Làm giàu protein củ sắn bằng cách lên men với nấm men làm thức ăn cho lợn địa phương ở lào

HUE UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

NOUPHONE MANIVANH

NUTRITIVE IMPROVEMENT OF CASSAVA ROOT AND
ITS UTILISATION IN TARO FOLIAGE AND BANANA
STEMS BASAL DIETS FOR LOCAL PIG PRODUCTION
IN SMALLHOLDERS IN LAO PDR

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ANIMAL SCIENCES

HUE, 2019


HUE UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY
NOUPHONE MANIVANH

NUTRITIVE IMPROVEMENT OF CASSAVA ROOT AND
ITS UTILISATION IN TARO FOLIAGE AND BANANA
STEMS BASAL DIETS FOR LOCAL PIG PRODUCTION
IN SMALLHOLDERS IN LAO PDR

SPECIALIZATION: ANIMAL SCIENCES
CODE: 9620105
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ANIMAL SCIENCES

SUPERVISORS
1: ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR DR. LE VAN AN
2: ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR DR. TRAN THI THU HONG

HUE, 2019


GUARANTEE
I hereby guarantee that scientific work in this thesis is mine. All results
described in this thesis are righteous and objective. They have been published in
Journal of Livestock Research for Rural Development (LRRD)

Hue University, 2019

Nouphone MANIVANH, PhD student

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DEDICATION
To my parents, my husband (Phoneouthai Thiphavanh), my daughter (Southida
Thiphavanh) and my son (Kanlaya Thiphavanh)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research in this PhD thesis was conducted four experiments with supported
from Mekong Basin Animal Research Network (MEKARN II) project for funding this
thesis research and the scholarship for the PhD study.
I am grateful for the support from all of those people and institutions:
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Mekong Basin Animal
Research Network (MEKARN II) project for funding this theses research and the

scholarship for the PhD study.
I would like to thanks the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, Souphanouvong
University, Luagprabang province, Laos, for allowing me study leave and helping me
to carry out the experiments.
I would like to express my cordial and faithful gratitude to my main
supervisors, Associate Professor Dr. Le Van An and co-supervisor, Associate Professor
Dr. Tran Thi Thu Hong for their support, guidance, and valuable advice for writing
paper.
I would like to express deeply gratitude to Professor Dr. Thomas Reg Preston
Director of the University of Tropical Agriculture (UTA) for his good discussion,
valuable advice and useful guidance during my studies and research project.
My sincere thanks to Professor Dr. Ewadle, International Coordinator
MEKARN II project; Dr. Vanthong Phengvichith, National Agriculture and Forestry
Researcher Institute (NAFRI), Lao PDR; Dr. Kieu Borin, MEKARN II regional
coordinator for their facilitation, help and support to the whole course. Professors,
lecturers and assistant lectures in Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry and
MEKARN II program, for giving me care and useful knowledge; Dr. Vongpasith
Chanthakhoun, Dean of Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, Souphanouvong
University for his help and encouragement.
I am also grateful to my friends on the PhD course from Cambodia, Laos and
Vietnam for their good friendship and sharing

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Lastly I would like to express special thanks to my husband (Phone outhai
Tiphavanh), my parents and all my brothers and sisters for their support,
encouragements and patience.

ABSTRACTS

The study was aimed at improving protein content of cassava root (Manihot
esculenta Crantz) by solid-state fermentation with yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae),
urea and di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) additive and its utilization as protein source
in the diets of Moo Lath Pig in Laos. Four experiments were carried out with “two in
cassava root fermentation experiments, two experiments were conducted with Moo
Lath pig using taro silage (TS) replaced by protein-enriched cassava root (PECR) as
protein sources on growing trial and digestibility. In chapter 2, experiment 1. Cassava
root was fermented with yeast, urea and DAP in a solid-state fermentation to determine
the degree of conversion of crude to true protein; and experiment 2 the limiting factor
to the synthesis of true protein from crude protein in the fermentation of cassava root
could be the decrease in pH in the fermentation substrate preventing the hydrolysis of
urea to ammonia and thus decreasing the availability of nitrogen for growth of the
yeast. The following experiment to determine the degree of conversion of crude to true
protein, pH and ammonia. In experiment 1. The experiment was arranged as a 2*3*4
factorial in a completely randomized design (CRD). The treatments were: root
processing (steamed and not steamed); DAP: 0, 1 and 2% of the substrate DM. The
fermentation was over 14 days with samples taken for determination of true and crude
protein (CP) at 0, 3, 7 and 14 days. In experiment 2. A CRD was used with 2 treatments
arranged as a 2*9 factorial. The treatments were anaerobic and aerobic fermentation.
The substrate was cassava root 93.6% + DAP 2% + urea 1.4% + yeast 3% (DM basis).
True, crude protein, ammonia and pH were measured at 0 and 3h after preparing the
substrates and every 24h until end of day 7 (0, 3h, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 day).
Experiment 1 (chapter 2). The true protein (TP) in cassava root increased with a
curvilinear trend (R2 = 0.98) from 2.30 to 6.87% in DM as the fermentation time
increased from zero to 14 days; the ratio of true to crude protein increased from 24.6 to
63.7 over the same period. Increasing the proportion of DAP from zero to 2% of the
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substrate DM increased the TP from 5.6 to 7.3% in DM after 14 days of fermentation.

Steaming the cassava root prior to fermentation improved slightly (p=0.67) the
conversion of crude to TP. Experiment 2 (chapter 2). The pH decreased with
fermentation time, according to an almost linear trend, from 5.8 immediately after
mixing the substrate, to 5.47in 3h and to 3.43 after 7 days. The level of CP after mixing
the substrate and additives was 10.35% in DM and did not change over the 7 days of
fermentation. TP in the substrate increased from 2.37 to 6.97% in DM as the
fermentation time increased from zero to 7 days. There were no differences in all these
criteria as between the aerobic and anaerobic condition, other than a tendency for the
pH to fall slightly more quickly in the first 4 days in the anaerobic condition followed
by a slower rate of fall to reach almost the same final value after 7 days, as for the
aerobic condition. Experiment 3 (chapter 3). A growth trial was conducted with 12 Moo
Lath pigs with average 14.8 ±1.89 kg initial live weight in a CRD, with three
replications of four treatments. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of
replacing TS with PECR in a basal diet of ensiled banana stem (BS). There were
positive responses in dry matter (DM) intake, live weight gain, feed conversion ratio, as
the percentage of PECR in the diet was increased (zero to 15% in DM ). It was
concluded that the replacing of taro foliage silage with PECR improved the quality of
the overall diet, which resulted in higher intake, growth rate, better feed conversion
ratio and economical efficiency. Experiment 4 (chapter 4). Four castrated male Moo
Lath pig, weighing on average 15 kg were allotted at random to 4 diets within a 4*4
Latin square design, to study effects on DM intake, digestibility and N retention of
levels of protein-enriched cassava root (PECR) as 0, 25, 50 and 75% in combination
with TS as 80, 55, 30 and 5% with constant levels of ensiled banana stem 20% (all on
DM basis). PECR at 25% in a diet led to increases in feed intake, diet digestibility and
N retention in native Moo Lath pigs and PECR could be the result of its superior
biological value compared with the protein in the taro foliage. These criteria declined
linearly when the proportions of PECR were increased to 50 and 75% of the diet DM.
Key words: banana pseudo-stem, di-ammonium phosphate, probiotic, solidstate fermentation, urea, yeast, crude protein, true protein, ammonia, pH, Moo Lath pig
7

TABLE OF CONTENTS
GUARANTEE.................................................................................................................i

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LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF PHOTO
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
Photo 1. Local pigs are allowed to scavenge freely all year round
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Photo 2. Local pigs in pen
Photo 3. Feed stuffs available in farm condition
Photo 4. Moo Lath
Photo 5. Moo Chid, Moo Markadon or Moo Boua
Photo 6. Moo Nonghad or Moo Hmong
Photo 7. Moo Deng or Moo Berk
CHAPTER 2
EXPERIMENT 1:
Photo 1. The steaming of the cassava root
Photo 2. Aerobic fermentation of the cassava root
CHAPTER 3
Photo 1. Wooden boards 30cm above the base of the barrel
Photo 2. The bamboo strips placed above the boards
Photo 3. The steaming of the
cassava root

Photo 4. Mixing cassava root with urea, di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) and
yeast
Photo 5. The mixed substrate was put in bamboo baskets covered with plastic
netting
Photo 6. The protein-enriched cassava root
Photo 7. Taro (Colocasia esculenta) were chopped by hand
Photo 8. Taro (Colocasia esculenta) were wilted for 24h to reduce the moisture
Photo 9. Taro silage in the plastic bag
Photo 10. Ensiled taro after 14 days
Photo 11. Banana stems were chopped by hand into small pieces
Photo 12. Ensiled banana stems in 200 liter PVC
Photo 13. Housing made from local materials
Photo 14. Moo Lath pig used in the experiment

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LIST OF TABLES

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AA

Amono acids

ADG

Average daily gain

ANOVA

Analysis of variance

ADF

Acid detergent fibre

AOAC

Association of Official Analytical Chemists

BS

Banana stem ensilage

BW
Ca

Body weight
Calcium

CF

Crude fibre

CSF
Cl

Classical swine fever
Chloride

CRD

Completely randomized design

Cm
CP

Centimetre
Crude protein

°C

Degree Celsius

DAP
DE

Di-ammonium phosphate
Digestible energy

DLF
DM

Department of Livestock and Fisheries
Dry matter

EAA

Essential amino acids

EE

Ether extract
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EBS

Ensiled banana stem

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation

FW

Fresh weight

FCR

Feed conversion ratio

g

Gram

GDP

Gross domestic product

h

Hour

ha
HCN

Hectare
Hydrocyanic acids

Kg
Lao PDR

Kilogram
Lao People’s democratic republic

LWG

Live weigh gain

LW

Live weigh

L

Liter

m
ME

Meter
Metabolisable energy

MAF

Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry

Mekarn

Mekong Basin Animal Research Network

N

Nitrogen

NRC

National Research Council

NAFES
NAFRI
NE

National Agriculture and Forestry Extension Service
Institute National Agriculture and Forestry Research
Net energy

NPN

None protein nitrogen

NFE

Nitrogen-free extract

F

Neutral detergent fibre

NST

Non steamed

NP

Non-protein

OM
P

Organic Matter
Phosphorus
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PECR

Protein-enriched cassava root

PECP

Protein-enriched cassava pulp

pH

Power of/potential Hydrogen

Prob/p

Probability

RCBD

Randomised Complete Block Design

RDB

Rice distillers’ by-product

Sida/SAREC

Swedish international development agency-Dpartment
for research
Cooperation

ST

Steamed

SEM

Standard error of the mean

TS

Taro silage

T

Ton

TCA

trichloracetic acid

TP

True protein

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INTRODUCTION
1. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Pig is one of the most important animals for smallholders in the uplands of Lao PDR
because it can be sold when cash is needed for buying rice and other food, for paying school

fees or if a household member is sick and needs medical attention and Pork used in traditional
ceremonies in households. Pigs can be confined in a small area, and can covert to meet a
variety of crop and kitchen wastes and give a rapid return on investment (Steinfeld, 1998).
About 75% of households in upland areas are raising pig in the country (FAO, 2017).
Overall, native pig around 85.1% under small holder system (DLF, 2017), they are hardy and
able to scavenge at least part of their feed requirements in free-range condition, Native pigs
are mainly raised in extensive low-input systems that take advantage of naturally occurring
feed (Kennard, 1996; FLSP, 2002). In most parts of Laos, agricultural by-products, such as
rice bran, and natural grasses are the main feeds for live stock (ILRI 2002). In Lao villages,
where most farmers are growing paddy rice for sale, the feed for pigs is based on rice bran,
which is fed together with a small amount of green feed. Thus rice bran is available in most
farm households but they cannot support full performance because of their poor nutritive
value. (ILRI, 2002; FLSP, 2002). Since feed accounts for about 50-60% of the variable costs
of production, feed quality is crucial to the success of pig farming operations. Major problems
that may result from low quality feeds are poor appetite, slow growth, high feed conversion
ratio, and low survival. These usually develop as a result of problems on quality of raw
materials, feed formulation, processing technology, storage, and feed manage. The main
problem is the supply of protein as soybean and fish meals are not available in rural areas and
expensive (Phengsavanh and Stür., 2006).
Cassava plantation is mainly for root production. The yields of root are variable
depending on soil fertility, management and irrigation system. Cassava root yields can be
from 10 to15 tonne/ha without inputs on eroded soils (Howeler, 1991). In Laos, cassava
(Manihot esculenta Crantz) known as ‘Man Ton’, it is currently the third most important crop
in Laos, after rice and maize for smallholder farmers in remote upland areas. Recently, the
crop has become an important cash crop for either domestic use or for export because it can
be used for food and feed as well as for industrial processing into starch (Ministry of
Agriculture and Forestry, 2013). Cassava has become a major crop in Lao PDR mainly
because of the export of starch that is extracted from the cassava root. There are five cassava
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starch factories with a total planted area of 60,475 ha, giving an average yield of fresh roots of
27 tonnes/ha. Annual production is of the order of 1.6 million tonnes (Ministry of Agriculture
and Forestry, 2013). Cassava farms are needed not only for a major source of income for rural
households but also for use in pig diets as energy sources because of cassava root content high
levels of energy (75 to 85% of soluble carbohydrate) but low crude protein (2 to 3% CP). The
root is composed of highly digestible carbohydrate in the form of starch with little fiber (Kang
et al., 2015; Polyorach et al., 2013). Solid state fermentation of the cassava root is a promising
technology as this has the potential to raise the protein content to levels required to balance
the carbohydrate thus presenting the opportunity to make an almost complete feed for pigs
(Boonnop et al., 2009). Sengxayalth and Preston, (2017a) reported an increase in true protein
from 2 to 12% in dry matter (DM) of the cassava pulp. Agreement with Vanhnasin et al.,
(2016a) true protein increased from 2 to 7% in dry matter (DM) of the cassava root. Similar
findings were reported by Balagopalan et al., (1988) who developed a solid state fermentation
process for the protein enrichment of cassava flour and cassava starch factory wastes using
the fungus Trichoderma pseudokonigii rifai. Fermentation with yeast, bacteria has been
studied for reducing non-nutritional components, increasing the nutritive value of agroindustrial by-products (Okpako et al 2008; Aderemi et al 2007; Tran Thi Thu Hong and
Nguyen Van Ca 2013). Additional phosphate results in increased biomass growth of yeast and
bacteria (Papagianni et al 1999). Huu and Khammeng, (2014) reported that when replacing
maize with fermented cassava pulp containing 13% crude protein (DM basis), digestibility
and N retention were similar to the control diet. Protein enriched of cassava root (PECR)
could provide in pig diets up to 25 to 28% of the dietary protein in a diet based on cassava
pulp (or ensiled root), replacing ensiled taro foliage (Vanhnsin and Preston, 2016b) or soybean
meal (Sengxayalth and Preston, 2017b). It similar to the growth response in pigs reported by
Phuong et al., (2013) for cassava pulp enriched from 3 to 5.5% true protein using the fungus
Aspergillus niger.
The local feed used in smallholder systems for pigs include rice by-products, planted
feeds and various green plant materials (ILRI 2002). However, the local feed contain low
nutritive value. Women typically are the key persons in this effort, and, with traditional
practices, they spend 2 to 3 hours each day collecting and preparing feed for pigs (Australian

Center for International Agricultural Research 2010). Farmers have little knowledge on
optimizing use existing feed resources, the growth rate of the pig only 100 to 120 g/day if
depend on local feed staffs. In commercial complete feeds, the most common protein sources

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are fish meal and soybean meal. These feedstuffs provide high quality protein for pigs, but
they are imported and are expensive. Due to their high price, such protein sources cannot be
used by smallholder farmers (Phengsavanh et al., 2010). So, improving nutritive value of
local feed that is abundance in their area especially the application of microorganism
fermentation it is possible to improve the nutritive value of local feed and its utilization as
diets for local pigs in Laos, which helps in reducing feed cost and bringing economic benefits
to the farmers in rural area.

2. OBJECTIVES
The overall aim of this thesis was to improve nutritive value of cassava roots by
fermentation yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), Urea and di-ammonium phosphate additive
and its utilization as protein source in the diets of Moo Lath pigs. Specific objectives were to:
•

To study nutritive value of casssava root by fermentation yeast (Saccharomyces

•

cerevisiae), Urea and Di-ammonium phosphate additive
To study the limiting factor to the synthesis of true protein from crude protein in the

•

fermentation of cassava root
To evaluate the use of protein-enriched cassava root as partial replacement of taro
silage in a ensiled banana stem - based diet fed to Moo Lath pigs

3. HYPOTHESES
•

Nutritive value of cassava root will be increased by fermentation with increase level of
di-ammonium phosphate with yeast, Urea and additive

•

The pH decreased with fermentation time could be limiting factor to the synthesis of
true protein from crude protein in the fermentation of cassava root

•

The protein-enriched cassava root as a partial replacement for taro silage in a diet will
be improve growth performance of Moo Lath pigs.

4. SIGNIFICANCE/INNOVATION OF THE DISSERTATION
The innovations of the thesis study are:
This thesis is the output from four experiments; of which two experiments focus on
the improving nutritive value of carbohydrate-rich (cassava root) feeds is by solid-state
fermentation Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), Urea and Di-ammonium phosphate (DAP)
additive and creating database on nutritive values, including chemical composition profile of
protein-enriched cassava root (Manihot esculenta Crantz); one on growth performance and
17

other one on feed intake; digestibility and N balance in local pig (Moo Lath pig). The results
from experiments can help the people particularly rural farmers to understand more about the
utilization of locally available feed resources for improving pig performance. Despite the
abundance of cassava root in Laos, the application of microorganisms, particularly yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae), to enhance its nutritional and economic values to feed livestock
and, consequently, increase farming profitability, and provide jobs for the masses is yet to
attract serious attention. Additionally, there is very minimal biotechnological application of
yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) in the production of protein-enriched agro-industrial
products in Laos. This present study therefore aimed to assess the application of in yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae) enriching protein content of cassava root by solid-state
fermentation. This process of solid-state fermentation provides a means of converting cassava
root into useful feed for the production of pig. High protein forages such as taro foliage can be
good sources protein in diets. One important local feed is banana pseudo-stem contain the
sugar. Feeding systems based on replacing taro (Colocasia esculenta) silage with
proteinenriched cassava root (PECR) improved the nutritive value of a banana stem (Musa
sapientum Linn) based diet and have a great potential for increasing pig productivity. The root
is composed of highly digestible carbohydrate in the form of starch with little fiber; the
foliage is rich in protein and nutritive value of banana stalk could be improved by treated with
indigenous microorganism. And utilizing effectively those feed resources for pigs as a main
protein sources (ensiled taro foliage and PECR) at small scale household in Laos. Main
findings were: Improving nutritive value of cassava roots by fermented with yeast, urea and
DAP and PECR can be provided at highest 25% in a diet of ensiled cassava root, ensiled taro
foliage and ensiled banana stem, led to increases in feed intake, diet digestibility and N
retention in native Moo Lath pigs. These criteria declined linearly when the proportions of
PECR were 50% and 75% of the diet DM.

.

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CHAPTER 1
LITERATURE REVIEW
1. PIG PRODUCTION IN LAOS
1.1. ROLE OF PIG PRODUCTION
Pigs are widely kept throughout the country of Lao PDR, with 77 percent of all
households involved in pig production (FAO, 2016). Small-holder pig farming systems play
an important role in food security and improving the livelihood of rural families. They
contribute a source of family income, festivals, paying a debt or as a savings bank, providing
employment, buying food and medication and paying tuition fees for children) and access to
markets (CelAgrid, 2006). Pigs as they adapt well to the foraging system (Phengsavanh et al.,
2011). Pigs are easy to raise, easy to sell, can be confined in a small area, can covert a variety
of crop and kitchen wastes and can bring about higher incomes compared to ducks or
chickens etc (Steinfeld, 1998; Ngo Thuy Bao Tran and Brian, 2005ab). Pigs manure can be
used as fertilizer for cropping and animal feed which can be a source of protein for growing
pigs (Lemke et al., 2002). Riethmuller et al., (2002) reported that farmers in Vietnam sell pig
manure to plantations for fertilizing and improving the soil quality. A survey in Laos showed
that 60 pigs can produce enough manure for one hectare of fish pond in which fish stock is
around 40,000 heads and can produce up to 4,000 kg of fish/year (Hoffmann, 1999). Pigs
providing employment, which account for more than 50% of total family income in the
remote areas of Northern Lao PDR.
Devendra, (1993) added that in Southeast Asia, pig production can play three
important functions, namely: (1) the diversification of resources and the reduction of
socioeconomic risks, (2) the promotion of linkages between systems and resource components
(land, water, crops, and animals), and (3) the generation of value added products (e.g., the
recycling of fibrous crop residues to produce meat, and the use of manure). Recently, the
population in Laos increase protein consumption from animal, the meat consumption is
required 57 kg/capita (pork is 14.6 kg/capita). DFL, (2017) showed In 2018-2020, the needs
of the meat consumption is estimated 60-70 kg/capita, pork is needs 15.6-16.8 kg/capita,
approximately of 58% of the people preferred to consume pork it high demand than other

meat consumption (table1).

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Table 1. Number of meat consumption in 2017 of Lao PDR
No.

Livestock

Amount
(head)

1
2
3
4
5
6

Buffalo
Cattle
Pig
Goat/Sheep
Poultry
Eggs
Total

52.361
90.442

880.121
53.567
6.864.314
60.688.663
1,144.04

Consumptio
n
(million kg)
19.9
27.5
100.6
2.3
10.3
12.8
173.4

Meat
consumed
(%)
12
16
58
1
6
7
100

1.2. PIG POPULATION
The number of pig production being increased surrounding year. In 2010-2016, pig

production was approximately increased from 2.8 million to 3.7 million heads (table 2; figure
1). While, demand for meat consumption are also increased in Laos. Almost pig production in
the country are a rise in smallholder scales, according to the record small scale farms keep
local breed’s 3.150.000 heads or 85.1% and small number of pig commercial farms
contributed near major urban market where people are distributed. Commercial intensive pig
production systems about 645 farms, there are 41 boar and sow farms with totally 23.200
sows and produce 400.000 piglets/year. However, the number of piglet requirement 700.000
heads (DLF, 2017).
Table 2. Statistic of livestock population in Laos (20102016)
Livestock population in 7 years
(Thousand head)
No Animals
201 2011 201
201 201 201
2013
0
2
4
5
6
1 Buffalo
1.18 1.19 1.18 1.19 1.15 1.16 1.17
6
7
8
0
4
5
7
2 Cattle

1.47 1.53 1.69 1.71 1.76 1.82 1.92
4
8
2
4
7
8
3
3 Pigs
2.75 2.65 2.79 2.94 3.12 3.25 3.70
3
1
4
8
3
8
0
4 Poultry
24.0 26.8 28.7 30.7 32.4 34.4 35.1
79
50
79
27
08
22
50
5 Goat/She 367 431 444 470 480 533 560
ep
6 Fish
120.0 129.6 136.0142.84 150.5 158.6 164.0

products,
00
00
01
2
92
00
00
tons
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Figure 1. Number of pigs in Laos from 2010-2016

Animal statistics from Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery or MAF, (2015)
showed that a large numbers of pigs are in the Northern region from 2005-2010 and then the
population of pig was increased in the southern region between years 2011-2015 (MAF, 2017)
table 3; figure 2.
Table 3. Pig population in Laos (2005-2015)
Northern
Years
Central region
region
2005
847.300
582.743
2006
889.036
563.403
2007

996.118
577.663
2008
1.107.553
600.791
2009
1.223.740
630.510
2010
1.347.913
664.338
2011
969.125
720.163
2012
924.892
746.464
2013
989.900
797.771
2014
1.085.456
862.831
2015
1.132.308
900.072

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Southern

region
456.200
582.698
612.427
650.214
700.060
740.259
961.912
1.122.319
1.162.572
1.175.099
1.225.820


Figure 2. Characteristic of pig in northern, central and southern
in 2005-2015

1.3. PIG PRODUCTION SYSTEM IN LAOS
Pig production in Laos can be classified into three main categories:
1.3.1. Commercial pig production
Which is small compared with either smallholder or semi-commercial pig production.
However, during the last 10 years the number of commercial pig farms has increased 645
farms in Laos particularly near the population centres in the Mekong corridor (MAF, 2017)
due to high demand for pork. The pigs used are imported breeds, such as Large White,
Landrace and Duroc. Feeding is based on concentrate and bagged commercial feed. Rice bran
is used to supplement finishing pigs. Some commercial farms formulate and produce their
own feed.
1.3.2. Semi-commercial pig production
Which is mostly found near population centres. In this production system, crossbreeds with imported breeds such as Landrace, Large White and Xingjin (from China) are
commonly used. The pigs are housed, and are fed with a mixture of locally available

feedstuffs (rice bran, broken rice, cassava root and maize) and concentrate for 3-4 months to
reach a marketable weight of 90-100 kg (Wilson, 2007).
1.3.3. Smallholder pig production
Considerable numbers of pigs are raised by smallholders using three different
production systems: a) free-scavenging, b) semi-scavenging and c) year-round confinement
(Phengsavanh et al., 2011).

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a. Free-scavenging system:
Typical for more remote and less accessible areas (inaccessible in rainy season and in
dry season travel to the city market takes three hours by car). In this system, pigs are allowed
to scavenge freely all year round (photo 1). The pig raising is purposed for traditional
festivals, weddings and cultural ceremonies. But it also serves as saving or pigs are sold for
emergency cash needs such as buy seeds or fertilizer, at the time illness or family festival,
school fees. Pigs can also have a social function, gift or as food during community events.
Keeping scavenging pigs requires minimal inputs and un-investment, with concentrated feed
or vaccines. Farmer preferred to kept native pig 1-3 head per household in the village and it
accounts for 96% of all Lao pig production. Feeds are poor quality and additional feed are
given occasionally, as led to growth rates tend to be slow and it may take 15 months to reach a
weight of 40-50kg (Kennard, 1996), for sows only have 1 or 2 litter per year with 6-8 piglets
per litter. This system can also lead to ineffective disease control (Kagira et al., 2010), as
infectious diseases of classical swine fever (CSF) (Conlan et al., 2008; Osbjer, 2006;
Phengsavanh, 2006).

Photo 1. Local pigs are allowed to scavenge freely all
year round

b. Semi-scavenging system:

Common in remote areas with cash crop cultivation. This is commonly occurred in
smallholder situation near population centers, Pigs are only allowed to scavenge freely after
the main crops have been harvested. During the free-scavenging period, farmers provide the
pigs with a small amount of feed each day, while the main part has to be found by the pigs
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themselves. During the crop planting season, pigs are confined either in pens or enclosures
near the village or close to crop production areas (photo 2). During this period pig owner
provide feed such as rice bran, maize and cassava, and green leaves which are available in the
forest Phengsavanh et al., (2011), on fallow areas, or along stream banks. This system is used
for both piglet production and for fattening pigs (Phengsavanh and stur, 2006). Farmers used
native pigs combinate with improved breed’s 3-4 heads per households generally in the
village with penned and are given improved feeds and accounts for 3% of all Lao pig
production in this system (Vongthilath and Blacksell, 1999).

Photo 2. Local pigs in pen

c. Year-round confinement system:
Common in areas close to the district centre. There are two types of confinement:
pens and enclosure, and pigs are commonly kept confined throughout the year. The penning
system is used to fatten pigs for sale, while the enclosure system is used to keep pigs away
from the crops and improve village sanitation. In this system, farmers use exotic and
crossbred pigs, feed concentrate to both piglets and growers and provide regular vaccination
and de-worming. Pigs in enclosures are fed traditional feeds such as rice bran, maze, cassava
and green plant material (photo 3).

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Photo 3. Feed stuffs available in farm
condition

1.3.4. Main problems in smallholder pig production systems
The main problems in smallholder pig production systems in Laos are low growth
rates, outbreaks of disease and high mortality of piglets. These problems are common in freescavenging systems and in semi-scavenging systems. The management practices in these
systems rely on traditional methods, with poor feeding and no vaccination against epidemic
pig diseases. The feeding system varies depending on season. In the rainy season, which is the
cultivation period, pigs are only fed once a day or are only fed when farmers do not work in
the field. In the dry season, when crop harvesting has been completed, pigs are fed twice a
day and the feed mainly contains agricultural by-products. Confinement in enclosures or pens
allows better risk management. However, a good road that improves market access may also
lead to exposure to epidemics of disease due to animal movement and uncontrolled visits
from animal and meat traders (Chittavong et al., 2012; Phengsavanh et al., 2011).
1.3.5. Important points to improve smallholder pig production system
The problem of smallholder pig production as: disease epidemics, high piglet
mortality, poor growth rate, and high labor demand. Policies, strategies, plans, and
regulations regarding pig production are developed by the Department of Livestock and
Fisheries (DLF). In addition, the National Agricultural and Forestry Research Institute
(NAFRI) has discovered possible ways to improve livestock production. The two main
priorities for which urgent solutions are needed are nutrition and breed improvement. More
than 85% of small scale producers keep local breeds (DLF, 2017) which make productivities
low and not attractive to farmers to invest in pig rising. In terms of nutrition, the small scale
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