Pollution case effects and controls 5th

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Pollution
Causes, Eﬀects and Control
5th Edition
Edited by
R M Harrison
University of Birmingham, UK
Email:

ISBN: 978-1-84973-648-0
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
r The Royal Society of Chemistry 2014*
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Preface

The subject of pollution remains high in the public consciousness and has been a signiﬁcant factor on
the political agenda of both developed and developing countries for a number of years. The subject is
now seen as a priority area for research and for technological developments. It is therefore a fastmoving ﬁeld and one where books require updating on a rather frequent basis. The First Edition of
this book was published in 1983 and arose from the collation of course notes from a Residential
School held at Lancaster University in 1982, supplemented with additional chapters to give a fuller
overview of the ﬁeld. Subsequent editions have expanded the coverage so as to provide a fairly full
overview of the ﬁeld of chemical and radioactive pollution. The level of treatment remains much the
same, being essentially introductory, although covering some more advanced aspects. The very high
sales achieved by the book suggest that this has been very popular and Pollution is used both as a
teaching text and a reference book by practitioners requiring broad knowledge of the ﬁeld.
In a fast-moving ﬁeld it is necessary to scrutinise contents carefully and to ensure thorough
updating. The Fourth Edition of Pollution contained one wholly new chapter on Clean Technologies
and Industrial Ecology reﬂecting the growing importance of pollution prevention as opposed to end-ofpipe controls. Whilst authorship of the majority of the other chapters remained in the same hands, a
large proportion of the chapters were thoroughly revised to reﬂect new developments in the ﬁeld, and
extended to improve coverage. In the Fifth Edition, overall coverage is similar to the Fourth Edition,
but greatly updated to include major new developments such as nanomaterials, as well as new scientiﬁc
insights and legislative changes. A wholly new chapter on Climate Change is included, reﬂecting the
high societal importance of this issue and the need for an authoritative view on the science.
Once again, the chapter authors have been selected on the basis of their established reputation in
the ﬁeld and their ability to write with clarity of presentation. I am delighted that a high proportion
of those who wrote for the Fourth Edition have updated their contributions for the Fifth Edition. A
number of those in fast-moving areas have completely re-written their contributions. Inevitably,
given the length of time between the editions, some authors have changed, and it is a pleasure to
welcome distinguished newcomers to the team.
Comparing the Fifth with the First Edition of this book, I am struck by the explosion in
knowledge in this vital area. Environmental pollution is now a very major area of research,
consultancy and technological development, and I hope that this book goes some way towards
providing an authoritative knowledge base for those working within the ﬁeld.
Roy M. Harrison
Birmingham

Pollution: Causes, Eﬀects and Control, 5th Edition
Edited by R M Harrison
r The Royal Society of Chemistry 2014
Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org

v

Contents
List of Contributors
Chapter 1

xix

Chemical Pollution of the Aquatic Environment by Priority Pollutants and its
Control
Oliver A.H. Jones and Rachel L. Gomes
1.1
1.2

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pollution Control Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Integrated Control Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Trans-boundary Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Complementary and Supplementary Control Measures
1.2.4 Life-cycle Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.5 The Impacts of Chemical Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Regulation of Direct Discharge Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 The Water Framework Directive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 REACH Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4 Regulation of Diﬀuse Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Case Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.1 Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.2 Oestrogenic Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.3 Pesticides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.4 Emerging Contaminants of Concern (ECC) . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 2

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Chemistry and Pollution of the Marine Environment
Martin R. Preston
2.1
2.2

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Features of the Oceanic Environment . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Sources of Chemicals to the Oceans . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Circulation Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Sea Water Reactivity – Biogeochemical Processes

Pollution: Causes, Eﬀects and Control, 5th Edition
Edited by R M Harrison
r The Royal Society of Chemistry 2014
Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org

vii

1
3
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25

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30
30
31
31

viii

Contents

2.3

Sources, Movement and Behaviour of Individual Pollutants or Classes of
Pollutant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Sewage and Nutrients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3 Persistent Organic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.4 Trace Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.5 Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.6 The Eﬀects of Artiﬁcial Radioactivity on the Marine

Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 3

Drinking Water Quality and Health
John K. Fawell
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drinking Water Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drinking Water Treatment and Supply . . .
Sources of Contamination. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drinking Water Guidelines and Standards .
Microbiological Contaminants . . . . . . . . .
Chemical Contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.1 Inorganic Contaminants . . . . . . . . .
3.7.2 Organic Contaminants . . . . . . . . . .
3.8 Water Safety Plans (WSPs) . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 4

4.2
4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

55
56
56
60

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Water Pollution Biology
William M. Mayes
4.1

32
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38
43
49
52

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 The Role of Biology in Understanding Water Pollution .

4.1.2 Pollution Types and Interactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Organic Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eutrophication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Nutrient Pollution in Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 Nutrient Enrichment in Rivers and Groundwaters . . . . .
4.3.3 Managing Nutrient Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acidiﬁcation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 Acidiﬁcation from Above: Sulfur and Nitrogen Oxides. .
4.4.2 Recovery from Acidiﬁcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.3 Acidiﬁcation from Below: Acid Mine Drainage . . . . . . .
Toxic Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.1 Modes of Action of Toxic Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.2 Bioaccumulation and Biomagniﬁcation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thermal Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.1 Anthropogenic Impacts on Thermal Regime . . . . . . . . .
4.6.2 Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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80

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ix

Contents

4.7
4.8
4.9

Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Emerging Contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.1 Nanomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.2 Human and Veterinary Medicines . . . . . .
4.10 Biological Monitoring of Pollution in Freshwaters
4.10.1 Laboratory Monitoring Techniques . . . . .

4.10.2 Field Monitoring Techniques . . . . . . . . .
4.11 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 5

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Sewage and Sewage Sludge Treatment
Elise Cartmell
5.1

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Objectives of Sewage Treatment . . . . .
5.1.2 The Importance of Wastewater Reuse .
5.1.3 Criteria for Sewage Treatment . . . . . .
5.1.4 Composition of Sewage . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Sewage Treatment Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 Preliminary Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.2 Primary Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.3 Secondary (Biological) Treatment . . . .
5.2.4 Secondary Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Sludge Treatment and Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1 Sources of Municipal Sludge. . . . . . . .
5.3.2 Sludge Recycling Options . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.3 Pre-treatment Handling . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.4 Sludge Treatment Processes . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 6

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Treatment of Toxic Wastes
Stuart T. Wagland and Simon J. T. Pollard
6.1

101
102
102
103
104
105
105
105
110
111

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1 Deﬁnition of Toxic and Hazardous Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.3 Case Study: Detection of Hazardous Materials used in the
Preservation of Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Treatment and Management Routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 Introduction and Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 Case Study: Animal Carcass Disposal following Disease

Outbreak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.3 Thermal Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.4 Chemical Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Environmental and Health Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.1 Case Study: Severe Environmental Consequences of Poor
Hazardous Waste Management (Spodden Valley, UK). . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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x

Chapter 7

Contents

Air Pollution: Sources, Concentrations and Measurements
Roy M. Harrison
7.1
7.2

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Speciﬁc Air Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1 Sulfur Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.2 Suspended Particulate Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.3 Oxides of Nitrogen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2.4 Carbon Monoxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.5 Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.6 Secondary Pollutants: Ozone and Peroxyacetyl Nitrate.
7.3 Temporal Patterns of Airborne Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Air Quality Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5 Indoor Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6 International Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7.1 Air Pollutant Concentration Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 8

Chapter 9

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Chemistry of the Troposphere
Roy M. Harrison

182

8.1

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1 Pollutant Cycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 Atmospheric Chemical Transformations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1 The Importance of the Hydroxyl Radical (OH) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Atmospheric Oxidants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1 Formation of Ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.2 Formation of PAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.3 NOy Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 Atmospheric Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1 Weak Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.2 Strong Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.3 Sulfuric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.4 Nitric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.5 Hydrochloric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.6 Methanesulfonic Acid (MSA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5 Atmospheric Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6 Atmospheric Aerosols and Rainwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6.1 Atmospheric Particles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6.2 Rainwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6.3 Inter-relationships between Pollutants, Environmental Eﬀects and
Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

182
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186
186
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193
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194
194
196
196
197
197
198
198
200

Chemistry and Pollution of the Stratosphere
A. Robert MacKenzie and Francis D. Pope

204

9.1

204

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

201
202

xi

Contents

9.2

Stratospheric Ozone Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1 Gas-Phase Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.2 Heterogeneous Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3 Natural Sources of Trace Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4 Anthropogenic Sources of Trace Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.1 Direct Injection of Pollutants into the Stratosphere.
9.5 Antarctic Ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6 Arctic Zone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.7 Mid-Latitude Ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.8 Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.9 Geoengineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.10 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 10

Chapter 11

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217
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223

Atmospheric Dispersal of Pollutants and the Modelling of Air Pollution
Martin L. Williams

225

10.1
10.2

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dispersion and Transport in the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.1 Mechanical Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.2 Turbulence and Atmospheric Stability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.3 Boundary Layer and Mixing Heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.4 Building, Topographical and Street Canyon Eﬀects . . . . . . . .
10.2.5 Removal Processes – Dry and Wet Deposition. . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Modelling of Air Pollution Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.1 Modelling in the Near-ﬁeld. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.2 Operational Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.3 Emission Inventories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.4 Modelling beyond Urban Scales – Long Range Transport and
Chemical Transport Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.5 Uncertainty and Accuracy of Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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226
226
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230
231
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235
236

Air Pollution and Health
Robert L. Maynard and Jon Ayres

244

11.1
11.2
11.3

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exposure to Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Epidemiological Methods Applied in the Air Pollution Field . .
11.3.1 Time Series Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.2 Cohort Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.3 Intervention Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Individual Air Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.4.1 Particulate Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.2 Problems with Mass as a Metric of Dose. . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.3 Other Possible Metrics of ‘‘Dose’’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.4 World Health Organisation Air Quality Guidelines for
Particulate Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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245
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249
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252

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253

xii

Contents

11.4.5 Nitrogen Dioxide . . . . . . . .
11.4.6 Sulfur Dioxide . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.7 Ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.8 Carbon Monoxide . . . . . . .
11.4.9 Carcinogenic Air Pollutants

11.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 12

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Impacts of Air Pollutants on Crops, Trees and Ecosystems
Mike Ashmore
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Methods of Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sulfur Dioxide and Sulfur Deposition . . . . . . . . .
Nitrogen Oxides, Ammonia and N Deposition . .
Ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Interactions between Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.6.1 Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Oxides . . . .
12.6.2 Interactions between Ozone and Elevated
Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.7 Interactions with Biotic and Abiotic Factors . . . .
12.7.1 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.7.2 Interactions with Pests and Diseases . . . .
12.8 Critical Loads and Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.9 Eﬀects on Ecosystem Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 13

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280
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289

Control of Pollutant Emissions from Road Transport
Claire Holman
13.1
13.2

13.3

13.4
13.5

13.6

13.7
13.8

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.2 Spark Ignition/Petrol Engines. . . . . .
13.2.3 Compression Ignition/Diesel Engines
Controlling Regulated Emissions . . . . . . . . .
13.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3.2 Exhaust After-treatment. . . . . . . . . .
Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions . . . . . .
Fuel Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alternative Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.6.2 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.6.3 Electric Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.6.4 Hybrid Electric Vehicles . . . . . . . . . .
13.6.5 Biofuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.6.6 Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Particle Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Non-exhaust Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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261

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297
301
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311
312
314
314
315
316
316
317
320
320
321

xiii

Contents

13.9 In-service Emissions .
13.10 Conclusions . . . . . . .
Acknowledgements . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 14

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Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sources of Soil Pollutants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2.1 Potentially Toxic Elements . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2.2 Organic Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2.3 Nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3 Pathways of Pollutants in Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3.1 PTEs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3.2 Organic Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3.3 Nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15.4 Consquences of Soil Pollution – Risk Assessment
15.4.1 Fine Tuning the Risk Assessment . . . . . .
15.5 Remediation of Contaminated Soils . . . . . . . . . .
15.6 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

322
324
324
324
326

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Soil Pollution and Risk Assessment
Chris D. Collins
15.1
15.2

Chapter 16

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Climate Change
Keith P. Shine
14.1 Historical and Political Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 Scientiﬁc Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3 Observed Changes in Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4 Changes in Atmospheric Composition and Radiative Forcing.

14.5 Modelling Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.6 Attribution of Climate Change over Past 150 Years . . . . . . . .
14.7 Modelling Future Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.8 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 15

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328
329
332
335
336
337
337
338
340

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342
342
344
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346
347
349
349
350
351
352
353

Solid Waste Management
Gev Eduljee

356

16.1

16.2

356
357
357
358
359
359
360

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
An Integrated Approach to Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2.1 The Waste Management Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2.2 An Integrated Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3 Technical Options for Waste Prevention and Recycling . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3.1 Opportunities for Waste Avoidance and Minimization . . . . . .
16.3.2 Collection and Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4 Policy Options to make Waste Prevention and Recycling Work in
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.2 Producer Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

361
361
362

xiv

Contents

16.4.3 Eco-labelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.4 Charges and Economic Incentives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.5 Persuasion Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.6 Integrated Product Policy (IPP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5 Bulk Waste Reduction Technologies and Final Disposal . . . .
16.5.1 Combustion/Incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5.2 Other Thermal Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5.3 Composting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5.4 Anaerobic Digestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5.5 Mechanical Biological Treatment (MBT). . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5.6 Landﬁlling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5.7 Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.6 Integrated Waste Management Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.6.1 Revisiting the Waste Management Hierarchy. . . . . . . . . .
16.6.2 Principles of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) . . . . . . . . . . .
16.6.3 Selecting the Best Environmental Option for Individual
Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.6.4 Waste Management and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.6.5 Waste Management Strategy for Northern Ireland. . . . . .
16.6.6 Recycling and Recovery of Plastics in Germany. . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 17

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365
368
369
370
371
371
372
373
374
374
375
377
377
378

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379
380
380
382
382

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System Approaches: Life Cycle Assessment and Industrial Ecology
Roland Clift
17.1
17.2

Introduction: Changing Paradigms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Environmental System Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.2.1 Economy and Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.2.2 Life Cycle Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.2.3 Material Flow Accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17.3 Applications and Aspirations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.3.1 Industrial Ecology and the Circular Economy .
17.3.2 Clean Technology and Pollution Prevention . .
17.3.3 Life Cycle Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.4 The Green Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 18

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385

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The Environmental Behaviour of Persistent Organic Pollutants
Stuart Harrad and Mohamed Abou-Elwafa Abdallah
18.1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.1.1 Deﬁnition of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs).
18.1.2 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.1.3 Chemical Structure and Nomenclature . . . . . . . . .
18.2 Adverse Eﬀects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2.1 PCDD/Fs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2.2 PCBs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2.3 PBDEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2.4 HBCDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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386
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398
399
399
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405
412
412
417

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417
418
419
419
421

421
424
424
425

xv

Contents

18.3

Measurement Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.3.1 Sampling Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.3.2 Analytical Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.4.1 PCDD/Fs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.4.2 PCBs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.4.3 PBDEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.4.4 HBCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.5 Important Physicochemical Properties and their Inﬂuence on
Environmental Behaviour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.5.1 Equilibrium Partitioning Coeﬃcients. . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.5.2 Aqueous Solubility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.5.3 Environmental Persistence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.5.4 Vapour Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.5.5 General Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.6 Modelling Environmental Behaviour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.6.1 The Fugacity Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.6.2 Equilibrium Partitioning Modelling Approaches . . . .

18.6.3 Pharmacokinetic Models of Human Exposure . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 19

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425

425
428
429
430
431
432
433

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433
434
435
436
436
436
437
437
438
439

439

Radioactivity in the Environment
C. Nicholas Hewitt
19.1
19.2

19.3

19.4

19.5
19.6
19.7

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Radiation and Radioactivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.1 Types of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.2 The Energy Changes of Nuclear Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.3 Rates of Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.4 Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.5 Radioactive Decay Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.6 Production of Artiﬁcial Radionuclides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.7 Nuclear Fission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.8 Beta Decay of Fission Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.9 Units of Radiation Dose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Biological Eﬀects of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3.1 General Eﬀects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3.2 Biological Availability and Residence Times . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3.3 Radiation Protection of Terrestrial Ecosystems . . . . . . . . .

Natural Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.4.1 Cosmic Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.4.2 Terrestrial Gamma Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.4.3 Radon and its Decay Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.4.4 Radioactivity in Food and Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Medical Applications of Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pollution from Nuclear Weapons Explosions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pollution from Electric Power Generation Plant and other Nuclear
Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.7.1 Emissions Resulting from Normal Reactor Operation . . . .
19.7.2 Pollution Following Reactor Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

442

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442
442
442
444
444
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446
447
448
448
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450
450
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452
453
453
454

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455
455
458

xvi

Contents

19.7.3 Radioactive Waste Treatments
19.7.4 Fuel Reprocessing . . . . . . . . .
19.8 Pollution from Non-nuclear Processes .
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 20

Chapter 21

and Disposal .
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461
462
463
464
464

Health Eﬀects of Environmental Chemicals
Juana Maria Delgado-Saborit and Roy M. Harrison

465

20.1
20.2

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Catastrophic Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2.1 Seveso, Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2.2 Bhopal, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3 Localized Contamination Incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3.1 Toxic Oil Syndrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3.2 Rice Oil Contamination by Polychlorinated Biphenyls
(PCBs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3.3 Polybrominated Biphenyls (PBBs) in Cattle Feed. . . . . . . . . .
20.3.4 Mercury Poisoning in Minamata and Niigata . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3.5 Methylmercury Poisoning in Iraq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3.6 Aluminium Contamination of Drinking Water in North
Cornwall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20.3.7 ‘Epping Jaundice’ – Chemical Contamination of Food during
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3.8 Love Canal, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3.9 Exxon Valdez, MV Braer, Prestige and other Major Oil Spill
Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.4 Generalized Environmental Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.4.1 Indoor Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.4.2 Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.4.3 Asbestos and Man-made Mineral Fibres (MMMF) . . . . . . . .
20.4.4 Pesticides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.4.5 Endocrine Disrupters (see also Chapters 1 and 3). . . . . . . . . .
20.4.6 Nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.5 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

465
466
466
468
468
468

The Legal Control of Pollution
Richard Macrory and William Howarth

492

21.1
21.2
21.3

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Purposes and Mechanisms of Environmental Law.
Sources of Law and Institutional Responsibilities . . . .
21.3.1 National Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.3.2 European Union Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.3.3 International Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.4 Private Rights and Civil Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.5 Legal Models of Pollution Regulation. . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.5.1 The Law on Statutory Nuisances . . . . . . . . . .
21.5.2 Water Pollution and Water Quality Law . . . . .

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469
470
470
471
471
472
473
473
474
474
477
478
479
481
481
484
485

492
494
496
496
497
500
503
507
507
509

xvii

Contents

Chapter 22

21.5.3 Integration of Pollution Control and Environmental Permitting
21.5.4 Procedural Environmental Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.6 Concluding Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

512
514
518
518

The Regulation of Industrial Pollution

Martin G. Bigg

522

22.1
22.2

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.2.1 Alkali Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.2.2 Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.2.3 Integrated Pollution Control . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.2.4 Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control
22.3 Environmental Permitting Regulations . . . . . . . . . . .
22.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.3.2 Permitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.3.3 Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.3.4 Risk-based Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.3.5 Advice and Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.3.6 Environmental Management Systems . . . . .
22.3.7 Competency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.3.8 Consultation and Public Engagement . . . . .
22.3.9 Enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.3.10 Civil Sanctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.4 Future Regulation of Industrial Pollution . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Subject Index

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CHAPTER 1

Chemical Pollution of the Aquatic Environment
by Priority Pollutants and its Controlw
OLIVER A.H. JONES*a AND RACHEL L. GOMESb
a

School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, Victoria 3001,
Australia; b Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,

University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
*Email:

1.1 INTRODUCTION
It is diﬃcult to imagine the modern 21st century lifestyle without the mobile phones, tablet PCs and
social media that the majority of the general public have become accustomed to. Such technology is
heavily reliant on chemicals and chemical technology. For example, solvents are widely used in
electronics as solders and for cleansing, stripping, and degreasing operations and encapsulations.
Solvents are also the cause of a signiﬁcant portion of workplace hazards and exposure problems in
not only the electronics industry but many others as well, for example agriculture, biotechnology
and pharmaceuticals. The chemical industry is an important pillar of the modern world economy
and the chemical industry aﬀects nearly every part of our daily life.
Biological and physico-chemical processes operating in aquatic systems can remove pollutants
from circulation, ﬁx them more or less indeﬁnitely, or degrade them to less harmful compounds.
The self-puriﬁcation capacity of many aquatic systems has led to their use for the indiscriminate
disposal of society’s waste in the past. While the pollutants themselves are often invisible to the
naked eye, their impact on water resources and aquatic life is often quite conspicuous. Pollutant
discharges may cause ﬁsh kill events, noxious smells or even change the colour of the water, all of
which are easily perceptible to the casual observer. However, there are also many chemical pollutants that may cause harm to the health of a watercourse while not aﬀecting its outward
appearance. It can be both diﬃcult and expensive to remediate water pollution, and the future use
of the water may be aﬀected by the presence of chemicals.
w

This chapter is based upon an earlier contribution by B. Crathorne, Y. J. Rees and S. France which is gratefully
acknowledged.

Pollution: Causes, Eﬀects and Control, 5th Edition
Edited by R M Harrison
r Jones and Gomes and The Royal Society of Chemistry 2014
Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org

1

2

Chapter 1

Awareness of the issues involved with the presence of chemicals in the environment has been high
since Rachel Carson drew attention to the negative eﬀects of the indiscriminate use of pesticides in
the early 1960’s.1 Since that time, a growing environmental movement and the wide-ranging impact
of social and digital media means that the public is often bombarded with sensational headlines and
stories about pollution by both the scientiﬁc and mainstream press: from the greenhouse gas
emissions generated by shipping food around the globe through to heavy metals from waste
electrical and electronic equipment, and, most recently, nanoparticles and the other emerging
environmental contaminants such as disinfection by-products, pharmaceuticals and hydraulic
fracturing or fracking substances (see section 1.5.4).2 In many such articles, terms such as ‘‘contamination’’ and ‘‘pollution’’ are often used somewhat interchangeably. It is important however, to
make the distinction between them.
Contamination is simply the presence of a substance in a given sample where there is no evidence
of harm. Pollution is contamination that results in, or can result in, adverse biological eﬀects to
individuals or communities.3 All pollutants are therefore contaminants but not all contaminants
are pollutants. This means that diﬀerentiating pollution from contamination cannot be done on the
basis of chemical analyses alone because such analyses provide no information on factors such as
bioavailability or toxicity which inﬂuence whether a chemical presence actually causes harm.3 In
addition, not all contaminants or pollutants are chemical in origin. Many diﬀerent forms of pollution in the aquatic environment exist. These can be summarised as:
Chemical
– Toxicity: acute or chronic toxicity causing severe damage (including death) to aquatic or
human life.
– Sub-lethal toxicity: such as endocrine disruption, physical impairment, reduction of immunological/biochemical function or changes in biodiversity.4
– Deoxygenation: lack of oxygen in the water reducing biodiversity.

Biological
– Spread of non-native and or invasive species to new systems.
– Eutrophication: excess nutrients giving rise to excessive growths of some organisms.
Physical
– Temperature: usually heat, for example from power station cooling systems.
– pH level changes; changes in H1 levels in a water body may aﬀect both chemical and biological processes; e.g. acid rain linked to reduced shell formation ability in molluscs.
– Aesthetic: visual nuisance caused, e.g. litter, algal blooms, discoloration and smells.
– Noise: seismic surveying, shipping, boat traﬃc, pile driving and navy sonars are all sources of
marine noise pollution that can aﬀect the health of marine mammals.5,6
– Light: increasing intentional and unintentional illumination of the coastal zone and near-shore
(and increasing the deep sea) can interfere with the feeding, reproductive and migratory
behaviour of some species.7,8
It is important in pollution regulation to remember the ‘‘Source–Pathway–Receptor’’ model.
Even the most potent toxin is harmless as long as it is isolated or contained and a compound
designed to target a speciﬁc receptor is unlikely to have an eﬀect in an organism that lacks such a
receptor. It is also helpful to keep in mind one of the underlying principles of toxicology; namely
that the dose makes the poison. All chemicals - even water and oxygen - can be toxic in certain
amounts (although not all organisms respond the same way to chemicals at all stages of their life

Chemical Pollution of the Aquatic Environment by Priority Pollutants and its Control

3

cycles). For example excessive heat will kill many species, either directly or by reducing the amount
of O2 than can be dissolved in the water body concerned. Many serious pollution incidents are
caused by spills of seemingly harmless substance such as milk or sugar. These substances are not
directly toxic in themselves; in fact they have the opposite eﬀect. Their high organic content
increases bacterial growth, which causes a concomitant decrease in dissolved oxygen levels.9 In
some cases the milk itself could also be contaminated, for instance by radiation following a radiological accident10 such as the Chernobyl disaster which contaminated ﬁelds and animals across

Europe in the late 1980 s11 and the more recent Fukashima incident in Japan in March 2011; the
impact and fallout of which was felt (albeit weakly) as far away as Western Europe.12,13 Such
incidents are of course thankfully, very rare.
So, in the 21st century, society cannot function in the way in which it has become accustomed
without producing pollution but left unchecked, such pollution will eventually undermine the
functioning of said society. Consumers are currently encouraged to do their part, for example to
reduce food miles by shopping locally, and to oﬀset their carbon footprint by funding an equivalent
carbon dioxide saving elsewhere (for example by investing in renewable energy projects). However,
these are small savings. To ensure chemical pollution does not cause serious and irreparable
damage to the environment there must be checks and balances in place to minimise the release of
certain pollutants and the harm they could potentially cause. Such techniques may be economic
and/or legal instruments. However, not everything can be regulated and it would not be economically or physically viable to do so. Thus, despite the fact that almost anything can be a pollutant, certain chemicals have been identiﬁed in regulations at a national, or increasingly
international level, as being priority chemicals for control. Such pollutants generally meet one or
more of the following criteria:14
–
–
–
–
–

They
They
They
They
They

are frequently detected by environmental monitoring programs.
are toxic at low concentrations.
bioaccumulate.
are persistent.

are carcinogens.

For many of these substances the precautionary principle has been applied. Here the target is for
no contamination to occur but there are diﬀerent approaches and philosophies as to how to achieve
the best environmental results.

1.2 POLLUTION CONTROL PHILOSOPHY
The public tend to think of pollution control in terms of mandatory regulations and there is no
doubt that these are very important for environmental protection but they are only part of the
solution. Other tools such as, environmental education, economic instruments, market forces and
stricter enforcements all have roles to play in pollution control. Given the range of control measures available for environmental protection, preventing and controlling the release of priority
chemicals to the aquatic environment can still be complex and challenging.
Controlling pollution to an environment has tended to rely on standards or objectives that are in
some way measurable. The types of standards may be broadly divided into standards set by
reference either to the target being protected, or the source of the pollution. The latter being further
divided into standards covering emissions, process, product and use (see Table 1.1).
Standards may also be considered precise where there is a deﬁned quantiﬁable minimum or
maximum value for a particular or range of pollutants, or imprecise (classifying the health of a river
or lake as ﬁt to support ﬁsh for example), requiring the use of Best Available Techniques (BAT) or
Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO). Together these provide an integrated framework
where the use of one is not to the exclusion of another.

4
Table 1.1

Chapter 1
Examples of standards utilised in pollution control. (Adapted from Ref. 15).

Type of standard

Description

Environmental quality
standards

Concerned with the eﬀect on a particular target.
The degree of concentration in surface water for certain pollutants, substances
or groups of substances identiﬁed as priority on account of the signiﬁcant risk
they pose to or via the aquatic environment.
EU Directive in Environmental Quality Standards (Directive 2008/105/EC);
Annex IX (Dangerous Substances Directive and associated Daughter Directives); Annex X (Water Framework Directive Priority List Substances).

Emission standards

Concerned with setting speciﬁc limits regarding the nature and volume of a
pollutant present in a liquid discharged from a point source to a sewer or
‘‘controlled water’’.
Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2010 require
environmental permits setting the maximum content of a pollutant in a liquid
discharge from a point source to sewer or controlled water.

Process standards

Details the process to be carried out or sets performance requirements that a
whole process or part of a process must achieve. Can include further stipulations about the technology or operational factors.
The Urban Waste Water Treatment (England and Wales) Regulations 1994
requirement for secondary or equivalent treatment.

Product standards

Controls the characteristics or concentration of an item being produced in
order to protect against damage that a product may cause during its life cycle.
Encourages recovery and recycling at the point of disposal.

Use standards

Controls the marketing or use of the product, measuring any risks associated
with the consequences of the use of a product.
The REACH Enforcement Regulations 2008 for the Registration, Evaluation,
Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH).

For environmental protection, the traditional command and control (CAC) practices are also
complemented and supplemented by market-based economic instruments (EIs). EIs function
through their impact on market signals, utilising prices or economic incentives/deterrents to achieve
environmental objectives. There are ﬁve broad categories of EIs covering: charges, subsidies, deposit
or refund schemes, the creation of a market in pollution credits, and enforcement incentives.16
EIs oﬀer the incentive and power for an industry or consumer to realign their rights and
responsibilities and act in a more environmentally responsible manner.17 Some EIs are selfstanding, whilst others work within the regulatory framework linking costs to the prevention,
reduction or clean-up of pollution. For example, in England, the Environment Agency (EA) in
carrying out any works, operations or investigations to prevent or remediate water pollution is
entitled to recover expenses reasonably incurred from any responsible person under the Water
Resources Act 1991 and 2009 Amendment.18
These market-based EIs, along with other alternative control procedures, such as voluntary
schemes and information systems, have been developed in response to growing awareness from
governments of the need to increase the range of tools for controlling chemicals and encouraging
environmentally responsible behaviour. Given the range of control measures available for environmental protection, preventing and controlling the release of priority chemicals to the aquatic
environment can still be diﬃcult.
Chemicals have the potential to gain entry to the aquatic environment at any stage in their life
cycle (see Figure 1.1) and entry may be through a variety of avenues.

The routes through which priority chemicals may enter the aquatic environment can be broadly
categorised into point and non-point (diﬀuse) sources.19 A point source release is from a discrete

Chemical Pollution of the Aquatic Environment by Priority Pollutants and its Control

Figure 1.1

5

Life-cycle of chemicals in products. (Adapted from ref. 14).

location, be that a pipe or some other single identiﬁable localised source, e.g. eﬄuent from a sewage
treatment plant or an oil spill. Non-point, or diﬀuse pollution, sources are emitted indirectly from
multiple discharge points and tend to be intermittent, occurring less frequently or in less quantity to
point sources, e.g. unconﬁned runoﬀ from agricultural or urban areas into a water body.19
Pollution control has traditionally focused on point sources due to the comparative ease in
identifying and regulating a single pollution locale entering a water body. Strict requirements have
been introduced to tackle the largest point sources on discharges to water and sewer, e.g. The Urban
Waste Water Treatment (England and Wales) Regulations 1994 and the 2003 Amendment.20 This has
encouraged industry to develop technologies able to reduce or remove chemical pollutants in the
eﬄuent to meet these regulations, which has led to substantial improvements in the quality of the
receiving water body over the past years. However, sewage can still act as a conduit for pollutants
to aﬀect water quality due to sewer overﬂow, pipe failure, or where control measures have failed.20
Similarly, the improvements in water quality brought about through the control measures
imposed for point sources have also led to the realisation of, and additional focus on, the relative
contribution of non-point sources to water pollution. Attention and control measures have
therefore come to focus on and incorporate these non-point sources to facilitate further
improvements in water quality. Environmental policy and practice in the last 20 years or so
increasingly highlighted the need to develop a more holistic approach to environmental control and

this has, and is inﬂuencing the philosophy of pollution control (see Table 1.2).
However, in some cases, the ﬁnes water companies face for polluting the environment are
relatively small. For instance, although a sustained reduction in pollutant discharges from wastewater treatment works has been achieved in England and Wales through regulation over the past 20
years, in 2011 industrial sites caused 39% (240) of all serious pollution incidents. This is more than

6

Chapter 1

Table 1.2

Moving towards a holistic approach in pollution control philosophy.

Holistic approach

Traditional approach

Example control measures

1

Integrated control
measures

2

Trans-boundary
considerations

Fragmented reactive regulation covering a single environmental media
or industry
Country-speciﬁc issue and control
approach

3

Complementary and
supplementary control
measures
Life-cycle considerations

Limited range of control measures

Considering the impacts
of chemical mixtures

Substance-by-substance approach

– Environmental Permitting
Regulations (England and Wales)
2007 and Amendments.
– Multilateral environmental agreements including the Stockholm
Convention Protecting human
health and the environment from
persistent organic pollutants
– Economic instruments
– Voluntary schemes
– Information systems
– Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management

– Regulation (EC) No. 1107/2009
Plant Protection Products

4
5

End-of-pipe control

in 2010 (172 or 27%).21 This increase was due to more incidents from water company owned assets
and waste management facilities. Indeed, in 2011, water company owned assets caused 120 serious
pollution incidents in the UK (half of the incidents from sites regulated by the Environment
Agency). This is almost double the number of incidents in 2010 (65 incidents) and the same as
recorded by the EA in 2000. Of the 120 incidents, 101 were within the sewer or water network, and
19 were from permitted sites such as wastewater treatment works.21 Some of these spills were of
quite toxic substances. For instance, virtually all releases of tributyltin (TBT) to water in 2011 came
from water companies.21
Environmental prosecutions in England and Wales in 2011 also make sober reading. In total 178
separate companies were ﬁned for environmental oﬀences in 2011, compared with 179 in 2010 and
317 in 2005. Total ﬁnes for the whole sector came to just over d3.8 million. This is lower than the
total of d4.8 million in 2010 but this may be due to the large ﬁnes levied on the companies
responsible for the 2005 Bunceﬁeld explosion.21 These costs are very much lower than the investment required for even minor treatment plant upgrades and thus whilst acknowledging the eﬀorts
of water companies to reduce environmental contamination, it seems highly unlikely that purely
punitive legal instruments are able to prevent aquatic pollution in this way unless the law on
environmental pollution in the UK is changed substantially.
It is also probable that removing all possible pollutants from wastewater is likely to be not
only physically almost impossible and economically undesirable; it also may not be the best
approach for the protection of the environment. Aside from the high energy usage and associated
increases in CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions, improved eﬄuent quality also increases the
amount of sludge produced, which requires environmentally sound disposal. Balancing desired
improvements in the quality of eﬄuent discharges, with the desire to reduce energy consumption

and sludge production during treatment, poses a considerable challenge to the water industry. In
2007 Jones et al. went as far as to suggest that it may be time to address a paradigm of
wastewater treatment, which has previously been unchallenged; namely that increasing eﬄuent
quality can only be environmentally beneﬁcial. In fact, when subjected to life-cycle analysis, largescale investment into increasingly energy intensive treatments is seen to be environmentally unsustainable. This is because the beneﬁts of improved eﬄuent quality are often outweighed by the negative
eﬀects on the wider environment when process construction and operation are looked at as a whole.22
The question then becomes one of diminishing returns and how much extra water utilities, and
their customers, are willing to pay to remove an extra nanogram of a compound from wastewater

Chemical Pollution of the Aquatic Environment by Priority Pollutants and its Control

7

eﬄuent, even if a health eﬀect is unlikely. It is also of note that even removing all pollutants and
contaminants from sewage eﬄuent would have no eﬀect on the contributions of these compounds
to the environment from other sources, such as agriculture and landﬁll leachates. Thus, marketbased EIs, along with other alternative control procedures such as voluntary schemes and information systems, have been developed in response to the growing awareness from governments of
the need to increase the range of tools for controlling chemicals and encouraging environmentally
responsible behaviour.

1.2.1 Integrated Control Measures
Controlling pollution is neither a single environmental compartment nor single industry issue.
However, in the past, regulatory controls were developed in response to a particular environmental
issue. This led to a range of legislation and regulatory bodies responsible for individual sectors but
without due consideration of the consequences from imposing control of one sector in relation to
others.15
More recently, there has been a move to unify concepts of environmental protection. The
Integrated Pollution Control (IPC) under Part 1 of the Environment Protection Act 1990 played an
important role in introducing a more holistic control philosophy to environmental management.
The IPC was superseded by Pollution Prevention and Control (PPC), which implemented the EU
Directive on Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) (2008/1/EC) and is still adhered

to via the Environmental Permitting Regulations (England and Wales) 2007 and Amendments. These
regulations take a wide range of environmental impacts into account and apply to a diverse range
of industries (termed ‘‘installations’’ which may have multiple processes) that now include landﬁll
sites, intensive agriculture, large pig and poultry units, and food and drink manufacturers. Each
installation is required to have a permit containing emission limit values and more wide ranging
criteria in the consideration of BAT. Permit conditions also have to address energy eﬃciency, waste
minimisation, prevention of accidental emissions and site restoration.

1.2.2 Trans-boundary Considerations
Both pollutants and water bodies fail to recognise national borders. Priority pollutants tend to
persist in the environment for long periods and can therefore be transported long distances.
Transport can occur between environmental compartments e.g. deposition from the air to a water
body some distance away, or within one environmental compartment e.g. as the water body
meanders across national borders and/or acts as a border.
The global scope for environmental pollution has resulted in growing international co-operation
and action including multilateral environmental agreements (e.g. the Basel, Rotterdam and
Stockholm Conventions), with one of the key objectives of European Union environmental policy,
as set out by the Lisbon Treaty, being to promote international measures to deal with regional or
worldwide environmental problems. Regulation such as the Water Framework Directive also
encourages coordination of all aspects of the WFD implementation across borders, from setting
objectives to developing programmes of measures. There are also numerous initiatives speciﬁcally
to protect the aquatic environment from priority pollutants, particularly for marine waters. The
Oslo and Paris Commission (OSPAR) is one example. OSPAR is the mechanism by which 15
governments (Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, The
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom) of the western
coasts and catchments of Europe, together with the European Community (EC), cooperate to
protect the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic. The Commission was started in 1972
with the Oslo Convention against dumping. It was broadened to cover land-based sources and the

8

Chapter 1

oﬀshore industry by the Paris Convention of 1974. These two conventions were uniﬁed, up-dated
and extended in the 1992 OSPAR Convention. A new annex on biodiversity and ecosystems was
also adopted in 1998 to cover non-polluting human activities that can adversely aﬀect the sea.
Finland is also involved in this convention even though it is not on the western coasts of Europe.
This is because several Finish rivers ﬂow to the Barents Sea and Finland has been involved in the
eﬀorts to control the dumping of hazardous waste in the Atlantic and the North Sea for many
years. Other external partners are Luxembourg and Switzerland, which are counted as contracting
parties due to their location within the catchments of the Rhine. OSPAR itself aims to reduce
discharges, emission and losses of speciﬁc hazardous substances continually, with the ultimate aim
of reducing concentrations in the marine environment to near background values for naturally
occurring substances and close to zero for anthropogenic compounds.

1.2.3 Complementary and Supplementary Control Measures
Traditionally the instruments for controlling chemicals have been regulations setting limits for
discharges to water or banning a chemical from speciﬁc or all uses. However, regulation alone has
long been recognised as a rather blunt instrument with which to achieve continuous improvement,
particularly for diﬀuse sources.23 In relation to priority pollutant control, there may be diﬃculties
with encouraging replacements of priority chemicals by other, more benign substitutes. This has led
to the use of alternative control procedures that complement and supplement regulatory control
measures. These approaches include economic instruments, voluntary schemes and information
systems, which work with the normal market forces, supply and demand, consumer choice etc., to
control chemicals and encourage environmentally responsible behaviour.
It is worth highlighting here that, depending on the application, identifying suitable chemical
alternatives can be problematic. For instance, pharmaceuticals are necessary for human health and
may need to be recalcitrant in order to work. For example, a major component of the contraceptive
pill is ethinylestradiol (EE2). EE2 possesses an ethinyl group on the 17 carbon making it more

resistant to degradation than estradiol, which is quickly inactivated by the liver. The synthesis of
EE2 paved the way for oral contraceptives but EE2 has also been identiﬁed as contributing to the
‘‘feminisation of the male ﬁsh’’ present in water bodies which receive sewage eﬄuent.24 Were EE2
to be substituted for another chemical, the replacement would still need to possess a similar activity
and be recalcitrant for use as an oral contraceptive but not to the extent that it may survive the
sewage treatment plant (see section 1.5.2).

1.2.4 Life-cycle Considerations
Consideration of the life cycle of a chemical – from production to disposal – has led to recognition
of a hierarchy of approaches to priority pollutant control. The Waste (England and Wales) Regulations 2011 support the revised Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC) to ensure the recovery
of waste or its disposal without endangering human health and the environment. These regulations
introduced the concept of the waste hierarchy with emphasis placed on the prevention, reduction,
re-use and recovery of waste:
– Replace: use another, more environmentally friendly chemical.
– Reduce: use as little of the priority pollutants as possible.
– Manage: use in a carefully managed way to minimise accidental or adventitious loss and
waste.
This is supported through the Environmental Permits System. To obtain a permit for an activity,
applicants must demonstrate that the BAT will be used to ‘‘prevent, minimise or render harmless

Chemical Pollution of the Aquatic Environment by Priority Pollutants and its Control

9

polluting releases’’. Policy frameworks also exist to promote the sound management of chemicals
throughout their life cycle. For example the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals
Management (SAICM) was established by the International Conference on Chemicals Management (ICCM) in February 2006 with the main objective to ensure that, by the year 2020, chemicals
are produced and used in ways that minimise signiﬁcant adverse impacts on the environment and
human health.25

1.2.5 The Impacts of Chemical Mixtures
An issue currently receiving much consideration is how best to deal with mixtures of chemicals.
Environmental risks from chemicals have traditionally been assessed as single chemicals or on
a ‘‘substance-by-substance’’ approach, neglecting the impact of chemical mixtures. However,
chemicals may enter as a:
– Waste or by-product into the aquatic environment, and as such are mixed with other
chemicals.
– Single substance into the aquatic environment, which may already contain other chemicals to
form a mixture of chemicals.
These chemicals may interact when they are mixed in an additive, synergistic or antagonistic way.
They may produce breakdown products, by-products or react to form new substances in the waste
stream or in the receiving aquatic environment. Whilst controls on individual chemicals can be
eﬀective, they face diﬃculties in determining the risk from, and regulation of the impact of chemical
mixtures to the environment. Newer control measures are beginning to regulate under realistic
conditions, the EC regulations on the authorisation of plant protection products containing certain
active substances in Chapter II state ‘they shall not have any harmful eﬀects on human health,
including that of vulnerable groups, or animal health, taking into account known cumulative and
synergistic eﬀects where the scientiﬁc methods accepted by the Authority to assess such eﬀects are
available’ (see section 1.5.3).26
In addition, to provide a more integrated view of the state of the environment, ecological
monitoring is essential. Given that the ultimate aim of chemical control is protection of the
environment it is only through measuring ecological quality that the eﬀectiveness of pollution
control measures can be determined. Ecological quality is highlighted in the Water Framework
Directive and this media-orientated form of legislation may provide valuable options for improving
the protection of the environment from the risks of chemical mixtures.27
In summary, pollution control has evolved to utilise a combination of measures from regulation
through to market-based economic instruments, voluntary agreements and information systems.
This toolbox has enabled governments, regulatory agencies and industrial initiatives to adopt a
holistic approach to better respond to both point and non-point sources of pollutants and replace,

reduce or manage chemicals and their entry to the aquatic environment.

1.3 REGULATION OF DIRECT DISCHARGE SOURCES
1.3.1 The Water Framework Directive
The regulation of direct discharges of chemical pollutants to watercourses is generally the
responsibility of individual nations. However, in many cases this is complicated by the fact that
catchment areas cross international boundaries. Therefore both water and pollution control
policies are often trans-national issues, making regulation a complex and time-consuming process.
To take a salient example, 60% of the territory of the European Union (EU) as a whole lies in

10

Chapter 1

trans-boundary river basins and policy is decided in the European parliament and then implemented at Member State level. Individual states vary greatly in their economy and government, and
compliance with EU directives can (and often does) vary signiﬁcantly.
Regulation of direct discharges in Europe is moving very strongly towards control from the EU
parliament. European Union legislation provides for measures against chemical pollution of surface waters. There are two components: the selection and regulation of substances of European
Union (EU)-wide concern (the priority substances) and the selection by Member States of substances of national or local concern (river basin speciﬁc pollutants) for control at the relevant level.
Early European water legislation began, in a ‘‘ﬁrst wave’’, with standards for rivers and lakes
used for drinking water abstraction in 1975, and culminated in 1980 in setting binding quality
targets for drinking water. It also included quality objective legislation on ﬁsh waters, shellﬁsh
waters, bathing waters and groundwaters. Its main emission control element was the Dangerous
Substances Directive. A number of directives applying to members states have had an impact on
water over the years including the following:15
–
–
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–

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–
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–
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–

The
The
The
The
The
The
The
The
The
The

Birds Directive (79/409/EEC).
Drinking Water Directive (80/778/EEC) as amended by Directive 98/83/EC.
Environmental Impact Assessment Directive (85/337/EEC).
Sewage Sludge Directive (86/278/EEC).
Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (91/271/EEC).
Plant Protection Products Directive (91/414/EEC).
Nitrates Directive (91/676/EEC).
Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC).
Integrated Pollution Prevention Control Directive (96/61/EC).
Major Accidents (Seveso) Directive (96/82/EC).

Historically, there has been a dichotomy in approach to pollution control at European level –

with some controls concentrating on what is achievable at source, through the application of
technology, and some dealing with the needs of the receiving environment in the form of quality
objectives. Each approach has potential ﬂaws. Source controls alone can allow a cumulative pollution load, which may be exceedingly detrimental to the environment, where there is a concentration of pollution sources. Quality standards can underestimate the eﬀect of a particular
substance on the ecosystem, due to the limitations in scientiﬁc knowledge regarding dose–response
relationships and the mechanics of transport within the environment. There are a number of
measures taken at Community level to tackle particular pollution problems. Key examples are the
Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive and the Nitrates Directive, which together tackle the
problem of eutrophication as well as health eﬀects such as microbial pollution in bathing water
areas and nitrates in drinking water, and the Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Directive
(IPPC) which deals with chemical pollution.
As a result of the increasing complexity of European water policy, the system underwent a
thorough restructuring process in the late 1990s. This resulted in new, far reaching legislation in
regard to regulation of the contamination of the aquatic environment in the form of Directive 2000/
60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for the Community action in the ﬁeld of water policy, or, in short the EU Water Framework Directive (or even
shorter, the WFD). This directive is a combined approach using both emission limit values and
quality standards. It was ﬁnally adopted in the year 2000 on the 23rd of October as Directive 2000/
60/EC (as amended by European Parliament and Council Decision No 2455/2001/E).
Transposition into national law in the UK occurred through the following regulations:
The Water Environment (Water Framework Directive) (England and Wales) Regulations
2003 (Statutory Instrument 2003 No. 3242) for England and Wales; The Water Environment

Chemical Pollution of the Aquatic Environment by Priority Pollutants and its Control

11

and Water Services (Scotland) Act 2003 (WEWS Act) and The Water Environment (Water Framework Directive) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2003 (Statutory Rule 2003 No. 544) for Northern
Ireland.
Compared to previous water legislation, the Water Framework Directive (WFD) takes a more
holistic view of the pressures and pollution on the water environment. Reducing chemical pollution

from diﬀuse sources is considered under several articles. For example Article 10 establishes a combined approach for point and diﬀuse sources requiring emission controls, permits and/or best
environmental practices to reduce 33 priority substances/substance groups and 14 priority hazardous
substances (see Table 1.3). Whilst Article 16(6) states ‘it shall identify the appropriate cost-eﬀective
and proportionate level and combination of product and process controls for both point and diﬀuse
sources and take account of Community-wide uniform emission limit values for process controls’.
The WFD took an innovative approach to water pollution control. It is based not on national
administrative or political boundaries, but on natural, geographical and hydrological formations:
river basins. Member States were required to identify all the river basins lying within their national
territory and to assign them to individual river basin districts. For each river basin district a ‘‘river
basin management plan’’ (RBMP) was required to be established and updated every six years.
River basins covering the territory of more than one Member State were assigned to an international river basin district (IRBD). Representatives from each state in an IRBD must work together
for the management of the basin. Such areas require the cooperation and joint objective-setting
across Member State borders, or in some cases, such as the Rhine, beyond the EU territory.
Through the development of RBMPs, regulatory bodies and stakeholders can identify any
necessary actions to address the pressures on the water environment.
The RBMPs aim to:
– Prevent deterioration, enhance and restore bodies of surface water, achieve good chemical and
ecological status of such water by 2015 at the latest and to reduce pollution from discharges
and emissions of hazardous substances.
– Protect, enhance and restore the status of all bodies of groundwater, prevent the pollution and
deterioration of groundwater, and ensure a balance between groundwater abstraction and
replenishment.
– Preserve protected areas.
The ultimate objective is to achieve ‘‘good ecological and chemical status’’ for all Community
waters by 2015.
Good chemical status is deﬁned in terms of compliance with all the quality standards established
for chemical substances at the European level. The Directive also provides a mechanism for
renewing these standards and establishing new ones by means of a prioritisation mechanism for
hazardous chemicals. This system aims to ensure at least a minimum chemical quality, particularly
in relation to very toxic substances, everywhere in the community.

Good ecological status is deﬁned in Annex V of the WFD, in terms of the quality of the biological
community (e.g. ﬁsh, benthic invertebrates, aquatic ﬂora), as well as the hydrological (river bank
structure, river continuity or substrate of the river bed), physico-chemical characteristics (e.g.
temperature, BOD, pH and nutrient conditions) and chemical characteristics (the latter refer to
refers to environmental quality standards for river basin speciﬁc pollutants; see Table 1.3). These
standards specify maximum concentrations for speciﬁc water pollutant which, if exceeded, deprive
that water body of ‘‘good ecological status’’. There are of course complications; due to ecological
variability across the EU no absolute standards for biological quality can be set which apply in all
states. Therefore the controls are speciﬁed so as to allow a slight departure from the biological
community, which would be expected in conditions of minimal anthropogenic impact. A set of
procedures for identifying that point for a given body of water, and establishing particular chemical

Pollution case effects and controls 5th

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