Qualitative techniques for workplace data analysis

Qualitative Techniques for
Workplace Data Analysis
Manish Gupta
IFHE University, India
Musarrat Shaheen
IFHE University, India
K. Prathap Reddy
IFHE University, India

A volume in the Advances in
Business Information Systems and
Analytics (ABISA) Book Series


Published in the United States of America by
IGI Global
Business Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global)
701 E. Chocolate Avenue
Hershey PA, USA 17033
Tel: 717-533-8845
Fax: 717-533-8661
E-mail:
Web site:
Copyright © 2019 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, without written permission from the publisher.
Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the
names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the
trademark or registered trademark.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Gupta, Manish (Computer scientist) editor. | Shaheen, Musarrat, 1979editor. | Prathap Reddy, K., editor.
Title: Qualitative techniques for workplace data analysis / Manish Gupta,
Musarrat Shaheen, and K. Prathap Reddy, editors.
Description: Hershey : Business Science Reference, [2018]
Identifiers: LCCN 2017040767| ISBN 9781522553663 (hardcover) | ISBN
9781522553670 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Qualitative research. | Research, Industrial.
Classification: LCC H62 .Q358 2018 | DDC 001.4/2--dc23 LC record available at .
gov/2017040767

This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Business Information Systems
and Analytics (ABISA) (ISSN: 2327-3275; eISSN: 2327-3283)
British Cataloguing in Publication Data
A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.
All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material.
The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
For electronic access to this publication, please contact:


Advances in Business
Information Systems and
Analytics (ABISA) Book
Series
ISSN:2327-3275
EISSN:2327-3283
Editor-in-Chief: Madjid Tavana, La Salle University, USA
Mission

The successful development and management of information systems and business
analytics is crucial to the success of an organization. New technological developments
and methods for data analysis have allowed organizations to not only improve their
processes and allow for greater productivity, but have also provided businesses with
a venue through which to cut costs, plan for the future, and maintain competitive
advantage in the information age.
The Advances in Business Information Systems and Analytics (ABISA) Book
Series aims to present diverse and timely research in the development, deployment,
and management of business information systems and business analytics for continued
organizational development and improved business value.
Coverage
• Business Information Security
• Business Intelligence
• Decision Support Systems
• Data Analytics
• Business Models
• Information Logistics
• Data Management
• Business Decision Making
• Big Data
• Management Information Systems

IGI Global is currently accepting
manuscripts for publication within this
series. To submit a proposal for a volume in
this series, please contact our Acquisition
Editors at or
visit: />
The Advances in Business Information Systems and Analytics (ABISA) Book Series (ISSN 2327-3275) is published
by IGI Global, 701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033-1240, USA, www.igi-global.com. This series is composed

of titles available for purchase individually; each title is edited to be contextually exclusive from any other title within the
series. For pricing and ordering information please visit Postmaster: Send all address changes to above address. ©© 2019 IGI Global. All rights,
including translation in other languages reserved by the publisher. No part of this series may be reproduced or used in any
form or by any means – graphics, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information and
retrieval systems – without written permission from the publisher, except for non commercial, educational use, including
classroom teaching purposes. The views expressed in this series are those of the authors, but not necessarily of IGI Global.


Titles in this Series

For a list of additional titles in this series, please visit:
/>
Corporate Social Responsibility for Valorization of Cultural Organizations
María del Pilar Muñoz Dueñas (University of Vigo, Spain) Lucia Aiello (Sapienza University
of Rome, Italy) Rosario Cabrita (University Nova de Lisboa, Portugal) and Mauro Gatti
(Sapienza University of Rom, Italy)
Business Science Reference • ©2018 • 328pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522535515) • US $215.00
Contemporary Identity and Access Management Architectures Emerging Research and ...
Alex Chi Keung Ng (Federation University, Australia)
Business Science Reference • ©2018 • 241pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522548287) • US $175.00
Research, Practices, and Innovations in Global Risk and Contingency Management
Kenneth David Strang (State University of New York, USA & APPC Research, Australia)
Maximiliano E. Korstanje (University of Palermo, Argentina) and Narasimha Vajjhala
(American University of Nigeria, Nigeria)
Business Science Reference • ©2018 • 418pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522547549) • US $245.00
Modeling and Simulation Techniques for Improved Business Processes
Maryam Ebrahimi (Azad University, Iran)
Business Science Reference • ©2018 • 246pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522532262) • US $185.00
Value Sharing for Sustainable and Inclusive Development
Mario Risso (Niccolò Cusano University, Italy) and Silvia Testarmata (Niccolò Cusano

University, Italy)
Business Science Reference • ©2018 • 398pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522531470) • US $245.00
Supporting Innovation Through National R&D Programs Emerging Research and ...
Amiram Porath (Independent Researcher, Israel)
Business Science Reference • ©2018 • 158pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522536529) • US $145.00

For an entire list of titles in this series, please visit:
/>
701 East Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
Tel: 717-533-8845 x100 • Fax: 717-533-8661
E-Mail: • www.igi-global.com


Table of Contents

Preface.................................................................................................................. xii
Section 1
Foundation of Qualitative Studies
Chapter 1
Becoming Familiar With Qualitative Research......................................................1
Sheema Tarab, Aligarh Muslim University, India
Chapter 2
Sampling in Qualitative Research.........................................................................25
Musarrat Shaheen, IFHE University, India
Sudeepta Pradhan, IFHE University, India
Ranajee, IFHE University, India
Section 2
Data Collection Techniques
Chapter 3
Storytelling............................................................................................................53

Sindhu Ravindranath, IFHE University, India
Thomas J. Menachery, IFHE University, India
Chapter 4
Behavioral Event Interview...................................................................................73
Sindhu Ravindranath, IFHE University, India
Chapter 5
Personal Diary Method: A Way of Collecting Qualitative Data...........................96
Farrah Zeba, IFHE Hyderabad, India
Pankaj Kumar Mohanty, IFHE Hyderabad, India




Chapter 6
Vignette Methodology: An Illustration From Conflict Research........................117
Swati Alok, BITS Pilani – Hyderabad, India
Section 3
Data Analysis Techniques
Chapter 7
Deductive Approach to Content Analysis...........................................................145
Jatin Pandey, Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode, India
Chapter 8
Case Study as a Method of Qualitative Research...............................................170
Naila Iqbal Khan, MANIT, India
Chapter 9
Thematic Analysis in Qualitative Research........................................................197
Anindita Majumdar, University of Calcutta, India
Chapter 10
Action Research..................................................................................................221
Anitha Acharya, IFHE University, India

Pankaj Kumar Mohanty, IFHE University, India
Chapter 11
Ethnographic Study.............................................................................................246
Anitha Acharya, IFHE University, India
Compilation of References............................................................................... 272
About the Contributors.................................................................................... 310
Index................................................................................................................... 315


Detailed Table of Contents

Preface.................................................................................................................. xii
Section 1
Foundation of Qualitative Studies
Chapter 1
Becoming Familiar With Qualitative Research......................................................1
Sheema Tarab, Aligarh Muslim University, India
Qualitative research is a field of study that deals with exploring, describing, and
interpreting the innate quality of entities and the social processes. In the recent past,
an extensive growth in qualitative field of research has been witnessed, particularly
in the occupational settings. It is a dynamic and exhilarating area that seeks to
explain the research observations by means of insights which are hard to produce
with quantitative methods. Most of the work is concerned with developing a theory
(i.e., an inductive way to find out new solutions or identify new questions related to
social being). In this chapter, the author has targeted the segment which is mostly the
students pursuing research courses or conducting empirical work; the faculties and
the mangers who are handling the diversity of the social beings at their workplaces,
whose varied needs are persistently evolving, would be able to understand the notion
of technique which is qualitative in nature. Certain studies conducted in past and
present have also been illustrated to maintain the reader’s interest.

Chapter 2
Sampling in Qualitative Research.........................................................................25
Musarrat Shaheen, IFHE University, India
Sudeepta Pradhan, IFHE University, India
Ranajee, IFHE University, India
The chapter discusses different types of sampling methods used in qualitative research
to select information-rich cases. Two types of sampling techniques are discussed in
the past qualitative studies—the theoretical and the purposeful sampling techniques.




The chapter illustrates these two types of sampling techniques relevant examples.
The sample size estimation and the point of data saturation and data sufficiency are
also discussed in the chapter. The chapter will help the scholars and researchers in
selecting the right technique for their qualitative study.
Section 2
Data Collection Techniques
Chapter 3
Storytelling............................................................................................................53
Sindhu Ravindranath, IFHE University, India
Thomas J. Menachery, IFHE University, India
The art of storytelling is an ancient method of conveying information to the masses
with certain intent in mind (i.e., as in setting morals or cultural development). It starts
from childhood, where children grow up with stories of great heroes and mystical
happenings in an age where Gods and humans dwell together. As time went by
the stories lost their sheen but they are making a comeback of a different kind – as
a learning tool for individuals, whether employees or students. These stories are
adapting to the modern world lifestyle, medium is now digital though. Therefore,
this chapter explores this journey of stories and gives instances to showcase the

effectiveness of storytelling as a tool for training employees.
Chapter 4
Behavioral Event Interview...................................................................................73
Sindhu Ravindranath, IFHE University, India
The behavioral interview is used to bring forth the understanding of the competencies
of a person. The interviews and aptitude tests we conduct will tell us about the
educational and expertise factors of the interviewee’s life. To understand specific
components of his/her talents there is a requirement for a much more guiding
narrative technique which will help the interviewee recount the specific acts he/she
has done with respect to the competency the interviewer is looking for. There are
certain preparations required for this as well. This chapter outlines the procedure for
conducting the BEI with the competency clusters given. It also attempts to explain
competencies and the process of how it can be used.
Chapter 5
Personal Diary Method: A Way of Collecting Qualitative Data...........................96
Farrah Zeba, IFHE Hyderabad, India
Pankaj Kumar Mohanty, IFHE Hyderabad, India
There is a growing interest towards using diaries as a tool of data collection for
gathering information pertaining to consumer research. However, the bigger challenge




is the qualitative analysis of the data collected through this technique. Hence, the
objective of the chapter is to illustrate how diary method of data collection can be a
better option than other data collection tools in cases where the informants are likely
to experience difficulties in recalling past consumption experience. To delineate the
steps and different types of codes used in inductive content analysis to analyze the
qualitative data collected through the personal diary method, the chapter will also
present an exploratory study with airline consumers using self-completion diaries

about their online ticket purchasing experience followed by qualitative analyses of
this information collected through diary using inductive content analysis. Each step
of the content analysis will be illustrated in the full chapter.
Chapter 6
Vignette Methodology: An Illustration From Conflict Research........................117
Swati Alok, BITS Pilani – Hyderabad, India
This chapter initially introduces vignette methodology and explains the use of it in
social research. It clarifies the various methodological challenges while designing the
vignette. Drawing on the experience, while designing vignette for conflict research,
this chapter provides a detailed presentation of the procedural and pragmatic issues
that need to be considered when using vignette. Categorizing the design of vignette
in three stages—predesign, design, and post-design—provides complete clarity in
understanding this process. This chapter can help budding researchers get a perfect
insight into the entire process of vignette development.
Section 3
Data Analysis Techniques
Chapter 7
Deductive Approach to Content Analysis...........................................................145
Jatin Pandey, Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode, India
This chapter initially introduces content analysis and elicits different approaches to
content analysis. These include the distinctions based on qualitative and quantitative
content analysis. It clarifies the differences between inductive and deductive content
analysis. It then moves on to deductive content analysis. Through an example, this
chapter explains how deductive content analysis is used to elicit different factors
that affect job performance of call center workers. The steps of coding, grouping,
abstraction, and model development are explained with excerpts from two interview
transcripts. The interview transcripts that deal with developing a model for the factors
that affect job performance of call center employees in India.



Chapter 8
Case Study as a Method of Qualitative Research...............................................170
Naila Iqbal Khan, MANIT, India
Qualitative case study methodology provides tools for researchers to study complex
phenomena within their contexts. When the approach is applied correctly, it becomes
a valuable method for health science research to develop theory, evaluate programs,
and develop interventions. The purpose of this chapter is to guide the novice researcher
in identifying the key elements for designing and implementing qualitative case
study research projects. An overview of the types of case study designs is provided
along with general recommendations for writing the research questions, developing
propositions, determining the “case” under study, binding the case, and a discussion
of data sources and triangulation. To facilitate application of these principles, clear
examples of research questions, study propositions, and the different types of case
study designs are provided. The great contribution of qualitative research is the
culturally specific and contextually rich data it produces. This is proving critical in
the design of comprehensive solutions to general problems in developing countries.
Chapter 9
Thematic Analysis in Qualitative Research........................................................197
Anindita Majumdar, University of Calcutta, India
The popularity of qualitative methods in social science research is a well-noted and
most welcomed fact. Thematic analysis, the often-used methods of qualitative research,
provides concise description and interpretation in terms of themes and patterns from
a data set. The application of thematic analysis requires trained expertise and should
not be used in a prescriptive, linear, and inflexible manner while analyzing data. It
should rather be implemented in relation to research question and data availability. To
ensure its proper usage, Braun and Clarke have propounded the simplest yet effective
six-step method to conduct thematic analysis. In spite of its systematic step-driven
process, thematic analysis provides core skills to conduct different other forms of

qualitative analysis. Thematic analysis, through its theoretical freedom, flexibility,
rich and detailed yet complex analytical account has emerged as the widely used
and most effective qualitative research tool in social and organizational context.
Chapter 10
Action Research..................................................................................................221
Anitha Acharya, IFHE University, India
Pankaj Kumar Mohanty, IFHE University, India
This chapter is about action research. Action research is defined as the comparative
research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and research
leading to social action. This chapter highlights the history of action research,




definition of action research, characteristics of action research, stages of action
research, issues of action research, credibility and validity of action research. In
action research, the ultimate objective is in the perceived functionality of chosen
actions to produce desirable consequences for an organization.
Chapter 11
Ethnographic Study.............................................................................................246
Anitha Acharya, IFHE University, India
This chapter is about ethnographic study. Ethnography is the subset of social research.
The term ethnography originated in the nineteenth century in Western anthropology,
where ethnography was an evocative description of the culture of group of people,
generally one placed in the outskirts of the west. The endeavor of ethnography is
to assess another way of life from the native point of view. This chapter highlights
the characteristics of ethnography, when to use ethnography, types of ethnography,
procedure, and benefits and issues involved in carrying out ethnographic research.
Compilation of References............................................................................... 272
About the Contributors.................................................................................... 310

Index................................................................................................................... 315


xii

Preface

This book, Qualitative Techniques for Workplace Data Analysis, is meant to discuss
different types of qualitative methods that can be employed to analyze workplace
data. The book will be a reference point for academics, professionals, managers,
researchers in the field of organizational behavior, and the human resource
development practitioners.

PURPOSE OF THE BOOK
In qualitative research, both emic and etic perspectives of an event/subject (under
investigation) are taken into consideration. Qualitative research attempts to understand
the social reality of individuals, groups and cultures as comprehensively as possible.
The individuals, groups and people are studied in their natural settings. Thus,
qualitative research allows in-depth exploration about the subject or event, which
leads to in-depth understanding and rich analysis of the research area. Despite such
significance, qualitative research has been undermined for years over the quantitative
research. One of the reasons is the special skills required in both collecting the data
and in analyzing and interpreting the qualitative data. Lack of statistical packages
for analysis of the qualitative data has further limited its popularity. Nevertheless, it
is now gaining popularity among academics and practitioners. Further, in emerging
countries, such as India, consumer choices, employer-employer relationships, needs,
desires, and expectations of the respondents and researchers vary. Qualitative scholars
often face difficulty in giving a proper justification for selecting a particular qualitative
research technique or in grounding the subjects or events or in analyzing the data
and interpreting it. Hence, a practical guide that helps researchers choose the most

appropriate technique for their studies is of paramount importance.
The chapters in this book discuss different procedures for conducting a particular
qualitative technique. The book answers what measures should be adopted to ensure
the credibility and dependability of the qualitative findings in workplace. Six key
techniques namely thematic analysis, phenomenological analysis, content analysis,


Preface

narrative analysis, and case study analysis are selected for detailed discussion.
Each chapter explains one of these techniques in detail from formulation of the
objectives to representation and validation of the study findings. Additionally, each
chapter presents the results of application of that particular qualitative technique in
an occupational setting in emerging market(s). Thus, this book is expected to act
as a practical guide for the researchers and practitioners to understand the ‘knowhow’ of different research techniques. It is hoped to thus help scholars make their
research publishable.

THE INTENDED AUDIENCES
The target audiences for this book include academicians, educators, scholar/
researchers, advanced-level doctoral students, libraries and information centers,
research survey agencies and human resource consultants. The book will be useful
to them in developing their knowledge and furthering their research through the
usage and applicability of the qualitative techniques discussed in this book.

STRUCTURE OF THE BOOK
To accomplish the aforementioned requirements, this book espouses three sections
and 11 chapters. The book encompasses both theoretical and practical perspectives of
qualitative research. For the ease of the readers, each of the aforementioned chapters
largely follows the following structure: The chapters start with introduction about the
entire chapter. It is then followed by the details of a particular qualitative technique

relating to the past literature, its significance, the conditions in which it is suitable
for use, and the way it can be applied. This section is followed by an illustration
in which the plot for the qualitative study is sketched along with the reasons for
using a particular qualitative technique in that context and its application in that
context. Subsequent to this section is an elaboration on the implications relating
to the advantages, limitations, and cautions for managers. Finally, the chapters end
with author(s)’ recommendations and conclusion. Each chapter is followed by some
critical questions that encourage readers to apply their critical thinking. A brief
summary of each section and chapters are provided below.

Section 1: Foundation of Qualitative Research
In Chapter 1, “Becoming Familiar With Qualitative Research”, the author, Sheema
Tarab, introduces readers to different paradigms associated with qualitative research
xiii


Preface

techniques, advantages and disadvantages of qualitative research, challenges of
conducting qualitative techniques, comparison between qualitative and quantitative
methods, and ethicality and precautionary measures of qualitative research.
In Chapter 2, “Sampling in Qualitative Research”, the authors, Musarrat Shaheen,
Sudeepta Pradhan, and Ranajee, discuss the different types of sampling techniques
employed in qualitative research. Each sampling technique is illustrated with an
example to familiarize readers with these techniques which will aid them in selecting
the appropriate sampling techniques according to the purpose of the study.

Section 2: Data Collection Techniques
In Chapter 3, “Storytelling”, the authors, Sindhu Ravindranath and Thomas J
Menachery, explain storytelling as a tool for conducting qualitative research in the

organizations. The authors discuss the practical use of storytelling method in the
process of training and development.
In Chapter 4, “Behavioral Event Interview”, the author, Sindhu Ravindranath,
describes how behavioral event interview is used to collected qualitative behavioral
data In Context of competency mapping and analysis.
In Chapter 5, “Personal Diary Method: A Way of Collecting Qualitative Data”, the
authors, Farrah Zeba and Pankaj Kumar Mohanty, attempt to explain how individual
level emic responses can be captured through the use of dairy. Respondents record
their routine experiences in the diary, which becomes the source of qualitative data.
In Chapter 6, “Vignette Methodology: An Illustration from Conflict Research”,
the author, Swati Alok, uses the context of conflict management and describes how
vignette can be used to capture data in such situation.

Section 3: Data Analysis Techniques
This section comprises of five chapters which explain five different techniques to
analyze the qualitative data. Last two chapters of this section deal with contemporary
techniques of qualitative research.
In Chapter 7 is “Deductive Approach to Content Analysis” in which the author,
Jatin Pandey, describes how content analysis can be used as a deductive approach
to test a theory through several prepositions.
In Chapter 8, “Case Study as a Method of Qualitative Research”, the author,
Naila Iqbal, explains how cases can be used to capture qualitative data.
In Chapter 9, “Thematic Analysis in Qualitative Research”, the author Anindita
Majumdar describes how a pattern across the qualitative data can leads to generation
of themes which aids in understanding the common thread running across the data.

xiv


Preface

In Chapter 10, “Action Research”, the authors, Anitha Acharya and Pankaj
Kumar Mohanty, elaborate on how action research can be used to explain an ongoing
practical problem.
In Chapter 11, “Ethnographic Study”, the author, Anitha Acharya, discusses
how a researcher becomes part of the research as a protagonist to understand the
processes through his/her own experiences. During the whole data collection process
the researcher documents the data which is used as a source of qualitative data for
further analysis.
Manish Gupta
IFHE Hyderabad, India
Musarrat Shaheen
IFHE Hyderabad, India
K. Prathap Reddy
IFHE Hyderabad, India

xv


Section 1

Foundation of Qualitative
Studies


1

Chapter 1

Becoming Familiar With

Qualitative Research
Sheema Tarab
Aligarh Muslim University, India

ABSTRACT
Qualitative research is a field of study that deals with exploring, describing, and
interpreting the innate quality of entities and the social processes. In the recent past,
an extensive growth in qualitative field of research has been witnessed, particularly
in the occupational settings. It is a dynamic and exhilarating area that seeks to
explain the research observations by means of insights which are hard to produce
with quantitative methods. Most of the work is concerned with developing a theory
(i.e., an inductive way to find out new solutions or identify new questions related to
social being). In this chapter, the author has targeted the segment which is mostly the
students pursuing research courses or conducting empirical work; the faculties and
the mangers who are handling the diversity of the social beings at their workplaces,
whose varied needs are persistently evolving, would be able to understand the notion
of technique which is qualitative in nature. Certain studies conducted in past and
present have also been illustrated to maintain the reader’s interest.

INTRODUCTION
Humans are diverse and dynamic social beings. To understand this diversity a
mechanical approach is not always suitable. This calls for a qualitative inquiry i.e.
looking into it through subjective lens. In the recent past, an extensive growth in
qualitative field of research has been witnessed, particularly in the occupational
settings. At workplaces, there are issues, concerns, and situations which are
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-5366-3.ch001
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


Becoming Familiar With Qualitative Research

complicated hence are extremely important to address. Since these revolve around
humans, an angle is needed to peep into the matter through the perspective of the
concerned. Qualitative inquiries seek to explain the research observations by means
of insights which are hard to produce with quantitative methods. Qualitative research
is exhilarating, flexible and multi-foci in nature. Despite of the growing popularity
of this field and a large number of submissions, there is a low rate of publishable
acceptability, reason being the fundamental methodology to pursue a qualitative
research goes missing. Incorporating the theoretical knowledge into research work
is a challenge to neophytes. The beginner has little knowledge about the concepts
and application of different paradigms of existing qualitative methods, hence get
confused. Thus, this gap creates an urgency to help those who are interested in
beginning research work by means of qualitative methods. To overcome these
concerns and limitations, a chapter highlighting the basic exposure of this genus
is proposed here. It will serve the purpose of amplifying the basic conception of a
qualitative inquiry. Both the novice and the experienced researchers can refer to this
chapter while constructing a successful premise of a qualitative inquiry.
The target audience is mostly the students and scholars conducting empirical
research work; also, the faculties and the managers who are handling the human
diversity at their workplaces, whose varied needs are persistently evolving. The
structure of this chapter is arranged in a simplified way. Remembering the words
of Gephart (2004), the relationship of theory and methodology is important; the
organization of the text has been composed in a way that reflects the linkage of all
elements in the framework with one another. To assimilate the readers, discussion
begun by mentioning about the field of study, and then moving to the need and
emergence of qualitative inquiry talking about- why these types of studies are
growing with the passage of time? One of the prime reasons for conducting a
qualitative study is that its nature is exploratory (Mason, 2002). Meaning, not much
literature is available about the subject or the inhabitants under observation, and the
researcher has the scope to build a theory. This feature of novel exploration attracts

the researchers to undertake such research inquiries and unfold different realities
about the social processes. In an organizational setting, there are vast opportunities
for an investigator to observe, explore and discover the interaction process of social
beings, but it is challenging to decide upon the selection of a method to study. To
explicate the concept of what qualitative inquiry is; what different paradigms and
types of qualitative methods are? I have employed straightforward language and lucid
illustrations (readers may use them for cross-reference), to simplify the description,
and also have integrated some review questions to ensure that the reader’s curiosity
in the concept remains intact. In general, qualitative research has a long history in
several disciplines, while particularly in organization settings qualitative methods
is taking a hike, as it holds the capability to bring out an in-depth understanding of
2


Becoming Familiar With Qualitative Research

a phenomenon. The longer the development proceeded, the more a profile of what
was meant by this term became clear. Knowledge of past research and theory can
help a researcher to focus and choose a unit of analysis relevant to the undertaken
problem. Certain studies conducted in past and present have also been cited in the
chapter to strike a balance between the knowledge existed and evolving overtime
in field of qualitative research.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research is an interesting field of study in natural setting that encompasses
through subjectivity, flexibility and reflexivity. It is a manifold concept which is based
upon qualitative methods in practice and often studies phenomena in the real-world
setting. Qualitative researchers stress the socially constructed nature of reality, the
intimate relationship between the researcher, the subject, and the situational constraints
that shape a study. Emphasis of such research is the value-laden nature of inquiry. In

contrast, quantitative studies emphasize the measurement and analysis of the causal
relationships between variables and processes as a value-free framework (Denzin &
Lincoln, 1998). The word qualitative implies an emphasis on the qualities of entities
and connotation that are not experimentally examined or quantitatively measured (if
measured at all) so, individual opinion is crucial to begin and assimilate this kind
of study. Textual materials such as interview transcripts, field notes, and/or visual
materials such as artifacts, photographs, video recordings, that document human
experiences about others and/or one’s self in social action and reflexive states etc.
are some forms of this methodology’s construal. With the advent of rapid social
changes and heterogeneity in life, social researchers are increasingly confronted with
new social contexts and perspectives. Workplace environment influence the behavior
and interaction aspects of the workers, which expands the scope for the scholars to
conduct qualitative investigations. Hence, it becomes relevant in this context to know
the fundamental elements of qualitative studies. These are so diversified to them
that their traditional deductive methodologies deriving research hypotheses from
theoretical models and empirically testing them are failing due to the differentiation
of objects. Thus, research is increasingly inclined towards inductive strategies in
form of qualitative studies. It is conducted within and across multiple disciplines
for instance education, sociology, anthropology, psychology, communication, social
work, organizational studies and other related fields. Qualitative research stresses
on descriptions of words rather than quantification in the collection and analysis of
data. As cited in Taylor, Bogdan, and DeVault (2016), the theoretical underpinning
of social science research is dominated by two popular perspectives; the first is
positivism and the second is phenomenology. The foundation of the former is
3


Becoming Familiar With Qualitative Research

credited especially to Comte (1896) and Durkheim (1938) in the early 19th and the

20th centuries. While the latter, phenomenological viewpoint, has followed the lead
of (Deutscher, 1973) traces its roots in philosophical and sociological backgrounds
(also see Berger & Luckmann, 1967; Bruyn,1966).
A positivist orientation is labeled as scientific and assumes that reality exists “out
there” which is observable, stable, and measurable, while, the phenomenological
orientation believes that reality is socially constructed, and there are manifold ways in
which a single event can be interpreted (Merriam, 2009). Both the approaches embark
on dissimilar problems and seek diverse answers; hence, their methodologies differ.
The positivist employs methods like questionnaires, inventories, and demographic
details that produce data amenable to statistical analysis. While, the phenomenologist
seeks answers by using qualitative methods, such as observations, in-depth interviews,
field-notes etc. The span of this field is not only limited to involve others as a
subject, but it also includes inter and intra convoluted relationships among people
and groups. The aim of this chapter is not to describe any method of study as the
best among the rest, but to familiarize the novice with the different orientations
that exist or are evolving over time along with the issues related so as to enable an
understanding about the basic foundations of qualitative field. Before a researcher
decide upon which method to follow, its foremost significant for him/her to know
that each method is selected in relation to a research problem and not only this, but
also the common problems and issues that need focused consideration from the
researcher to maintain the integrity and confidentiality of the subject.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Quantitative Research
The two genres qualitative and quantitative are not exact opposites, but different in
terms of their approaches, methods and analysis. If we look at the deductive logic,
researchers conduct some measurements, go to the field and collect data, follow a
scientific method and analysis for interpretations. The process is quantified; it is
somehow unable to reveal a deeper understanding of the event or a phenomenon.
While some qualitative studies also follow deductive steps ensuring reliability, but
majorly qualitative research is inductive, as the field is an open way to smudge

the gap between deeper exploration and understanding. Beginning of qualitative
research interest seekers but also confuses them in choosing the right technique from
the existing and evolving methods. To be on the right track, it is highly important
to consider the rationale of this genre. To comprehend why qualitative research is
emerging, we will delve into the merits and limitations of quantitative research to
track the gap between the two orientations, since both are two sides of a continuum.
Pros of quantitative study are:

4


Becoming Familiar With Qualitative Research

•
•
•
•
•
•
•

It aims to empirically test the developed theories and facts in present times,
hence based on deductive logic. The focus is on verifying the validity of the
theory and not any further inquisitiveness.
It follows a scientific method of data analysis thus, it consumes less time.
Once the data is collected, statistical tests could be performed with the help
of appropriate software.
A large number of samples could be covered, as more and more samples
ensure reliability and validity of the results.
Results are descriptive in nature, it becomes easy to interpret.

Most of the studies are survey based, once a valid instrument is developed,
it does not always require the personal involvement of researcher to retrieve
data.
Data collection and interpretation involves quantitative measures; hence
researcher’s bias is not a major concern in this field of study.
Replication of quantitative studies in a different context is possible, as it is not
affected by the subjectivity of the cases (ensuring proper control variables).

Keeping in mind the advantages, we understand that quantitative study follows
a path; however, there exist few gaps that allow qualitative studies to complement
them. Following are some of the limitations of quantitative research:
•
•
•
•
•

It follows a scientific method, hence lacks flexibility.
Law of inertia of large numbers always keeps the door open for more and
more sample inclusion for reliability issues.
This approach does not offer an in-depth understanding of any event; it covers
only the surface impact.
Quantitative research is not much suitable in situations where human attitude
or perception is under observation.
Selection of the sample is another considerable issue pertaining to quantitative
assessments.

To surmount the limitations of quantitative paradigm, qualitative studies come
as a rescue and a complementary field of research. Since, both the approaches are
neither same, nor opposites; there exist some point of differences. Although, the

focus of this chapter is to develop a conceptual base for the latter genre, however the
purpose to familiarize prospective researchers with the basic framework will remain
incomplete until a broad overview of differences between both the approaches is
made (see Table 1).

5


Becoming Familiar With Qualitative Research

Table 1. Qualitative vs quantitative approach at a glance
Basis of Contrast

Qualitative Studies

Quantitative Studies

Research focus

quality (nature, essence)

quantity (how much, how many)

Philosophical Roots

phenomenology, symbolic
interactionism, constructivism

positivism, logical
empiricism

Purpose of inquiry

observations, discovery, hypothesis
generation

prediction, control, hypothesis
testing

Nature

flexible, evolving

predetermined, structured

Sample

small, purposive

large, random

Data collection

researcher as primary instrument,
interviews, observations, documents

Inanimate instruments (scales,
statistical tests)

Mode of analysis

Inductive

Deductive

Findings

holistic, expansive, richly descriptive

Precise, numerical

Source: Adapted from (Merriam, 2009, p. 18)

Qualitative work is, by design, open-ended and skeptical. Researchers in this
domain is a fairly contentious lot, typically unwilling to grant much credence to
another’s observations or theories. As mentioned earlier, there is no mechanical
way to comprehend qualitative content of a phenomenon; rather a flexible sync of
data collection and analysis is needed. And while in the process of collection and
analysis, data handling also plays a key role.

Philosophical Orientations
Several studies under the roof of qualitative research with different perspectives
and methods convey about the range this field comprises of. It is necessary for a
researcher to identify and reflect upon them with wit and receptivity to contribute
some worthy conclusions. Multiple paradigms may sometimes create confusion in
understanding their application; hence I consider this issue important to be addressed
in this segment. Since qualitative research field is multi-paradigmatic; its landscape
is robust with research conducted from diverse approaches (see Table 2).
For the purpose of building credibility in a study, it’s important for the investigator
to become aware with different kinds of studies possible under an approach and their

basic framework, so as to make the right choice while choosing the methodology
and gaining the perspective of the participants with reflexivity and empathy.

6


Becoming Familiar With Qualitative Research

Table 2. Major paradigms that exist on a continuum
Paradigms of Qualitative
Research

Explanation

Positivism /Post-positivism

It follows the natural science approach to test theories and hypotheses.
Knowledge gained through study of such reality has been labeled as
scientific and include the establishment of laws. Post-positivism uses
empirical evidence, to distinguish between more and less plausible
claims (Patton, 2002). Positivist relies on deductive logic while postpositivist attempt to refute a theory although not in absolute terms
(Biber & Leavy, 2011).

Interpretivism

Interpretivists believed that empathetic approach should be employed
to understand the viewpoint of fellow human beings i.e. stepping into
their shoes and seeing the world through their lens. It assumes that
reality is socially constructed, that is, there are no single but multiple
realities of a single event (Merriam, 2009). Constructivism is also used

interchangeably with Interpretivism.

Critical theory

A ‘critical’ orientation is a power-attentive approach it seeks human
emancipation and a disruption of the status quo. Instead, critical
theorists assume that reality can only come to be known through a
subjective frame as shaped by values and mediated by power relations
that are socially and historically constituted (Renee, Pryce, & Walsh,
2014, p. 90). They do this either in terms of some set of ideas built
into their own political or ethical position or against standards that
they identify as inherent within the socio-cultural contexts they are
examining.

Source: compiled from various sources

Types of Qualitative Studies
Despite a number of assumptions and characteristics in common, the innate
disciplinary base of a qualitative study differs on the facet of purpose and design.
The most popular and much-practised kind of qualitative inquiries are:
•

•

Grounded Theory: The term grounded theory first came to prominence with
the publication of The Discovery of Grounded Theory by Glaser and Strauss
in 1967 (Leavy, 2014).A grounded study seeks not only to comprehend but
also to build a substantive theory about the phenomenon of interest. A rich
description is also important but is not the primary focus of this type of study.
Ethnography: Strives to understand the interaction of individuals not just

with others, but also with the culture of the society in which they live.
Maanen (1982, pp.103-104) rightly notes that the result of an ethnographic
inquiry is cultural description. It is, however, a description of the sort that
can emerge only from a lengthy period of intimate study and residence in

7


Becoming Familiar With Qualitative Research

•

•

•

•

•

a given social setting. It calls for the language spoken in that setting, firsthand participation in some of the activities that take place there, and, most
critically, a deep reliance on intensive work with a few informants drawn
from the setting. In order to understand the culture of a group, immersion
in the site as a participant observer is the key technique of data collection as
cited in (Merriam, 2009, p. 28).
Phenomenological Study: Associated with Husserl (1970) it focuses on
the experience itself and how experiencing something is transformed into
consciousness. Phenomenologists are interested in retrieving the essence or
basic underlying structure of lived experiences, by means of engrossed and
immersed interviews.

Narrative Analysis: “Narrative inquiry is stories lived and told,” (Clandinin
& Connelly, 2000, p. 20). Storytelling has a history of being treated as a good
source of comprehending human experience. Narratives follow the same
philosophy of analyzing experiences revealed through stories.
Case Study: A case study method involves an in-depth observation and
analysis of a subject within a bounded context. It may be one individual,
several individuals, a group, an entire program, or an activity (Creswell,
2007, p. 73). This technique of inquiry is research-based, inclusive of multiple
methods and is evidence-led.
Content Analysis: It is an objective and a systematic technique widely
used in social science and media research, however rapidly pacing up in
organizational settings as well. This research method analyses and interprets
coded material (textual, verbal or visual). Content analysis is a descriptive
approach that aims to construct a model or a system for better inference and
description of the material. This approach can be pursued in either ways;
inductive or deductive, depending upon the need of the study.
Thematic Analysis: This technique is also descriptive in nature. It aims
to describe the pattern of the content underlying the textual material and
artifacts. Unlike content analysis, where the process interprets qualitative
data into quantitative codes or model, thematic analysis is a pure qualitative
process of decoding the themes within data by considering both the latent and
the manifest content (Vaismoradi, Turunen, & Bondas, 2013). It is a flexible
method suitable to obtain extensive and enriching data.

With the passage of time, the branch of qualitative research is expanding. There
are variety of methods that helps to fetch information from the respondents. Along
with the traditional techniques, a number of methods have evolved over time that
deserves a mention in the context of conceptual phenomena related to sources of data
collection and analysis. In this section below, those methods are discussed briefly.
8

Becoming Familiar With Qualitative Research

Traditional and Evolving Methods of Data Collection
•

•

•

Interviews: Personal interviews are the main source of getting data for
qualitative research. These are structured, sometimes also unstructured
depending upon the requirement of the situation. This method helps in
exchanging the intention of study and perspectives to justify it. Since the
researcher himself interacts with the respondents, his understanding of the
shared experiences is subject to growth and his broad vision that assist in
articulating the findings.
Focus Groups: This method of qualitative study is a form of source that seeks
opinion, perception, or beliefs of a particular set of people (organization).
This method is useful in studying a particular set of culture or behaviour in a
restricted bounded context.
Observations: Another traditional method to begin a qualitative inquiry
about any event or fact. Observation method lead to questions like what is
the implication of a particular event on a segment of people or how does a
particular fact affect the happenings in a particular context? Etc.

Along with these prominent customary methods, there are some new methods which
are frequently being used in changing times, in a way to complement the existing
ones. These methods are:

•

•

•

Text Mining: This is a digital era; all individuals are exposed to one or more
of social media platforms. A huge amount of information is available at the
end of user; text mining techniques followed for qualitative approaches may
help in retrieving structured information by classifying and sorting which is
applied to extract data patterns
Web Crawling: it is basically about building up a web of keywords formed
by a program for the purpose of facilitating the process of information filter
and indexing. This function is performed with the help of program software
which is employed for the purpose of data collection and analysis. There
is further classification of crawling like; breadth-first crawling, depth-first
crawling, targeted crawling, and context focused crawling etc. depending
upon the need of sorting.
Netnography: It is simply an ethnographic approach in the digital world. The
literal understanding of netnography is that it is drafted culture information
which is available online and on web portals. This approach is widely used
in the business research to comprehend the social interactions in context of
online research.

9