications .......................................................................... 87
6.2.1 Contributions................................................................................................. 87
6.2.2 Theoretical and practical implications ......................................................... 87
6.3 Limitations and recommendations for future research ....................................... 90
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 92
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................... 98
APPENDIX 1A ......................................................................................................... 98
APPENDIX 1B ....................................................................................................... 103
APPENDIX 2A ....................................................................................................... 107
APPENDIX 2B ....................................................................................................... 109
APPENDIX 3A ....................................................................................................... 111
APPENDIX 3B ....................................................................................................... 115
APPENDIX 4A ....................................................................................................... 119
APPENDIX 4B ....................................................................................................... 122

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Research model ........................................................................................ 7
Figure 2.1: Diagram of Oxford’s Strategy Classification System ............................ 17
Figure 2.2: The theoretical framework for the current research ............................... 29
Figure 6.1: The model proposed for the key results in the current research ............. 86

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: A summary of research into frequency of language learning strategies and
the effects of gender on language learning strategies ................................................... 25
Table 3.1: The published table of Sample size in Glenn (1992) (cited in Singh &
Masuku, 2014)............................................................................................................... 34
Table 3.2: Clusters of the Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire and the quantity
of items .......................................................................................................................... 37
Table 3.3: Clusters, numbered items and sample items of language learning strategies in
the new version of the SILL .......................................................................................... 39
Table 3.4: Sample questions in the interview ............................................................... 46
Table 4.1 Features of the participants ........................................................................... 51
Table 4.2: Overall mean score of the students’ language learning strategy use .......... 51
Table 4.3: Oxford (1990, p.300) SILL strategy choice Score Interpretation ............... 52
Table 4.4: Mean scores of six language learning strategy categories .......................... 53
Table 4.5: Results of Paired Samples Test .................................................................. 54
Table 4.6: Overall mean score of the students’ overall language learning strategy use
by genders ..................................................................................................................... 55
Table 4.7: Correlation between the two genders in the use of overall language learning
strategies ........................................................................................................................ 56
Table 4.8: Mean scores of each of strategy category use between according to the two
genders .......................................................................................................................... 57
Table 4.9: Correlation between the two genders in the use of each language learning
strategy categories. ........................................................................................................ 58
Table 4.10 Main content of the themes in the interview ............................................... 60

viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Df:

Degree of freedom

EFL: English as a Foreign Language
ESL: English as a Second Language
F1:

Female 1

F2:

Female 2

F3:

Female 3

F4:

Female 4

F5:

Female 5

L1:

First Language

L2:

Second Language

M:

Mean

M1:

Male 1

M2:

Male 2

M3:

Male 3

M4:

Male 4

M5:

Male 5

Max. Maximum
Min. Minimum
N:

Number

P:

Probability

SD:

Std. Deviation

SILL: the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning
SPSS: Statistics Package for the Social Sciences
T

: t value

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
This chapter serves as an introduction to the research. The first sections describe
the background of the research, the statement of problem and personal motivation
underlying the research. Next, aims, research questions, hypotheses and research

model are presented. Then, the third section briefly discusses the significance of the
research. Finally, the chapter ends with outlining structure of the thesis.
1.1 Background of the research
The last few decades have witnessed an unhurried but noteworthy change in the
field of language education from a teacher-centered teaching style to a learnercentered one, leading to less stress on teachers and teaching but more emphasis on
learners and learning (Weimer, 2002). In the past, the conventional teaching style
emphasized the role of the teacher and neglected the importance of the learner
himself. In present-day Vietnamese teaching context, the teacher-centeredness still
dominates in the teaching of English in Vietnam (Tran, 2013; Nguyen, 2016).
Specifically, teachers have long been authoritative figures who are responsible for
looking after and taking control over the classroom and the whole learning process
as well. With such a teaching and learning approach, students have almost no
control over their own learning and tend to be passive in their learning. For this
reason, students in a traditional classroom, needless to say, become passive and
dependent learners, or just recipients of teachers’ knowledge.
Nevertheless, in our ever changing world, according to Rogers (1983) (cited in
Richards & Renandya, 2002), no knowledge is secure and it is the process of
seeking knowledge that gives a basis for security. Hence, it is impossible for
instructors to teach learners all knowledge nor to guide learners in every area of
learning due to time constraint. In such a circumstance, learners need to be able to

1


learn on their own so as to get the skills and knowledge they desire. Therefore, the
ultimate goal of teaching is not only to teach learners “what to learn” but also to
teach learners “how to learn”. As Weinstein & Mayer (1986) concern, a good
language teacher teaches learners the way to learn, to remember, to think, and to
motivate themselves. As a result, the most favorite teaching methodology now is the
learner-centered, a style of instruction in which learners are an active agent in the

learning process. That is to say, learners are no longer passive in their learning;
instead, they play a significant and dominant role in their own process of learning.
They are expected to engage actively in learning activities as well as to learn
independently. Teachers, therefore, are not in the role of a knowledge provider, but
a facilitator of learning to instruct and to guide their learners how to learn well. In
other words, in today’s language classroom, learners are expected to take charge of
their own learning and teachers and teachers are expected to help learners become
more effective and independent learners.
However, to enable learners to engage in the target language more effectively and
independently from teachers, thus, become more autonomous and proficient
learners, they need being equipped with the tools for undertaking their learning and
to learn independently and effectively on their own. According to Rubin (1987), if
language learning strategies are in proper use, learners’ language achievements will
be rewarding, especially with both the improvement of overall proficiency and
specific skills and that the extent to which learners succeed in their learning depends
greatly on the degree of strategies learners employ. In fact, research in the field has
shown that language learning strategy use significantly correlates with language
achievements (Green & Oxford, 1995; Liu, 2004). Moreover, it is also suggested
that the employment of language learning strategies can foster autonomous learning
(e.g., Oxford, 1990; Rubin, 1987). Oxford (1990, p. 1) also maintains that language
learning strategies are “especially important for language learning because they are
tools for active, self-directed movement, which is essential for developing

2


communicative competence”. In this regard, it is obvious that language learning
strategies are essential for learners of language since they are not only efficient tools
of learning helping learners to make their language competence as good as it can be
but also indispensable ones promoting learners to be language learners of

independence, effectiveness and active involvement in the management of their own
learning.
It should also be marked that every individual employs language learning strategies
differently; and the question raises as to what makes up the differences. It has been
found that there have been a number of factors found in the researches such as
gender, age, styles of learning, levels of proficiency, classes of tasks, beliefs and
attitudes, etc.

that have far-reaching effects on the employment of language

learning strategies (Oxford & Nyikos, 1989; Green & Oxford, 1995; Kaylani, 1996;
Shmais, 2003; Tercanlioglu, 2004; Aslan, 2009; Salahshour et al., 2012; Heejin,
2012; Kayaoglu, 2012, Tam, 2013; FatemehZarei, 2013; Chayata & Sutthirak,
2014, Saeed, 2016, etc.). Among these variables, gender emerges as an important
factor affecting language strategy use, with males and females appearing to obtain
different learning styles and ways of approaching their goals in learning; thus, may
result in differences in strategy use. In this regard, it seems to be extremely
important for language teachers to identify language learning strategies employed
by males and females and understand the relationship between gender differences
and language strategy use in order to play an active and significant role in guiding
and enhancing their learners’ work. Then, not only can the teachers address
appropriate and effective learning strategies to suit the learning needs of both
genders but they can also incorporate language learning strategies into teaching to
achieve best results.
1.2 Statement of problem and personal motivation
In the context of Vietnam in general and at Ernst Thalmann high school where I
work in particular, many learners of English have been expressing their concerns

3

about whether they can gain the expected English language level of proficiency
while they tend to invest more time and effort on maths, physics, chemistry and
Vietnamese for a better outcome in university entrance examination. Therefore, to
achieve best results in learning a language with less and less time spending or to
become more and more effective and independent learners is a big challenge to all
of the learners.
Being aware of the benefits of language learning strategies, therefore, it is worth
examining the use of language learning strategies and the correlation between
gender differences in the use of language learning strategies. Such a research was
needed by language teachers at Ernst Thalmann high school context so that teachers
can develop more effective styles of teaching and appropriate language learning
strategies that are compatible with the styles of learning as well as the requirements
of their learners. From that, it can provide useful values to improve the real
situation.
What is more, being interested in this topic, I have read many reports on the use of
language learning strategies and the effects of gender on the use of language
learning strategies. From my knowledge that I have gained, in terms of gender
differences in the use of language learning strategies, the correlation was somewhat
inconclusive. In particular, a few studies reported no discrepancies in language
strategy use between males and females (Shmais, 2003; Chayata &Sutthirak, 2014;
Saeed, 2016). However, most studies in this area emphasized a significant
correlation between gender and language strategy use. Both male and female
learners were found to employ certain types of language learning strategies to a
certain degree to support their learning but there were discrepancies in the choice
and frequency of strategy use among learners due to gender differences. According
to a few studies, males are likely to be more active strategy users than females
(Tercanlioglu, 2004; FatemehZarei, 2013). However, a greater number of researches
demonstrated that female learners were greater strategy users than their male

4


counterparts. Females excelled males not only in the use of specific strategies but
also in overall strategy use (Aslan, 2009; Salahshour et al., 2012; Heejin, 2012;
Kayaoglu, 2012; Tam, 2013).
Understanding the vital role of language learning strategies including the frequency
of learners’ language strategy use, what types of language learning strategies the
learners report frequently as well as the possible mutual influence between language
strategy and gender ceaselessly motivates me to do this research. Based on the idea
that “an understanding and awareness of learning strategies on the part of teachers
as well as students may provide valuable insights into the process of language
learning” (Fleming & Walls, 1998, p. 14), this research is hoped to contribute to
removing the scarcity of research on language learning strategies in the context of
Vietnam, assist teachers in Vietnam in general and at Ersnt Thalmann high school
in particular to have appropriate adjustments to students’ awareness of language
learning strategies and most importantly promote students’ language learning
achievement.
1.3 Aims and research questions
The current research aimed at identifying the language learning strategies grade ten
students at Ernst Thalmann high school perceived themselves as employing to
support their learning. In addition to determining the use of language learning
strategies, a more strenuous endeavor was fulfilled to explore the mutual influence
between gender and the use of language learning strategies. More specifically, in
order to accomplish the aims, the research paper attempts to consider the subsequent
questions.
1. To what extent do grade ten students at Ernst Thalmann high school use
language learning strategies to support their learning?
2. What types of language learning strategies do the students report using
frequently?

5


3. Is there a statistically significant gender difference in the use of language
learning strategies?
1.4. Hypotheses and research model
1.4.1 Hypotheses
In parallel with the aforementioned questions, three hypotheses based on the
literature review were made as follows:
Hypothesis 1
Grade ten students at Ernst Thalmann high school perceive themselves as medium
strategy users.
Hypothesis 2
They employ Compensation and Memory strategies most frequently.
Hypothesis 3
There are statistically significant differences in the use of language learning
strategies between the two genders.
1.4.2 Research model
The focus in the current research was an investigation into the preference and
frequency of language learning strategies among Ernst Thalmann high school
students and found out whether there were significant differences between the two
genders in the use of language learning strategies. From three hypotheses made and
the literature reviewed, the research model was made.

6


Figure 1.1 Research model
Students’ perceptions

Memory
strategise
Cognitive
strategies
Compensation
strategies


Male
GENDER
Female

LANGUAGE
LEARNING
STRATEGIES

Metacognitive
strategies
Affective
strategies
Social

As synthesized in the research model, all of the components relating to the current
research were shown in a clear way. In this research, the researcher used the
classification system of language learning strategies by Oxford (1990). From the
research model, it could be seen that gender in the model is an independent variable
while language learning strategies is a dependent one. Therefore, the researcher also
presented the possible relationship between two variables. Such variables defined
apparently would be a framework for later methodology of the research. What is

more, the participants’ perceptions were believed to have some certain effects on
the use of participants’ strategies and the relationship between gender and the use of
strategies.
1.5 Significance of the research
Language learning strategies are supposed to play a crucial role in language
learning since not only do language learning strategies facilitate learning but also
accelerate it. Hence, this research probably proves significant and beneficial to both
teachers and learners of language in the following ways.

7


As for teachers, the results of the current research is hoped to help Ernst Thalmann
high school teachers to identify some language learning strategies that the grade-ten
students used. Later on, the teachers can regulate their teaching and simultaneously
facilitate high school students’ effective language learning by some appropriate
language learning strategies. In addition, the results about the

significant

differences in the use of language learning strategies between male and female
students also helps the teachers know clearly that whether male or female students
should be taught much more language learning strategies or given equal
opportunities.
As for learners, the current research gives them chances to be more mindful of
language learning strategies. This thing might enable them become more conscious
and more self-directed in their learning process.
1.6 Structure of the thesis
The research report is comprised of six chapters, (1) Introduction, (2) Literature
review, (3) Research methodology, (4) Results, (5) Discussions and (6)

Conclusions.
Chapter One serves as an overall introduction to the research backgrounds. It
includes background of the research, statement of the problem, the researcher’s
personal motivation, the research questions, hypotheses and the research model, the
significance and structure of the thesis
Chapter Two reviews the literature concerning language learning strategies. What is
more, this chapter holds an in-depth discussion of summary of main ideas from
research on the frequency in the use of language learning strategies, the correlation
between language strategy use and gender differences and the research gap.
Chapter Three aims to supply the research methodologies adopted in this research.
In particular, this chapter provides a complete detail of the research design, the

8


research site, the participants, the instruments, data collection procedures and data
analysis.
Chapter Four presents the information of the results of the data analysis obtained
from the research instruments.
Chapter Five provides a discussion of the research results to find out the answers to
three research questions in chapter One.
Chapter Six points to the conclusions relevant to the research followed by
contributions, implications, limitations and recommendations for further research.

9


CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

In order to offer an operationally working definition of learning strategies for this
study, the chapter initiates with various views on language learning strategies.
Next, the chapter continues to present classifications of learning strategies. It then
summarizes factors acknowledged to influence the use of language learning
strategies. Finally, language learning strategy use and gender and the literature
pertinent to these two variables are revealed.
2.1 Concept of language learning strategies
2.1.1 Background of language learning strategies
Over the past few decades, there has been a gradual but significant shift in the field
of language education. In fact, experts in the field noted if language learners are
given the same learning environment, the same learning material, they still vary
greatly in the speed with which they learn the language, with some learners
acquiring the language more quickly and effectively than others (Ellis, 1997). This
raises a question as to what makes up the differences among learners and why some
were rewarding learners irrespective of classroom instructions or teaching
methodologies while others were not. Being aware of the nature of this difference
among learners, experts in the field of language education; for example, Stern
(1975) and Rubin (1975) started research on What can we learn from good
learners? and What good learners can teach us?. Their research ended up forming a
new concept of language learning strategies. Ever since then, the term “language
learning strategy” has become popular and then it has been the main issue of
research in the field of language teaching.
In recent years, there has been a wide variety of activities of the study of language
learning strategies. Many researches in this area have found that there is a mutual

10


influence between language learning strategies and achievement as well as
proficiency in L2 learning (Oxford & Nykios, 1989; Ellis, 1994; Green & Oxford,

1995; Ok, 2003; Liu, 2004). Additionally, all learners of language, whether
conscious or unconscious, certainly adopt types of language learning strategies to
some degree, but the use of language learning strategies vary amidst individual
learners due to factors such as their proficiency level, motivation, background of
culture, gender, attitudes, belief, types of tasks age and styles of learning (Oxford,
1990).
Regardless of the truth that the term “language learning strategy” has received
major concerns among the scholars in the field, the term has been labeled a very
broad and relatively diffuse concept. In fact, there is no standard definition of
language learning strategies because different researchers hold different opinions
and focus on different aspects of language learning strategies, resulting in a wide
range of controversies on the definitions of language learning strategies.
2.1.2 Definition of language learning strategies
According to Rubin (1987, p. 23), one of the first researchers in the area, language
learning strategies are broadly defined as “strategies which contribute the
development of the language system which the learner constructs and affects
learning directly”. Later, O’Malley and Chamot (1990, p. 1) offers another
definition of language learning strategies as “the special thoughts or behaviors that
individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information”. In line
with O’Malley and Chamot’s (1990) view, Cohen (1998, p. 4) sees language
learning strategies as “those processes which are consciously selected by learners
and which may result in action taken to enhance the learning or use of a second or
foreign language, through storage, recall and application of information about the
language”. In an agreement with the above-mentioned definitions that language
learning strategies are lines of thoughts, ways of behaving or particular actions
learners use to progress their learning, Oxford’s language learning strategy

11

definition has been the most comprehensive as she expands and defines them as
“specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more
enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new
situations” (Oxford, 1990, p. 8). From her opinion, not only are language learning
strategies a vital tool for active, self-directed engagement in language learning but
also for personal satisfaction. Hence, it is particular actions, ways of behaving, or
techniques that learners use to make learning more meaningful, effective, enjoyable,
and independent that are learning strategies for second language learning.
Nevertheless, this definition still contains some of argumentative issues.
The first issue is that it is unclear to tell if language learning strategies are to be
regarded as behavioral (and, therefore, observable) or as mental (and, thus,
unobservable), or as both. Based on Oxford’s definition, language learning
strategies are “specific actions” performed by the learner which can be observed,
e.g. note-taking, highlighting and summarizing; therefore, they are behavioral.
While Oxford (1990) considers language learning strategies are observable,
O’Malley and Chamot (1990, p. 1) see language learning strategies as “the special
thoughts or behaviors used to help the learner comprehend, learn, or retain new
information”. In this case, language learning strategies appear to be both behavioral
and mental since the former involves the mental process which happens in the mind
of learners i.e. memorizing new input and retrieving information; therefore, cannot
be observed through learners’ behaviors, whereas the latter is observable.
The second issue is that if language learning strategies have direct or indirect
influence over the L2 development. While Rubin (1987) regards the effect of
language learning strategies as a direct one, Ellis (1994) argues that the effect of
language learning strategies, for the most part, is an indirect one. Metacognitive
strategies, for example, have the function of execution which allows learners to
regulate their language learning via planning, monitoring and assessment, therefore,
contribute to learning indirectly. Nevertheless, according to Ellis (1994) there are

12

still strategies that give a direct effect on learning. For instance, learners store and
retrieve message in an effective way thanks to memory strategies. They, therefore,
make direct contributions to learning.
Third, if language learning strategies are conscious and intentional or subconscious
still causes a few debates. From Chamot’s aspect (1987, p. 6), language learning
strategies are “… deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the
learning and recall of both linguistic and content area information”. As a result,
language learning strategies can be considered as conscious and intentional.
Likewise, Ellis (1994) and Cohen (1998) also regard language learning strategies as
conscious actions utilized intentionally by learners to make the learning process
easier. More specifically, language learning strategies are defined as “conscious or
at least potentially conscious actions which learners employ intentionally” (Ellis,
1994) or “learning processes which are consciously selected by learners” (Cohen,
1998, p. 4). Nevertheless, according to Oxford (1990), language learning strategies
are conscious actions, but after using them for a time, they become automatic or
unconscious.
Last but not least, what motivates the exploitation of language learning strategies
still remains controversial. Although it is generally agreed that language learning
strategies are employed to “facilitate the language learning” (O’Malley & Chamot,
1990, p. 1) and “contribute to the development of the language system” (Rubin,
1987, p. 23), Oxford (1989) argues that the use of language learning strategies can
have an affective purpose, i.e. to make learning become more enjoyable.
Generally speaking, in second language acquisition circle, there is no standard
definition of exactly what strategies are because there have been different
perspectives of language learning strategies. According to Ellis (2008), Oxford’s
language learning strategy definition has been the most comprehensive regardless of
various definitions of the term “language learning strategy”. However, on the basis
of the aforementioned literature review and the reseacher’s knowledge from the

13


specific context of the language teaching and learning, language learning strategies
for the current research were defined as behavioural and mental processes;
conscious and intentional actions that have both direct and indirect influence over
the process of the learning and use of language.
2.1.3 Classifications of language learning strategies
In the past decades, a great number of many experts in language like Rubin (1987),
O’Malley & Chamot (1990), Stern (1992), and Cohen (1998) have categorized
language learning strategies because they hold different views about concepts of
strategies (Oxford, 1990). Despite the fact that a wide range of criteria is established
to classify language learning strategies, all of them are more or less identical or
much unchangeable. Nonetheless, among the existing classifications raised by a
wide variety of the researchers, the categorization of language learning strategies
supplied by Oxford (1990) has been used and cited widely and extensively.
With the regard to their effects on language learning, there are two major classes in
Oxford (1990)’s division of language learning strategies which include direct and
indirect ones. Direct ones are those making direct contributions to learning
development, whereas indirect ones relate to strategies that give a support of the
learning of a language indirectly. Direct and indirect classes are further subdivided
into six groups including Memory strategies, Cognitive strategies, Compensation
strategies, Metacognitive strategies, Affective strategies and Social strategies.
Oxford defines Memory strategies, Cognitive strategies, Compensation strategies as
direct ones that “directly involve the target language” and “require mental
processing of the language” (Oxford, 1990, p. 37) while Metacognitive strategies,
Affective strategies and Social strategies are considered as indirect ones which
“support and manage language learning without directly involving the target
language” (Oxford, 1990, p. 135).

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Memory strategies is the first group of direct ones. They are employed for putting
information into memory and retrieving it. In other words, they “have a highly
specific function: assisting students store and retrieve new information” (Oxford,
1990, p. 379). The special thing for these strategies is that they assist learners to link
items of the second language or concepts together, however, do not essentially gain
profound comprehension. Memory- related strategies consist of four subclasses (see
figure 2.1).
The second group of direct strategies are Cognitive strategies. They were
considered as the essential strategies for learning a language and the popular ones
frequently employed by the learners in the studies because of the fact that they
“involve manipulation and transformation of the language” (Oxford & Crookall,
1989, p. 404). To be more specific, they are mental strategies which refer to four
subclasses (see figure 2.1)
Compensation strategies is the third group of direct strategies. They involve two
subclasses (see figure 2.1). Regardless of information gaps, compensation ones
permit learners to comprehend or make the new language via the two subclasses. In
short, Compensation strategies were regarded as automatic fillers in the language
learning process. (Oxford, 1990)
In addition to direct strategies, there are also indirect ones including Metacognitive
strategies, Affective strategies and Social strategies.
Metacognitive strategies are defined as “behaviors used for centering, arranging,
planning, and evaluating one’s learning” (Oxford, 1990, p. 135). In this sense, it is
clear that they are very vital for the effective and autonomous learning of language
learning as they supply executive control over the learning process by allowing
learners to center, plan and arrange their learning in an effective way. These
strategies are sub-categorized into three groups (see figure 2.1).

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Affective strategies are considered as “techniques like self-reinforcement and
positive self-talk which help learners gain better control over their emotions,
attitudes, and motivations related to the language learning” (Oxford & Crookall,
1989, p. 404). For this reason, these emotion- related strategies may bear impacts on
the language learning process in a more productive way. They are further divided
into three subcategories (see figure 2.1)
Social strategies are regarded as significant elements contributing to the success in
language learning process because the learners can work and cooperate with each
other in order to comprehend the target language and culture. According to Oxford
(1990), language is a type of social behaviors. Therefore, there is impossibility to
separate language from social activities and the learners are required to take part in
social activities. What is more, these strategies also help raise learners’ awareness
about the importance of learning from the other people. They are made up of three
subclasses (see figure 2.1)

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