Nghiên cứu cơ sở khoa học nhằm đề xuất giải pháp quản lý và phát triển bền vững cây đảng sâm (codonopsis javanica (blume) hook f ) tại huyện tây giang, tỉnh quảng nam tt tiếng anh

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HUE UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

TRAN CONG DINH

A STUDY ON SCIENTIFIC BASES TO SUGGEST SOLUTIONS
TO MANAGE AND DEVELOP CODONOPSIS JAVANICA (BLUME) HOOK. F.
SUSTAINABLY IN TAY GIANG DISTRICT, QUANG NAM PROVINCE

Major: Sivilculture
Code: 9 62 02 05

DOCTORAL THESIS IN SIVILCULTURE

HUE - 2019


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The thesis was completed at: Department of Forestry, University of Agriculture and Forestry, Hue University

Scientific supervisor: 1. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nguyen Van Loi
2. Dr. Tran Minh Duc

Reviewer 1:
Reviewer 2:
Reviewer 3:

The thesis will be defended at Thesis Assessing Council of Hue University at…
At ………. on …….

The thesis can be accessed at: The Library of University of Agriculture and Forestry, Hue University, Learning
Resource Centre of Hue University, and National Library.


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INTRODUCTION
1. Study background
Codonopsis javanica (brume) hook. f. is a valuable pharmaceutical plant which can be used for medicinal
treatment like ginseng, but with a lower cost. Codonopsis javanica (brume) hook. f. appears in all prescriptions of
Oriental medicine as tonic which can help patients to increase resistance and improve health.
Tay Giang district of Quang Nam province is where Codonopsis javanica (brume) hook. f. is naturally
distributed and artificially planted by local people. In order for Codonopsis javanica (brume) hook. f. to become a main
plant in socio-economic development and meet social needs, it is necessary to protect and preserve its precious genes
for future generations. Based on previous study findings and specific scientific evidence, this study aims to suggest
solutions for managing and developing Codonopsis javanica (brume) hook. f. sustainably in Tay Giang district of Quang
Nam province.
2. Study objectives
2.1. General objectives
To identify scientific and practical bases to support the management and development of Codonopsis javanica
(brume) hook. f. so that it can yield high productivity.
2.2. Specific objectives
- To identify biological, ecological characteristics of Codonopsis javanica and [lập địa] factors affecting its
natural distribution in Tay Giang district of Quang Nam province.
- To propose a guideline about multiplying techniques using seeds and planting Codonopsis javanica (brume)
hook. f.
- To suggest some solutions to manage and develop Codonopsis javanica (brume) hook. f. sustainably in Tay
Giang district, Quang Nam province.
3. Scientific and practical contributions

3.1. Scientific contributions
- Provide scientific data about biological and ecological characteristics , distributions, reproductions and
influences of [lap dia] factors on the natural distribution of Codonopsis javanica (brume) hook. f.
- Provide scientific information about multiplying and planting techniques of Codonopsis javanica (brume)
hook. f.
3.2. Practical contributions
The research findings provide a scientific basis on which solutions can be suggested to manage and develop
Codonopsis javanica (brume) hook. f. sustainably in Tay Giang district, Quang Nam province.
4. New contributions of the thesis
- Identified biological, ecological characteristics and distribution of Codonopsis javanica (brume) hook. f.
- Identidied and added some techniques to breed and plant Codonopsis javanica (brume) hook. f.
- Suggested some specific solutions based on scientific evidence and feasibility to plant and develop
Codonopsis javanica (brume) hook. f. sustainably for local people in the study area.
5. Organization of the thesis
In addition to Introduction, Conclusion, References and Appendices, the thesis includes three chapters:
Chapter 1: Literature Review
Chapter 2: Research subjects, content and method
Chapter 3: Findings and discussions


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CHAPTER 1 LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1 Theoretical background
1.1.1. An overview about non-wood forest products
1.1.1.1 Definitions
In the world, there are many definitions of non-wood forest products depending on different researchers,
organizations and periods. However, in the forestry field, the term non-wood forest product is widely used to officially
replace the term minor forest product / secondary forest product. This definition was approved in the Asia-Pacific
Forestry Consulting Conference in Bangkok on August 5th,1991: ‚non-wood forest products include renewable
products apart from wood, firewood and charcoal. Non-wood forest products are taken from forest, forest land or trees.

Therefore, products such as sand, stone, water, eco-tourism services are not considered as non-wood forest products.
1.1.1.2. Vegetation that provides non-wood forest products
According to Le Mong Chan and Vu Van Dung (1992), ‚forest vegetation includes trees, grass, high level and
low level vines distributed in the forest. Non-wood trees which provide valuable products such as pine resin, anise,
cinnamon or cane are also regarded as forest specialities. In a narrow meaning, vegetation which provides non-wood
products or other valuable products beside wood are generally called vegetation providing non-wood forest products. In
a broader meaning, vegetation which provides non-wood forest products includes all kinds of vegetation in the forest
ecology or in any other ecology which are also able to provide non-wood forest products.
1.1.1.3. Classification of vegetation that provides non-wood forest products
There are many different viewpoints on how to classify vegetation that provides non-wood forest products such
as classifying based on systems of vegetation resources, on trunk shapes or on use values. Specifically, classifying nonwood forest products based on use values is also viewed differently. According to FAO (1984), non-wood forest
products classified based on use values are: 1) food; 2) construction materials; 3) handcraft materials; 4) medicinal and
aromatic materials; 5) oramental plants.
1.1.2. An overview about indigenous knowledge
1.1.2.1. Definitions
According to Katherine Warner (1991), indigenous knowledge is knowledge about a local - the only knowledge
about a certain culture or society. This is the basic knowledge based on which local decisions about agriculture, health
care, food production, education, natural resource management and primary activities of rural community can be made.
Unlike indigenous knowledge, academic knowledge is often formed in research universities and institutes.
1.1.2.2. Indigenous knowledge in forest resource management
The management of indigenous forestry has recently attracted the attention from forestry science and forestry
development cooperation. Previously, social forestry and custom forestry were not mentioned, especially community
forestry was neglected in many cases whereas ideas about managing indigenous forests are really valuable. Nowadays,
professional forestry pays more attention to the success of indigenous forestry, so the process of communication and
synthesization is widely opened.
1.1.3. An overview about medicinal plants
1.1.3.1 AN overview about studies and uses of medicinal plants around the world
According to WHO‘s statistics, in 1995 there were 20.000 vegetation species (among 250.000 known species)
had been used as medicine or had provided ingredients for medicine production. Among these, India has 6000 species
and China has 5000 species. Countries which have an increasing use of medicinal plants like China consume 700.000

tons of medicinal materials, oriental medicinal products worth over 1.7 billion USD in 1986. In Japan, in 1979, 21.000
tons of medicinal materials were imported, this figure increased to 22,640 tons in 1980 equal to 50 million USD. This
proved that medicinal plants used for traditional medicine are in a growing need.
1.1.3.2. An overview about studies and uses of medicinal plants in Vietnam
Tropical forests in Vietnam have a variety of vegetation resources. There are around 12.000 species of high
level vegetation, 600 of mushroom, 800 of mold and hundreds of big algea; among which, 3,200 high and low level
vegetation species which are used for mecical treatment are distributed in a variety of site conditions nationwide.
1.2. Practical background
1.2.1. Previous studies on Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in Vietnam
1.2.1.1. Classification of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
Codonopsis branch has following taxonomy characteristics:


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- Domain: Eukaryyota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Subkingdom: Viridaeplantae
- Phylum: Magnoliophyta
- Category: Magnoliopsida
- Subcategory: Asteriades
- Order: Asterales
- Family: Campanulaceae
- Subfamily: Campanuloideae
- Clade: Codonopsis
1.2.1.2. Characteristics of distribution and regeneration
According to Vo Van Chi and Tran Hop (2002), there are 44 species of Codonopsis Blume mainly distributed in
humid subtropical and temperate zones in Asia and Europe. Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. is a subtropical plant
recognized in China, Myanma, India, Laos, Vietnam and Japan. The plant grows naturally in the Northern and Highland
mountainous provinces, especially in Lai Chau, Son La, Lao Cai, Gia Lai, Kontum and Lam Dong. In Vietnam,
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. is called by different names like vine gingsen, phong dang sam, chicken thigh,

mằn rày cáy (Tày), cang hô (H’Mông), distributed in Lai Chau, Lao Cai, Ha Giang, Son La, Yen Bai, Tuyen Quang,
Cao Bang, Lang Son, Kontum, Lam Dong, Quang Nam.
Dinh Thi Hoa and Doan Thi Thuy Linh (2003), when studying the characteristics about distribution and
regeneration of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in Copia natural conservation area in) Thuan Chau district of Son
La province, came to some preliminary conclusions about: 1) the distribution of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
in different biological conditions, 2) the distribution of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. based on locations, 3) the
characteristics about regeneration.
1.2.1.3. Ecological characteristics
According to Vo Van Chi and Tran Hop (2002), Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. grows in the edge of
forest, long abandoned kaingins, grassland at the height of 900 - 2.200m. It prefers humidity, light and can stand shades,
grows in humic soil. It is grown from seeds in spring and its roots are used for medicinal purposes. The plant can be
harvested after 3 years. It often produces flowers and fruits in December and January.
1.2.1.5. Chemical components
According to Dao Kim Long and et al. (2012), sustances like β - sitosterrol, daucosterrol, hesperidin, kaemferol
3 - O - β - D - sophoroside, lobetyol were first discovered in the roots of Codonopsis javanica. Among these, lobetyol
can be in process of extracting, and one glucoza atom of lobetyolin has been cut to become lobetyol. Lobetyolin is an
indicating sustance used to identify the quality of Chinese Codonopsis javanica (brume) hook. f.
Hoang Minh Chung and colleagues (2002) found that in raw and processed Codonopsis javanica (Blume) hook.
f., there is sugar, saponin, acid amin and lipid. Studies showed that powder-producing index of raw Codonopsis javanica
(Blume) hook. f. is 8, hermorrhage index is 5.7, Saponin concentration is 3,12 ± 0,08 %.
1.2.1.6. Pharmacological usages
According to Do Tat Loi (2006), oriental medicine considers Codonopsis javanica (Blume) hook. f. as an
alternative ingredient for ginseng when treating anaemia, xanthochroous, lymphodermia, adrenal inflammation,
albumin-containing urine, swollen legs. It is also used as stomach tonic, cough relief, expectorant, or good for urination.
Codonopsis javanica (Brume) hook. f. is called ‚ginseng for the poor‘ as it has all usages that ginseng has, but with a
lower cost.
Patients can use 6-12 grams, even up to 30 grams, of infused Codonopsis javanica (Blume) hook. f. everyday
during 7-14 days. According to ancient records, Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. has a sweet and nice taste. It is
good for lungs and spleens. It can be used to treat ill spleens, indigestion, tiring limbs, cough and thirst. Its usages are
similar to those of ginseng. .

1.2.1.7. Studies on multiplying and planting Codonopsis javanica (Blume) hook. f.
In 2006, Do Tat Loi provided a specific guidance on how to select and grow seeds. Applying high-tech in
multiplying techniques, Doan Trong Duc (2014) proposed a process to breed Codonopsis javanica (Brume) hook. f. by
tissue culture technique with 5 specific steps: i) culture to create an initial source of materials, ii) quickly multiply
callus, iii) culture to create buds, iv) multiply buds, v) take care of plants in the arboretums.
1.2.1.8. Harvesting and processing


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According to Le Quy Nguu and Tran Thi Nhu Duc (1999), Codonopsis javanica (Blume) hook. f can be
harvested in both spring and autumn, but the latter is better. After the plants are digged, stems and branches can be
disposed on the ground, dried and rolled to make the bark stick to the wood. Wild Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
can be dried under the sun or over the fire.
To process Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. tubers: clean the tubers with water, cut the tubers‘ head, cut
them into slices or pieces, then dry them.
Process Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. rice: put rice in a pot, cook and spray some water until the rice
sticks to the pot. Add Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. pieces to the rice, stir the mixture until the Codonopsis
javanica (blume) hook. f. pieces turn yellow, take them out and let cool. Use 10 kg of rice for every 50 kg of
Codonopsis javanica (Brume) hook. f.
1.2.2. An overview about studies on Codonopsis javanica (Blume) hook. f. around the world
1.2.2.1. Phamarcological usages
Codonopsis javanica (Blume) hook. f. is naturally distributed in Asia, especially in China, Japan, Korea,
Thailand, Vietnam. It is widely used as a precious medicine for anaemia, spleen and stomach impairment, stomachache,
nephritis cough, albumin in urine, etc. Chinese traditional medicine calls it Dangshen because it has similar usages to
gingsen, first mentioned by Wu Yiluo in 1751, and then by Zhao Xuemin in 1765. Codonopsis sp. originates from Asia
and develops wildly in nature. Its roots which are harvested after 3 years of development are sweet and can be used as a
functional food for health and treatment. (cited by Do Tat Loi, p.29).
1.2.2.2. Chemical components
Study findings have shown that roots of Codonopsis javanica (brume) hook. f. mainly contain saponin triterben
and steroid. According to Slupki, Ankanna and Bhuni (2011), medicinal components in roots of Codonopsis javanica

(blume) hook. f. include: glucose, galactose, arabinose, mannose, xylose, rhamnose, syringing, n-hexyl b - Dglucopyranoside, ethyl a - d - Pructofuranoide.
1.2.2.3 Usages
Chen (2014) said that Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. has been long used in Chinese traditional medicine
since the ancient time. Previous studies have proved that the extract from Codonopsis javanica (brume) hook. f. can
reduce insulin and prevent oxidation in insulin-resistant animals caused by fructose dietary supplement for a long time.
1.2.2.4. Multiplying and planting
Sun et al. (2008) from Gansu University of Agriculture sowed the seeds of Codonopsis tangshen Oliv. In late
spring and early summer on soil mixed with compost and supplemented with gibberellin in a poly-greenhouse. With
regularly-maintained moisture, seeds start sprouting at 20 oC after 4-6 weeks.
Huang and colleagues (1999) indicated that, in cultivating conditions, there was a correlation between
productivity and average diameter of Codonopsis pilosula Franch tubers and large amounts of N fertilizer.
Productivity reached 3.750 kg/hecta, average diameter of a tuber was > 1.5 cm. The influence of three main kinds of
fertilizer on productivity and tuber diameter was K > P > N. The amount of fertilizer to yield high productivity for 1
hecta was 155 kg of N, 250 kg of P2O5 and 60 kg of K2O (ratio 1:1,6:0,4). Fertilizer had a positive impact on the
productivity of Codonopsis javanica (brume) hook. f.
1.2.2.5. Diseases
Ji - Hyun Park and colleagues (2014) found rotten roots in the storage house of Codonopsis lanceolata in a
market in Seoul, Korea in 2012. Based on biological characteristics and atom analysis of ITS rDNA and D1/D2 of LSU,
it was found out that the cause of this phenomenon was because of Rhizopus oryzae. This was the first time rotten roots
in Codonopsis lanceolata had been found to be related to Rhizopus.
1.3.Natural and socio-economic conditions of the study area
Tay Giang is a mountainous district in the north-west of Quang Nam province, 190 km away from Tam Ky city
to the north-west and 125km away from Danang city to the west. Its geographical location is from 15 045’ to 16005’
northern latitude and from 107 005’ to 107035’ eastern longitude, with total natural area of 91.368,05 hecta. The main
type of terrain is mountain and hill with a high slope, over 95 % of natural area has a over 20 0 slope. The terrain is lower
from north-west to south-east, average height compared to the sea level is 1.200 - 1.400 m, the highest place is Tr’hy at
2005 m, and the lowest place is Dang commune at 400 m. Tay Giang district is located in a tropical area with hot and
humid seasonal wind from the east of Truong Son range, lots of seasonal rain, average temperature per year is 22 0C,
average rainfall per year is 2.000 - 2.500 mm, and average humidity per year is 86%. Red yellow soil has an area of

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87.579,93 hecta, taking up around 96,99 % of the district‘s natural area. With such conditions, Tay Giang district has
many advantages to develop medicinal plants including Codonopsis javanica (brume) hook. f.
CHAPTER 2. RESEARCH SUBJECTS, CONTENT AND METHOD
2.1. Research scope and subjects
2.1.1. Research scope:
- Study time: From 6/2015 to 6/2018
- Study area: Tay Giang district, Quang Nam province
2.1.2 Research subjects
- Codonopsis javanica (Blume) Hook. f. naturally growing or planted in Tay Giang district, Quang Nam
province.
- Local people‘s indigenous knowledge about multiplying and planting Codonopsis javanica (Blume) Hook. f.
- Planting models of Codonopsis javanica (Blume) Hook. f. in the study area.
- Some site factors affecting the natural distribution of Codonopsis javanica (Blume) Hook. f. including soil,
terrain and habitats.
2.2. Research content
1. Study on biological, ecological and sivilculture characteristics of Codonopsis javanica (Blume) Hook. f. in Tay
Giang district, Quang Nam province.
2. Study on local people‘s planting practice and indigenous knowledge about Codonopsis javanica (Blume) Hook. f.
3. Study on planting techniques of Codonopsis javanica (Blume) Hook. f.
4. Suggest some solutions to manage and develop Codonopsis javanica (Blume) Hook. f. sustainably based on the
research findings
2.3. Research method
2.3.1. Reviewing documents
Previous studies on Codonopsis javanica (Blume) Hook. f. both in Vietnam and around the world, summary
reports of organizations and agencies based in Tay Giang district, Quang Nam province were all reviewed.
2.3.2. Investigating local people‘s indigenous knowledge about Codonopsis javanica (Blume) Hook. f.
Participatory Rural Appraisal method was applied, and interviews with experienced people in the hamlets and
villages: 10 village patriarches, 10 village heads, 50 female farmers were conducted. Interviews were conducted based

on a simple survey which includes some main questions designed for the purpose of research objectives and content.
2.3.3. Conducting a survey and creating a map about the natural distribution of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook.
f. based on GIS.
Based on the distribution map of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f., terrain maps, survey results, consultance
from local people and administrators, investigation routes were made.
– Investigation routes: Based on the preliminary survey results, 10 investigation routes were made, each was 3
metres large in different habitats. Natural forest, planted forest, recovered forest, grassland, kaingin. In investigation
routes, information about number of individuals, their growth, development and ecological factors was collected.
– Investigation in standard cells:
+ Creating 30 standard cells representing forest states. Because Codonopsis javanica (Brume) hook. f. is a vine
plant, the area of each standard cell was 25 m2 (5m x 5m).


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+ In each standard cell, the number of individuals, the growth of grown individuals, and the characteristics of
regeneration. The procedure of creating the distribution map of Codonopsis javanica (Brume) hook. f. was as follows:
– Creating data about space
– Creating data about characteristics
– Identifying site factors and targets affecting the distribution areas of Codonopsis javanica (Brume) hook. f.
– Creating data base for the study
– Identifying the weight of some site factors affecting the distribution areas of Codonopsis javanica (Blume) hook. f.
– Creating the distribution map of Codonopsis javanica (Blume) hook. f.
2.3.4. Studying multiplying techniques of Codonopsis javanica (Blume) hook. f.
– The experiment on the influence of seed-processing water temperature on sprouting percentages
+ The experiment was arranged based on random blocks with 3 times of repetition; each time, 100 seeds were
repeated with the following formulas: Formula 1: water temperature 25 0C Formula 2: water temperature 35 0C
Formula 3: water temperature 45 0C Formula 4: water temperature 55 0C
+ Sprouting percentages were determined based on the following formula:

E% 

n
.100
N

In which:

E% is the normal sprouting percentage
n is the number of sprouting seeds
N is the number of checked seeds
+ Mornitoring indicators: Number of sprouting seeds, sprouting percentages.
– The experiment on the influence of storage time on sprouting percentages
+ The experiment was arranged based on random blocks with 3 times of repetition; each time, 100 seeds were
repeated with the following formula: Formula 1: sowing without storage Formula 2: sowing after 1 month of storage
Formula 3: sowing after 2 month of storage Formula 4: sowing after 3 months of storage Formula 5: sowing after 4
months of storage Formula 6: sowing after 5 months of storage Formula 7: sowing after 6 months of storage
+ Mornitoring indicators: Number of sprouting seeds, sprouting percentages
– The experiment on the influence of mixed furrows on seedling percentages
+ The experiment was arranged based on random blocks with 3 times of repetition; each time, 100 seeds were
repeated with the following formulas: Formula 3.1: 1:2:1 mixture (1 alluvial soil + 2 sand + 1 compost) Formula 3.2:
2:1:1 mixture (2 alluvial soil + 1 coconut fiber + 1 compost) Formula 3.3: 2:1:1 mixture (2 alluvial soil + 1 sand + 1
compost) Formula 3.4: 2:1:1 mixture (1 sand + 1 coconut fiber + 1 compost)
+ Mornitoring indicators: Seedling percentages
– The experiment on the influence of soil on the growth and development of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook.
f. in the greenhouse.
+ The experiment was arranged based on random blocks with 3 times of repetition; each time, 30 plants were
repeated with the following formulas: Formula 4.1: 3:1:1 mixture (3 alluvial soild + 1 smoked rice husk + 1 compost)
Formula 4.2: 3:1:1 mixture (3 alluvial soild + 1 sand + 1 compost) Formula 4.3: 2:1:1:1 mixture (2alluvial soild + 1
sand + 1 smoked rice husk + 1 compost) Formula 4.4: 1:2:1:1 mixture (1 alluvial soild + 2 sand + 1 smoked rice husk +
1 compost)

+ Mornitoring indicators: Survival percentages, height, number of leaves.
– The experiment on the influence of shades on the growth and development of Codonopsis javanica (blume)
hook. f. in the greenhouse
+ The experiment was arranged based on random blocks with 3 times of repetition; each time, 30 plants with
the following formulas: Formula 5.1: 0% of shade Formula 5.2: 25% of shade Formula 5.3: 50% of shade Formula 5.4:
75% of shade
+ Mornitoring indicators: Survival percentages, height, number of leaves
2.3.5. Studying planting techniques of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
- Materials for planting were roots selected from over-three-year-old kaingins of Codonopsis javanica (blume)
hook. f., healthy plants without diseases. Tubers had a diameter of 5 - 10 mm, no physical injury, 80-100 tubers/kg.


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- Planting models of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. were arranged on red yellow humic soil on the
mountain poor in fruvth, soil thickness was > 60 cm, pH level was 5,8-6,2. Humus content in soil was 6%, the soil was
quite moist and has average mechanical components. The slope was 20 - 22 0, the drainage was good. Beside common
characteristics, each model also has some differences:
+ Model 1: Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. was planted in forests under the shades of big trees (< 0.3)
with weeds and bushes all cleaned up.
+ Model 2: Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. was planted on rotation kaingins; in the first year, corn was
intercroped with 1m x 1m density; in the second year, cassava was intercroped with 1m x 1m density.
+ Model 3: Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. was planted on rotation kaingins, no intercrops, no espaliers.
+ Model 4: Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. was planted on rotation kaingins, no intercrops, but with
espaliers.
- Data about length, number of branches, tuber diameter, flower and fruit-producing percentages were regularly
collected once a year at the end of growth stage.
- Data about survival percentages were collected at different times: 30 days, 60 days and 90 days after the day
of planting.
- Data about productivity were collected once at the end of the third year.
2.3.6. Evaluating economic efficiency of the planting models of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.

- Current value of net revenue (NPV):
Formula:
NPV = BPV - CPV

In which:
NPV: Current value of net revenue
BPV: Current value of revenues in business cycle

CPV : Current value of costs in business cycle

Bt: revenue of the t year including all profits that the investor earned (dong)
Ct: cost of the t year including all money that the investor invested (dong).
i: Bill rate (based on the interest rate of the capital loan or the return rate of the invested capital)
n: Number of years in production cycle
t: Time of production activities (years)


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Bill coefficient
- Benefit Cost Rate (BCR):
BCR is the quotient between all revenues and all costs after discounted in present value based on the following
formula of John Gunter:
BCR = BPV/CPV
In which:
BPV: Current value of revenues in business cycle
CPV: current value of costs in business cycle
This target is the real return rate. It reflects the quality of investment. It indicates how much is earned for each
invested amount of money (all revenues and costs are calculated based on the present time) The project with larger
BCR would be selected:
+ If BCR is bigger than 1, the business project is profitable.

+ If BCR is equal to 1, the business project is break-even.
+ If BCR is smaller than 1, the business project is unprofitable.
2.3.7. Data processing method
Data were processed through analyzing the variance of one factor m times in Microsoft Excel.
Comparing the number of samples: analyzing the variance of one factor 3 times to evaluate the varies between
the experiment formulas. Using t standard (Student) to select the best expriment formula.
Comparing the quality of samples: Using χ205 standard to compare and evaluate and select the best experiment
formula.
CHAPTER 3. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
3.1. Biological, ecological and forestry characteristics of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in Tay Giang
district, Quang Nam province.
3.1.1. Morphological characteristics of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. is a plant which lives for a long time, twines with its vines, has
branchlets, is as long as 1,5 - 2,5m and has tubers. There is milky resin in its stem; the top of the plants and its young
leaves ared coated with soft hair which usually disappears when the plant is grown up. The leaves are thin, oppositely
arranged, heart-shaped, 3 - 5 cm long, 2,5 - 5 cm wide. Its base is splitted into 2 deep round parts, its apex is either
sharp or round, its lower side is light color with tiny hair, clear veins, whole and a bit wavy margin, and a 3-6-cm-long
petiole. Flowers grow from the space between leaves, with 1,2 - 2cm long pedicels, there are five narrow 1-1,5 cm long
sepals on the calyx; the garland is bell-shaped with the diameter of 1-2 cm; each flower has five milky petals with
purple margins; there are five stamens, the anthers sticks to the ovary, the pistil is plate-shaped. The plant‘s fruits are
berry, nearly round with the diameter of 1-1,5 cm, their heads are a bit flat and they have a pentagon shape. When they
are ripe, they are purple or black purple. The seeds are small; each fruit has 700 - 800 seeds which are smooth, brown
yellow or purple. Flower season: July - August; fruit season: November - December. The tubers have a cylinder shape;
the lower part of each tuber is often divided into small parts; their sizes vary based on the plant‘s age and growing
location. The tubers are milky white with a wood core and milky resin; when they are dried, they are easy to be broken,
light brown yellow, fragrant and little sweet.
3.1.2. Ecological characteristics of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. is a long living plant. The shoot system is dead in winter while the root
system is still alive and grows. Every year, after the season of ripe fruits in December, the parts of the shoot system start
dying.. From March - April, new buds will grow from the tuber heads and develop quickly in dry months. In July August, the plant produces flowers and fruits, which marks the end of the growth stage.

11
The plant often grow individually or in small groups of individuals at different ages in the edge of the forests,
on the abadoned kaingins, in the bushes along the path, or in the small caves on the humic mountains. The plant
develops well on red yellow humic soil on the mountains and on yellow red feralit soil with the mechanical components
ranging from light to average. Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. is a humidity-favored plant, but it cannot stand
flooding; if it is flooded, roots and tubers will be rotten.
3.1.3. Distribution and regeneration characteristics
3.1.3.1. Occurrence frequency of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
The resluts of ten on-site investigations in 42km area of lengths showed that the number of wild Codonopsis
javanica (blume) hook. f. is still big but unequally distributed in the study routes. Route 5 had the highest frequency of
occurrence (24 plant/km) and Route 1 had the smallest (0.71 plant/km). On 42 km of the investigation routes, the
average frequency of occurence was `11,33 plants/ km. This research was conducted in the flowers and fruits seasons,
but the number of plants which produced flowers and fruits only took up 27,52 %. The interviews with local people
showed that ten years earlier, tthere had been a great number of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. growing in the
edge of the forests, on abadoned kaingins, on the rice fields, on the corn fields, on the cassava fields.
3.1.3.2. Distribution characteristics of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. based on height
The results from the investigations in 10 routes and 30 standard cells showed that Codonopsis javanica (blume)
hook. f. appeared in all routes and cells. The number of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. distributed in the high
area ( > 1000m) took up 58,96 %, and in the low area ( ≤ 1000m) was 46,64 %.
3.1.3.3. Distribution characteristics of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. based on locations
The investigation results in 10 routes and 30 standard cells showed that there was no significant difference in
the percentages of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. distributed in the foot (24,65 %), on the slope (23,27 %) and
on the top of the mountains (25,36%). In the standard cells, there was a slight difference in the percentages of
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. distributed in the foot (12,02 %), on the slope (7,70 %) and on the top of the
mountains (6,93%). However, generally in all routes and cells, there was no significant difference in the percentages of
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. distributed in the foot (36,67 %), on the slope (30,97 %) and on the top of the
mountains (31,29%).
3.1.3.4. Distribution characteristics of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. based on habitats

Based on the data collected in 10 investogation routes and 30 standard cells, the characteristics about the
distribution of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in five types of habitats including grassland, kaingins, planted
forests, recovered forests and primeval forests were synthesized. The results showed that Codonopsis javanica (blume)
hook. f. was distributed in all types of habitats. However, the number of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
distribution varied in different types of habitats. The majority of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. was distributed
on the kaingins (34,43 %) and in the recovered forests (22,95 %), the lowest percentage was in the natural forests (4,92
%). This finding was appropriate because Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. prefers light and twines with its vines,
so it can develop well in the habitats where there is plenty of light. This conclusion also matched with what had been
found by other researchers who studied about the ecological characteristics and distribution of Codonopsis javanica
(blume) hook. f.
3.1.3.5. Growth and regeneration of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
The results of the investigation in standard cells showed that the number of regenerated Codonopsis javanica
(blume) hook. f. plants is 173, equivalent to the density of 2.307 plants/hecta. Among these, mature plants took up 41,62
%, so it can be said that there were still a relatively large number of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. plants
distributed in the nature. However, the percentage of mature plants is still low (41,62 %), and the rest (58,38%) are
regenerated plants. The decrease in the number of mature plants is because local people exploit them for commercial
purposes.
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. has adapted to the local soil and climate condition, so it can grow and
develop well. There are 88,89 % of good quality mature plants at A level, plants at B and C level take up 5,56 %. The
plants with the quality at B and C level are due to being eaten by rotents or growing in humid soil.


12
3.1.3.6 The influence of site formation factors on the natural distribution of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
a) Identifying site formation factors and influential targets on the distribution areas of Codonopsis javanica (blume)
hook. f.
Based on the ecological requirement of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f., 9 targets of site formation factors
were classified including: types of soil, machenical components, soil thickness, soil stone rate, absolute height, slope,
terrain location, vegetation and 4 shade levels (highly appropriate, averagely appropriate, lowly appropriate and
inappropriate)

b) Identifying the weight of some site formation factors on the distribution of Codonopsis javanica (blume)
hook. f.
Nine site formation factors affecting the natural distribution of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in the
study area were grouped into 3 main factors to create a proper map about the distribution areas of Codonopsis javanica
(blume) hook. f., including: 1) Soil factors: types of soil, mechanical components, soil layer thickness, soil stone rate; 2)
Terrain factors: absolute height, slope and terrain location (near the water source); 3) Forest habitats: types of forest
and shade levels. The on-site investigations showed that 3 main site formation factors and 9 secondary factors had
different influences on the natural distribution of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. Therefore, it is necessary to
identify the importance of those factors. The weight of some site formation factors is presented in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7. Weight of some site formation factors affecting the distribution of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
Number

Terrain factors

1

2

3

Soil

Terrain

Forest states

Total

Main weight
(W1)

Secondary
ecological factor

Secondary
weight (W2)

Total weight
(Wj=W1*W2)

Types of soil

0,366

0,148

Mechanical
components

0,287

0,116

Soil layer
thickness

0,212

0,086

Soil stone rate

0,135

0,055

Height

0,460

0,154

Slope

0,319

0,107

Terrain location

0,221

0,074

Vegetation cover

0,600

0,156

Shade levels

0,400

0,104

-

1,000

0,404

0,335

0,260

1,000

To determine the reliability of the weight of main and secondary factors affecting suitable areas of Codonopsis
javanica (blume) hook. f., based on the method of order analysis AHP, it is necessary to calculate the paramaters of the
pair-comparison matrix. The parameter calculation showed that the consistency rate of main factors and secondary
factors of the selected factors was < 0.1, which means the weight of main factors and secondary factors was appropriate
and acceptable to be included in GIS to calculate suitable area indexes (SI) for Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f in
Tay Giang district, Quang Nam province.
c) Forest habitats
The summary of analysis and evaluation results of the two ecological factors‘ influence on the classification of
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. is presented in Table 3.9.


13

Table 3.9.The influence of forest habitats on the distribution of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
No.

Levels of appropriateness

Area (hecta)

Percentages (%)

1

Highly appropriate

3.689,60

4,04

2

Averagely appropriate

18.065,92

19,77

3

Lowly appropriate

359,83

0,39

4

Inappropriate

69.252,70

75,80

91.368,05

100,00

Total

It can be seen from the table that around 22.115,35 hecta out of the total natural area of the study area (taking
up 24,20 %) were appropriate for the distribution of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. Specifically, most of the
distribution area of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. which was evaluated to be averagely appropriate belongs to
recovered forest with the shade level from 0.1 to 0.2 and takes up 18.065,92 hecta (19,77%). Meanwhile, the area
which was highly and lowly appropriate for the distribution of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. was only 3.689,60
hecta (4,04%) and 359,83 hecta (0,39%) respectively.
d) The influence of terrain factors
The summary of analysis and evaluation results of the terrain factors‘ influence on the distribution of
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. is presented in Table 3.10.
Table 3.10. The influence of terrain on the distribution of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
No.

Levels of appropriateness

Area (hecta)

Percentages (%)

1

Highly appropriate

9.722,82

10,64

2

Averagely appropriate

18.336,71

20,07

3

Lowly appropriate

536,66

0,59

4

Inappropriate

62.771,86

68,70

91.368,05

100,00

Total

As showed in the table, the distributiona area of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in Tay Giang district is
28.596,19 hecta, taking up 31,30 % of the total natural are of the study area. Specifically, the averagely appropriate
distribution area is 18.336,71 hecta (accounting for 20,07%), the highly appropriate area is 9.722,82 hecta (accounting
for 10,64%) at the height of 1.000 - 1.400 m compared to the sea level, the lowly appropriate area is only 536,66 hecta
(accounting for 0,59 %) scattering at the height of 1.700 - 2.000 m.
e) The influence of soil factors
The summary of analysis and evaluation results of the soil factors‘ influence on the distribution of Codonopsis
javanica (blume) hook. f. is presented in Table 3.11.
Table 3.11.The influence of soil on the distribution of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
No.

Levels of appropriateness

Area (hecta)

Percentages (%)

1

Highly appropariate

21.222,09

23,23

2

Averagely appropriate

27.749,95

30,37

3

Lowly appropriate

0

0


14

4

Inappropriate

Total

42.396,01

46,40

91.368,05

100,00

From the table, it is showed that the distribution area of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. is 48.972,04
hecta, taking up 53,60 % of the total natural area of Tay Giang district. Specifically, the highly appropriate area is
21.222,09 hecta (23,23%), the averagely appropriate area is 27.749,95 hecta (30,37%), and there is no lowly appropriate
area. Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. grows and develops well on red yellow humic soil on the mountain and red
yellow feralit soil with soft and average mechanical components.
f) Creating a map about the distribution areas of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
The results of data analysis showed that the area of the study area where Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f
is distributed at different levels in Tay Giang district is 13.867,17 hecta, taking up 15,18 % of the total natural area. On
the whole area where Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. is distributed, the majority which was considered suitable
for this plant‘s distribution at averagely appropriate level occupies 12.622,74 hecta (13.82%). Meanwhile, the area
where the distribution is at highly and lowly appropriate level is only 1.176,75 hecta (1,29%), and 67,68 hecta (0.07%)
respectively. The distribution of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. mainly concentrates in such communes as Ga
Ri, Ch’ơm, A Xan and Tr’Hy.

Image 3.4. A prediction map about the distribution area of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in Tay Giang district,
Quang Nam province.
3.2. Local people‘s planting practice and indigenous knowledge about Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
3.2.1 Practice of planting Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
The investigation findings pointed out that the total planting area of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in
four mountainous communes of Tay Giang district by 2016 was 300,18 hecta, among which the majority was in Ch’ơm

commune with 169,00 hecta, taking up 56,30 % of the total present planting area. In 2011, the whole district had a
planting area of 47 hecta. This figure increased by 71.00 hecta in 2013. In 2014, the area of re-planted Codonopsis
javanica (blume) hook. f. was only 47 hecta and this number dropped to the lowest point at 4.4 hecta in 2015. The
reason explaining for this sudden decrease was due to local farmers‘ financial difficulty in 2014 and 2015. However, in
2016, with the financial support from the district‘s project of growing medicinal plants, the planting area of Codonopsis
javanica (blume) hook. f. was expanded. As a result, 118,78 hecta was re-planted in the whole district.
3.2.2. Consumption market and product value of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.


15
In recent years, products from Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. have become more popular as a medicinal
plant, so the consumption market of this plant has been expanded, and its economic values have increased. The two
main consumption markets are Quang Nam province and Da Nang city. Both raw and dried tubers of Codonopsis
javanica (blume) hook. f. are used for foods. For raw tubers, the selling price is 120.000 dong/kg, and the buying price
in Quang Nam province and in Da Nang city is 150.000 dong/kg and 180.000 dong/kg respectively.
3.2.3. Indigenous knowledge about Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
3.2.3.1. Indigenous knowledge about ecology and distribution
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. is a long-living plant, while the part of the plant above on the ground is
dead in every winter and the other part under the ground (roots, tubers) is still alive and grows. Every year, after the
fruits are ripe from December to next February, the shoot system is becoming yellow and dead. From March to April,
the new buds rise from the roots and grow, develop in dry season months. From June to October, the plant produces
flowers and fruits. The fruits are ripe from September to December.
3.2.3.2. Indigenous knowledge about exploitation and usage
The most suitable time to exploit Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. is in July and August because it is
when the weather is convenient, and the plant is fruitful.
Most of the village heads said that Co Tu people know how to use Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. as a
precious medicinal plant which can be used in different ways such as for cooked in soup, stewed with meat or soaked in
wine.
3.2.3.3. Indigenous knowledge about planting and caring techniques
A) Indigenous knowledge about breeds

The research findings showed that there are two varieties of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in Tay Giang
district: wild Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. and planted Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. In general, these
two varieties share some distinctive characteristics of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in Vietnam, but they still
have some differences in the shape and smell of leaves, resin, shape of tubers, characteristics of roots and tubers,
growth, and development.
b) Knowledge about multiplication
When weeding, cover the old stems with soil for about 1 - 3 cm. In rainy weather and with highly moist soil,
new roots will grow under the axils and develop quickly and become tubers after 1-3 months. The leaves of Codonopsis
javanica (blume) hook. f. grow oppositely, so a piece of stem with two axils will develop into 1-2 tubers.
c) Knowledge about planting and caring techniques
- Knowledge about planting season
The suitable time to plant Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. is after the rain when the soil is moist and the
weather is cool. Farmers often plant it on 24th, 25th, 26th of Lunar March or April.
- Knowledge about soil cultivation
According to local farmers, soil for planting Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. should be on the mountain
fields, with good drainage, noncohesive and rich in humus. 100 % of Co Tu people say that newly-exploited and grey
brown hill soil is very suitable for growing this plant. The soil needs to be weeded; cut grass and bushes should be let
dry, then burnt.
- Knowledge about planting techniques
The planting techniques that the local people use are mainly experience-based; specifically, due to the
high slope, they plant Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in groups, instead in rows or furrows. Each hole
should be 40 - 60 cm apart from the others and 3 - 5 cm deep.
Intercrop technique is effectively applied, the crops which were intercropped in Codonopsis javanica (blume)
hook. f. fields included corn, rice and cassava.


16
- Knowledge about caring techniques
Every year, weeding and cultivating should be done twice: 1-2 months after planting, and 3-4 months after
planting. After 7 months of planting onwards, weeding should not be done despite lots of weed because this is the time

when roots and tubers grow and develop well.
- Knowledge about harvesting techniques
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. can be harvested after 2-3 years depending on types of soil. The most
suitable time is when all leaves are gone, usually in January or February. Main harvesting tools are handcrafted; if the
soil is noncohesive enough, the plants can be pulled by hands; if the soil is hard, hoes needs to be used for digging the
plants.
3.3. Multiplying techniques of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
3.3.1. Selecting mother plants for stems and seeds
Selected Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. plants for stems and seeds should be at least 2 years old. Theses
plants should have common features of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in Vietnam, grow healthily without any
diseases or disabilities. They should be at least 1.5 m tall and have at least 4 branches.
For seeds: the weight of dry fruits ranges from 3.34 to 5.89 grams/fruit, the average weight of each fruit is 4.31
grams. The number of the seeds in each fruit ranges from 502 to 1.1.04 seeds/fruit, the average number is 753,83. The
size of the seeds is very small 0.1 - 0.3 mm. The weight of 1000 seeds is 0.16 gram. độ thuần is 96 %. Các mẫu hạt
dùng để nghiên cứu được sàng lọc, loại bỏ tạp chất, hạt bị lép, chỉ chọn những hạt chắc, nhẵn bóng.
3.3.2. Multiplying techniques
3.3.2.1. The influence of storge time on the sprouting percentages of seeds
The experiments showed that there was a significant difference between the sprouting percentages in the
experiments, from 62,00 - 72,00 %. Specifically, the sprouting percentage is the highest in 35 0C water (72,00 %) and
the lowest in 55 0C water (62,00 %).
3.3.2.2. The influence of water temperature on the sprouting percentages of seeds
It can be concluded that The water temperature has different influences on the sprouting percentages of seeds;
specifically, 25 -35 0C water can produce the highest sprouting percentage.
3.3.2.3. The influence of storage time on the sprouting percentages of seeds
The experiment results show that the sprouting percentage is the highest when the seeds were not stored (72,00
%), 70,00 % when the seeds were stored for 1 month, and 71,33% when the seeds were stored for 2 months. From the
3rd month of storage onwards, the sprouting percentage decreased to 62,67%, and sharply fell in the following months.
In the 6th month of storage, the sprouting percentage reached the bottom at 24,33%. Therefore, it can be concluded that
the best time of storing seeds is 3 months after harvest.
3.3.2.4. The influence of mixed furrows on the results of seedling growth

The experiments show that the percentages of seedling growth in mixed furrows are different. The formula 3.3.
produced the highest percentage of seedling growth (62.67%) while the forumla 3.4. produced the lowest percentage of
seedling growth (6.67%). It is also showed that the furrow with 2 alluvial soil + 1 sand + 1 compost could produce the
best percentage of seedling growth.
3.3.2.5. The influence of soil mixture on the growth and development of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in the
greenhouse.
a) The influence of soil mixtures on the survival percentages of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
The experiment results showed that the survival percentages of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
were different in different soil mixtures. The soil mixture which produced the highest survival percentage was
formula 4.1 (97,78%) and the lowest was formula 4.4. (91,11%). The soil mixtures like 3 alluvial soil + 1 smoked
rice husk + 1 compost and 3 alluvial soil + 1 sand + 1 compost could produce high survival percentages.


17
b) The influence of soil mixture on the average height of seedlings
After 45 days of sowing, the height growth of seedlings in different soil mixtures was different, ranging from
16,09 to 18,97 cm. It can be said that to help Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. reach the best height in the
greenhouse, the suggested soil mixture was 3 alluvial + 1 sand + 1 compost.
c) The influence of soil mixtures on the number of leaves of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in the greenhouse
The experiments show that the number of leaves of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. was different in
different soil mixtures. The soil mixture with formula 4.2. produced the biggest number of leaves (8.97 leaves) and the
soil mixture with formula 4.4. produced the smallest number of leaves (7.28 leaves). It is showed that the soil mixture
with 3 alluvial soil + 1 sand + 1 compost produced the best number of leaves.
3.3.2.6. The influence of shade levels on the growth and development of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in the
greenhouse.
a) The influence of shade levels on the survival percentages of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
It is showed from the experiments that 97.78% of the plants survived if the shade level was 50 % and 98,89 %
of the plants survived if the shade level was 75%. However, in terms of ecomony, the shade level of 50% is the most
suitable.
b) The influence of shade levels on the height growth of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.

It was showed from the experiments that with the shade level of 50%, the average height was 16.11 cm and
with the shade level of 75%, the average height was 17.43 cm. However, in terms of economy, the shade level of 50%
was the most suitable.
c) The influence of shade levels on the number of leaves of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
It was show from the experiments that with the shade level of 50%, the average number of leaves was 7.8
leaves and with the shade level of 75%, the average number of leaves was 9.49 leaves. However, in terms of economy,
the shade level of 50% was the most suitable.
3.3.2.7. The influence of IBA (3-indolebutitie axit) content on the survival percentages of Codonopsis javanica (blume)
hook. f. stems
The experiment results showed that Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. stems processed in different IBA
content had different survival percentages. The processing formulas of IBA produced higher survival percentages, the
highest survival percentage is 66.67% in the processing formula with IBA content of 1000 ppm. If the IBA content
increased to 1500 ppm, the survival percentage descreased to 36,46 %. The analysis results showed that The stems
processed in IBA content of 1000 ppm had the highest survival percentage.
3.3.2.8. Multiplying techniques with seeds
Based on the multiplication experiments, interviews and discussions with local people, as well as reference to
scientists about multiplying techniques with seeds, a three-step guideline was suggested: i) preparing, ii) sowing seeds,
iii) growing and caring seedlings
3.3.3. Planting and caring techniques of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
3.3.3.1. Growth and development of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in different models
a) The influence of planting methods on the survival percentages
The experiment results showed that 30 days after planted, the survival percentages of Codonopsis javanica
(blume) hook. f. in different methods ranged from 89,59 % to 96,88 %; specifically, the highest percentage is 96,88 %
in the single-cropping planting method with espaliers. 60 days after planted, the survival percentages decreased;
especially, the method of planting Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. under the forest shades (84,38%) had the
biggest fall in comparison with the other methods. 90 days after planted, the survival percentages continued to decrease
slightly. Among the planting methods, the method with espaliers had the highest survival percentage (95,83 %), the
second highest was the one without espaliers (90,63 %), and the lowest was the one under the forest shades (82,29 %).
b) Growth and development targets of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.

18
* Height growth
The experiment results showed that the height of the Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. plants at the end of
growth stage in the first year was 165,09 - 193,03 cm. Accordingly, the plants in model 4 were the tallest, 193,03 cm.
The height of the Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. plants at the end of growth stage in the second year was 188,97
– 254,84 cm. Accordingly, the plants in model 4 were the tallest, 254,84 cm. The height of the Codonopsis javanica
(blume) hook. f. plants at the end of growth stage in the third year was 191,09 - 336,56 cm. Accordingly, the plants in
model 4 were the tallest, 336,56 cm.
The analysis results showed that Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. planted with espaliers had the biggest
height, specifically 193,03 ± 7,06 cm in the first year, 254,84 ± 10,16 cm in the second year, and 336,56 ± 10,37 cm in
the third year.
* Branch growth
The experiment results showed that At the end of the first growth year, the number of branches of Codonopsis
javanica (blume) hook. f. plants in different models was 3,55 - 5,06 branches/plant. Specifically, the plants in model 4
had the biggest number of branches. At the end of the second growth year, the plants in model 4 had a smaller number
of branches compared to those in other models (4,49 ± 0,26 branches/plant). At the end of the third growth year, the
plants in model 3 had the biggest number of branches compared to those in other models (6,16 ± 0,32 branches/plant).
The analysis results showed that Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. planted on kaingins without espaliers
had the biggest number of branches (6,16 branches/plant).
* Tuber diameter growth
The experiment results showed that At the end of the first growth year, the diameter of Codonopsis javanica
(blume) hook. f. tubers ranged from 1,29 - 1,58 cm, the biggest one was in the plants grown with espaliers (1,58 cm). At
the end of the second growth year, the diameter of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. tubers increased and vaired in
all models; accordingly, the tubers of the plants grown with espaliers had the biggest diameter (1,95 cm). At the end of
the third growth year, the diameter of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. tubers also increased and vaired in all
models. Accordingly, the tubers of the plants in model 4 had the biggest diameter (2,27 cm).
The analysis results indicated that The tubers of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. grown in different
methods had different diameter sizes. Specifically, the tubers of the plants grown with espaliers had the biggest diameter
compared to those in other methods.

* Number of plants which produced flowers and fruits
In the first growth year, the plants in all models produced flowers and fruits, but with a small percentage.
Model 1 had 53,13 % of the plants producing flowers, but only 25,00 % of them produced fruits. Model 2 had 46,88 %
% of the plants producing flowers, but only 25,00 % of them produced fruits. Model 3 had 46,88 % of the plants
producing flowers, but only 28,13 % of them produced fruits. Noticeably, Model 4 had 59,38 % of the plants producing
flowers, and 46,88 % of them produced fruits, which was higher than three other models.
In the second growth year, the percentages of plants producing flowers and fruits increased. Model 1 had 75,00
% of the plants producing flowers, and 50,00 % of them produced fruits. Model 2 had 71,88 % of the plants producing
flowers, and 50,00 % of them produced fruits. Model 3 had 78,13 % of the plants producing flowers, and 62,50 % of
them produced fruits. Model 1 had the highest percentage with 53,13 % of the plants producing flowers, and 68,75 % of
them produced fruits.
In the third growth year, there were a significant difference in the percentages of plants producing flowers and
fruits in all models. Most noticebly was model 1 (with 75,00 % of the plants producing flowers and 50,00 % of them
producing fruits) and model 4 (with 100 % of the plants producing flowers and 87,50 % of them producing fruits). The
analysis results indicated that To increase the ability to produce flowers and fruits, it is recommended to create espaliers
for Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. plants.
3.3.3.2. The product structures and productivity of planting models
a) Product structures based on the diameter of tubers


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Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. which was harvested after 3 years was classified based on the diameter
of tubers as follows: Level I inlcudes the tubers with the diameter ≤ 5 mm, Level II includes the tubers with the
diameter 5,1 - 10 mm, Level III includes the tubers with the diameter 10,1 - 15 mm, Level IV includes the tubers with
the diameter 15,1 - 20 mm, Level V includes the tubers with the diameter 20,1 - 25 mm, Level VI includes the tubers
with the diameter 25,1 - 30 mm, and Level VII includes the tubers with the diameter > 30 mm. Among these, Level I
and II tubers were 1 year old, Level II tubers were 2 years old, and Level IV, V, VI, VII tubers were 3 years old.
The number of tubers ranged from 88 - 172; specifically, model 3 had the biggest number of tubers (172) and
model 4 had the smallest number of tubers (88). The weight of tubers also varied; specifically, the weight was the
heaviest in model 3 (4.373,80 grams), next in model 4 (3.695,20 grams), then in model 2 (3.371,30 grams), and the

lighest in model 1 (2.815,60 grams).
The average weight of tubers significantly varied between models, and was the highest in model 4 (41,99
grams/tuber). In three other models, the average weight of tubers ranged from 18,17 to 25,43 grams.
The analysis results indicated that the average weight of raw tubers at Level I, II, III in different models was
relatively similar. Meanwhile, the average weight of raw tubers at Level IV, V, VI, VII was clearly divided into two
groups: the average weight of model 3 and 4 was much higher than that of model 1 and 2.
b) The distribution of total weight of raw tubers based on the diameter and age
Based on the diameter: Different planting models had different distributions of total weight based on the
diameter of tubers. Model 1 had the smallest total weight (2.815,60 grams), mainly in Level III, IV and II tubers. Model
2 had the total weight of 3.435,30 grams and mainly in Level III, IV and II tubers. Model 3 had the biggest total weight
of 4.261,80 grams, mainly in Level IV, III and V tubers. Model 4 had the second biggest total weight and mainly in
Level V, IV and VI tubers. Especially, model 4 had the bigger total weight in large diameter levels compared to that in
small ones.
Based on the age: one-year-old tubers was from newly-grown plants in the second year. Model 3 had the
biggest total weight of one-year-old tubers (665,80 grams) and model 4 had the smallest total weight of one-year-old
tubers (162,30 grams).
Two-year-old tubers were from the plants grown in the first year. Model 2 had the biggest total weight of twoyear-old tubers (1.111,70 grams), then model 3 (871,00 grams), and model 1 (725,20 grams) whereas model 4 had the
smallest total weight of two-year-old tubers (285,90 grams).
Three-year-old tubers were from the plants at the beginning. Among the models, model 4 had the biggest total
weight of three-year-old tubers (3.247,00 grams) and model 1 had the smallest (1.441,00 grams).
c) Productivity of raw Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. tubers
The experiment results showed that the productivity of raw Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. tubers ranged
from 2.815,60 g/12 m2 to 4.261,80 g/12 m2, equally 2.346,33 kg/hecta to 3.551,50 kg/hecta. Specificallly, model 3 had
the highest productivity of raw tubers (3.551,50 kg/hecta). The analysis results indicated that model 3 had the best
productivity.
3.3.3.3. The evaluation of economic effectiveness of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. planting models
The calculation results showed that the total investment in 1 hecta of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
before harvest ranged from 117.440.000 dong to 225.440.000 dong. Specifically, the investment was mainly for buying
breeds, paying for weeding, planting and caring the plants. All planting models had NPV value > 1 and BCR value > 1,
which means these models had high economic effectiveness. NPV value varied among the models; specifically, model 2

had the highest economic effectiveness (212.815.600 dong), then model 4 (155.437.600 dong), model 3 (83.215.600
dong) and the lowest was model 1 (57.497.200 dong).
3.3.3.4. Planting and caring techniques of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
Based on the results from the planting models, interviews and discussions with local people, as well as
reference to scientists about the planting techniques of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f., a three-step guideline was
suggested: i) prepraring before planting, ii) planting and caring, iii) harvesting, processing and storing.


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3.4. Suggestions about solutions to manage and develop Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. sustainably based
on the research findings
In order to suggest solutions to expand the planting models of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in Tay
Giang district, Quang Nam province, strenths and weaknesses, challenges and opportunities of different Codonopsis
javanica (blume) hook. f. planting models were analyzed.
The potentials of developing Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. planting models were identified based on
the following factors: Ecological conditions, creature resources, soil resources, infrastructures, human resources, policymechanism.
The research findings related to biological and ecological characteristics, and the experiments of creating
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. planting models, six groups of solutions to manage and develop Codonopsis
javanica (blume) hook. f. sustainably in Tay Giang district, Quang Nam province including: 1) on-site conservation
solutions, 2) Organization solutions, 3) Technique solutions, 4) Capital solutions, 5) Social solutions, 6) Market
solutions.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
1. Conclusion
There are two types of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in Tay Giang district, Quang Nam province: wild
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. and planted Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. In terms of formation, these
two types have their own distinctive characteristics even though they still share some common typical features of
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in Vietnam.
This plant likes humidity and light, and cannot suffer from flooding. In nature, it grows individually or in small
groups including individuals at different ages in the forest edges, on abandoned kaingins, in the bushes along the paths,
or in small humic caves in the mountains. It develops well on red yellow humic soil and red yellow feralit soil with light

mechanical components. It grows and develops well at the height of 800 - 1.400 m compared to the sea level.
The occurrence frequency of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in nature is 11,33 plants/km. It well adapts
to the local natural conditions. The density of regenerated plants is 1.347 plants/hecta (58,38 %). Regenerating from
seeds and roots is two types of natural regeneration of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.
The appropriate area for Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. distribution is 13.867,17 hecta, taking up 15,18
% of the total natural area of Tay Giang district, Quang Nam province. Most of the area was considered averagely
appropriate (12.622,74 hecta) whereas the highly appropriate area was 1.176,75 hecta and the lowly appropriate area
was 67,68 hecta. The appropriate location for Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. distribution was mainly in four
communes including Gari, Ch’ơm, Axan and Tr’hy, and in some places in Lang commune and Dang commune.
The total planting area of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in Tay Giang district so far is 300,18 hecta.
However, the practice of planting Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. has been not sustainable, much dependent on
the state budget and seriously affected by climate change.
Co Tu community has described characteristics about the formation, habitats, distribution, growth,
development of both wild and planted Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. The experience about multiplying,
planting, caring, exploiting and processing was suitable for the available conditions, and met the needs to enhance
health of local people.
The maximum storage time of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. seeds was 3 months since harvested. The
temperature of water used to process seeds had different influences on the sprouting percentages, specifically 25 - 35 0C
water could produce the high sprouting percentages (69,33 - 72,00 %). The soil mixture with 2 alluvial soil + 1 sand + 1
compost produced the highest sprouting percentage (62,67 %). The soil mixture with 3 alluvial soil + 1 sand + 1
compost produced the survival percentage of 96,67 %, the height of 18,97 cm, and the average number of leaves of 8,97
leaves/plant. The shade levels of 50% and 75% were both good for the growth of the average number of
leaves.However, in terms of economic benefits and seedlings‘ adaptation to the natural condition, the shade level of
50% was highly recommended.


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Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. stems processed in IBA content of 1000 ppm produced the
survival percentage of 66,67 %.
The survival percentages of seedlings after 90 days were high ranging from 82,29 - 95,83 %; specifically, the

highest percentage was in the planting method with espaliers (95,83 %).
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. stems grew very fast, and the growth speed varied in the models every
year. Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. which was grown with espaliers had the highest stem compared to that in
other models (1st year: 1: 193,03 cm, 2nd year: 2: 254,84 cm, 3rd year: 3: 336,56 cm).
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. which was grown on kaingins without espaliers had the biggest number
of branches (3rd year: 6,16 branches/plant) compared to that in other models.
The ability to produce flowers and fruits of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. varied in different planting
methods. Accordingly, planting Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. with espaliers could produce the most flowers and
fruits (1st year: 59,38 % of the plants producing flowers and 46,88 % of them producing fruits; 2nd year: 84,38 % of the
plants producing flowers and 68,75 % of them producing fruits; 3rd year: 100% of the planting producing flowers and
87,50 % of them producing fruits) compared to the other models without espaliers.
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. tubers were classified into 7 levels based on the diameter; the number of
tubers ranged from 88 - 172 tubers/12 m2; specifically, model 3 had the biggest number of tubers (172) and model 4
had the smallest (88).
The harvest productivity also varied in different planting methods, ranging from 2.346,33 kg/hecta to 3.551,50
kg/hecta. Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. grown on the kaingins with espaliers had the best productivity (3.551,50
kg/hecta).
All the planting models had high economic efficiency. The NPV value was the highest in the intercropping
method (212.815.600 dong), the second in the single-cropping method with espaliers (155.437.600 dong), the third in
the single-cropping method on the kaingins (83.215.600 dong) and the lowest in the planting method under the forest
shades (57.497.200 dong).
Based on the research findings, six groups of solutions were suggested to manage and develop Codonopsis
javanica (blume) hook. f. in Tay Giang district, Quang Nam province. These solutions were comprehensive and suitable
for the natural conditions and the local people‘s indigenous knowledge, and adaptable to climate change.
2. Limitations
This research has not been able to take the influences of all site formation factors on the growth and
developments of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f.into consideration. The relationships between the planting
density and productivity, pest and disease situation and prevention solutions were not indicated. The roles and impacts
of policies on the farmers were not analyzed.
3. Recommendations

Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. is a precious medicinal plant which has high economic values, so it is
recommended that the growth and production of this plant should be expanded to the adaptable areas which have
similar ecological conditions.
Further studies could focus on the factors affecting the growth, development and productivity of Codonopsis
javanica (blume) hook. f. so that the procedure of multiplying, growing and caring this plant based on appropriate
ecological areas and local people‘s indigenous knowledge could be completed.
The development of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. planting models should go hand in hand with the
region planning to minimize the local people‘s unplanned production and deforestration.
The processing systems and consumption markets shoud be expanded to guarantee the benefits for both
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. farmers and exploiters.
The investment should be appealed from forestry-developing programs and projects, or Codonopsis javanica
(blume) hook. f. planting models should be integrated into countryside and mountainous areas-developing projects.


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LIST OF PUBLISHED STUDIES

1.

Tran Cong Dinh, Huynh Kim Tan, Nguyen Van Loi and Tran Minh Duc (2017). The characteristics of habitats
and distributions of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in Tay Giang district, Quang Nam province. Science
Journals of Hue University of Science, 126 (3D).

2.

Tran Minh Duc, Tran Cong Dinh & Pham Minh Toai (2016). The influence of the sea-level height on the
survival percentages and growth of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. planted in Tay Giang district, Quang
Nam province. Journals of Agriculture and Countryside Development, 22, 124-129.

3.

Tran Cong Dinh, Truong Trinh Nguyen, Nguyen Van Loi & Tran Minh Duc (2017). Cowtu people
community‘s indigenouse knowledge about Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in Tay Giang district, Quang
Nam province. Journals of Agriculture Science and Technology - University of Agriculture and Forestry, Hue
University, 2(1), 257-264.

4.

Tran Cong Dinh, Nguyen Van Loi & Tran Minh Duc (2018). A study on situations and solutions to conserve
Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in Tay Giang district, Quang Nam province. Journals of Forest and
Environment, 87, 17-23.

5.

Tran Cong Dinh, Nguyen Van Loi & Tran Minh Duc (2018). Creating a GIS-based map about the distribution
of Codonopsis javanica (blume) hook. f. in Tay Giang district, Quang Nam province. Journals of Agriculture
and Countryside Development, 336, 130-136.


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