Luận văn nâng cao hiệu quả sử dụng bauhinia acuminate trong chăn nuôi dê ở lào

HUE UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

PHONEVILAY SILIVONG

IMPROVED UTILISATION OF BAUHINIA ACUMINATA
FOR GOAT PRODUCTION IN LAO PDR

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ANIMAL SCIENCES

HUE, 2020
HUE UNIVERSITY


UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

PHONEVILAY SILIVONG

IMPROVED UTILISATION OF BAUHINIA ACUMINATA
FOR GOAT PRODUCTION IN LAO PDR

SPECIALIZATION: ANIMAL SCIENCES
CODE: 9620105

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ANIMAL SCIENCES

SUPERVISOR 1: ASSOC.PROF. NGUYEN HUU VAN
SUPERVISOR 2: DR. DUONG THANH HAI

HUE, 2020

GUARANTEE
2


I hereby guarantee that scientific work in this thesis is mine. All results
described in this thesis are righteous and objective. They have been published in
Journal of Livestock Research for Rural Development (LRRD)

Hue University, 2020

Phonevilay Silivong, PhD student

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The research in this PhD thesis was conducted at the farm and laboratory of
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture and Forest Resource,
3


Souphanouvong University, in Luangprabang Province, Lao PDR with supported from
Mekong Basin Animal Research Network (MEKARN II) project for funding this
theses research and the scholarship for the PhD degree. I am grateful for the support
from all of those people and institutions.
I am greatly indebted to my main supervisor, Associate Professor Nguyen Huu
Van and co-supervisor, Dr. Duong Thanh Hai for his mentoring and constructive
advice during my studies. He made me much more confident as a scientist and
researcher. His patience and encouragement during my illness and positive criticism
made it possible to accomplish this work.
My special thanks to Professor Thomas Reg Preston and Professor Dr. Ron Leng,
my teacher and adviser, for all your valuable guidance and support during the study.

I would also like to extend sincere thanks to Professor Dr. Ewadle, International
Coordinator MEKARN II project; Dr. Vanthong Phengvichith, National Agriculture
and Forestry Researcher Institute (NAFRI), Lao PDR; Dr. Kieu Borin, MEKARN II
regional coordinator for their facilitation, help and support to the whole course.
Professors, lecturers and assistant lecturers in Hue University of Agriculture and
Forestry and MEKARN II program, for giving me care and useful knowledge.
Warm thanks are extended to my father, Mr. Souk Silivong for his great help
and support. My mother, Ms. Khampoun Silivong for her assistance and
encouragement, my older brothers and sister Mrs. Kesone Silivong, Mr. Vone Silivong,
Mr. Sonexay Silivong and younger sister Mrs. Bounmee Silivong for their supported
and encouragement; to my wife, Mrs. Souksadar Vongyalud and my son Phetsamone
Silivong and my daughter Souphaphone Silivong for their love.
I would like to warmly thank Mr. Khamlek and Mr. Phonesavath, and Mr.
Siphone, my analysis assistants and my colleagues in the Department of Animal
Science, Faculty of Agriculture and Forest Resource, Souphanouvong University. All
of my friends in the PhD program 2017-2020 from the three countries: Laos, Vietnam
and Cambodia, for sharing the culture, friendship and creating a warm atmosphere
throughout the time of the course.
I would like to thanks all the people who contributed to this study.
ABSTRACTS
This study was aimed at the utilization of locally available feed resources for
increasing growth performance and reducing enteric methane emissions from goats in
Lao PDR. Five experiments (two in vitro and three in vivo) were carried out and
presented in four chapters of this dissertation. Experiment 1 evaluated the effect on
4


methane production from leaves of Bauhinia acuminata and Guazuma ulmifolia of an
increasing level of water spinach as source of soluble protein. Experiment 2 and 3
were studied the effects of water spinach and biochar on enteric methane emissions

and growth performance in local goats fed Bauhinia acuminata and molasses, or
cassava root chip, as the basal diet. Experiment 4 aimed to determine the effect of
different protein sources (cassava foliage or water spinach) with or without of brewers’
grain (5% of diet DM)) on feed intake, digestibility, N balance and growth
performance of local goats. Experiment 5 was to determine the effect of biochar and
leaf meal from sweet and bitter cassava leaves, on methane production in an in vitro
incubation of Bauhinia acuminata and water spinach as basal substrate.
The main findings of the study were that: (1) Goats fed Bauhinia acuminata
responded with improved diet digestibility, N retention and growth rate when the
Bauhinia acuminata was supplemented with water spinach; (2) However an important
negative effect was that the improvement in diet digestibility by supplementation with
water spinach led to increases in methane production per unit diet DM digested; (3)
Supplementing Bauhinia acuminata foliage with leaves from a bitter variety of
cassava reduced the in vitro production of methane when compared with
supplementation by leaves from a sweet variety of cassava; (4) Ensiled brewers’ grains
fed as an additive (5% as DM) to a diet of Bauhinia acuminata improved the
digestibility, N retention and growth rate of goats. The degree of improvement was
greater when the Bauhinia acuminata was supplemented with cassava foliage instead
of water spinach; (5) Biochar fed at 1% of a diet of Bauhinia acuminata and cassava
foliage was as effective as brewers’ grains in improving the growth rate of the goats.
The results of this study indicated that supplementation of foliage from water
spinach or cassava improved growth of local goats fed Bauhinia acuminata as basal
diet. HCN present in the leaves of cassava could be the reason for the reduction in
methane emission. Ensiled brewers’ grains and biochar fed to goats as additives
probably act as “prebiotics” to improve growth performance and assist in
detoxification in the animal.
Key words: N-balance, protein solubility, bauhinia, water spinach, solubility Nbalance, rumen ammonia, biochar, prebiotics, HCN
DEDICATION

To my parents, my wife Souksadar Vongyalud, my son (Phetsamone Silivong)

and daughter (Souphaphone Silivong)
To:
My country (Lao PDR)
5


TABLE OF CONTENT

6


LIST OF TABLES

CHAPTER 1. LITERATURE REVIEW

LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER 1. LITERATURE REVIEW

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, SYMBOLS AND EQUIVALENTS

ADF

Acid detergent fibre

ANOVA

Analysis of variance

AOAC

Association of Official Analytical Chemists

BW

Body weight

BG

Brewers’ grains

BC

Biochar
7


CF

Cassava foliage

CR

Cassava root

CF

Crude fibre

CH4

Methane

CO2

Carbon dioxide

CP

Crude protein

CT

Condensed tannins

CLM

Cassava leaf meal

DM

Dry matter

DMI

Dry matter intake

FCR

Feed conversion ratio

FMD

Foot and Mouth Disease

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

GHG

Green House Gas

ha

Hectare

Kg

Kilogram

HCN

Hydrogen cyanide

HS

Hemorrhagic Septicemia

LW

Live weight

Mekarn

Mekong basin animal research network

N

Nitrogen

NDF

Neutral detergent fibre

NH3

Ammonia

NPN

None protein nitrogen

OM

Organic matter

pH

Percentage of Hydrogen Ion

Prob/P

Probability

PPM

Part per million

RCBD

Randomized complete block design
8


SE Asia

South East Asia

SEM

Standard error of the mean

Sida-SAREC Swedish international development cooperation
agency Department for research cooperation
TDN

Total Digestible Nutrition

VFA

Volatile Fatty Acid

WS

Water spinach
INTRODUCTION

1. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Laos is located in the central part of the Indochinese Peninsula. It is an inland
state surrounded by China, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand and Myanmar. Lao PDR has
a total land area of 236,800 km 2. The agricultural land is limited to around 4% of total,
consisting of 18 provinces/cities comprising 148 districts.
Laos population has 7,028,094 people and is equivalent to 0.09% of the total
world population. Laos has a distinct rainy season from May to November, followed
by a dry season from December to April. Local tradition holds that there are three
seasons (rainy, cold and hot) as the latter two months of the climatologically defined
dry season are noticeably hotter than the earlier four months.
Goats are increasingly important for subsistence food production with over 90%
of the global goat population found in developing countries (Glimp, 1995; FAO, 2005;
World Bank, 2013). As goats produce several livestock products with lower inputs
than cattle and buffalo, smallholder goat farmers in developing countries, particularly
in Asia and Africa, have increasingly been recruited to goat raising, with goats
described as an ‘entry point’ on the ‘pathway from poverty’. Goats are considered
more easily managed than cattle, especially by resource poor farmers, including
women. Goat raising offers households nutritional benefits as meat protein for hunger
alleviation, enhanced livelihoods from animal trading income, more effective
utilisation of family labour, and increased livelihood stability and resilience in rural
communities due to more self-reliance (FAO, 2005; World Bank, 2013). In Southeast
Asia, goats have been of increasing importance, particularly in countries with large

Islamic populations, including Indonesia, Malaysia, and parts of the Philippines and
Thailand. However, in recent years, increasing demand for consumption of goat meat
in Vietnam and China has created opportunities for increasing production in the Lao
People’s Democratic Republic (Laos, henceforth). Currently, the government of Laos
9


is attempting to obtain an average meat supply for local consumption of
60kg/capita/year, plus increased meat exports to a value of USD 50 million by 2020
(FAO, 2005).
In Laos, goat production is traditionally extensive with low inputs, and
subsequently low outputs (Kounnavongsa et al., 2010). Four major goat management
systems have been described, including: free range; semi-free range; semi-rotational
grazing; and permanent grazing with or without tethering. Free range is the most
commonly observed system, although semi-free range can be found in areas where
cropping predominates (Kounnavongsa et al., 2010; Phengvichith and Preston, 2011).
In most systems, goats are herded back to the village and kept in small hutches
overnight for protection, although housing is only considered beneficial if it is kept
clean (Phengsavanh, 2003). The system used by an individual farmer will depend upon
feed and labour availability plus local community agreements, particularly related to
cropping and use of common grazing areas (Kounnavongsa et al., 2010; Phengvichith
and Preston, 2011). Typically, Lao goat herds consist of 3-10 animals (Kounnavongsa
et al., 2010; Phengvichith and Preston, 2011), although there are some recent examples
of developing herds with as many as 200 animals raised on semi- and fullycommercial farms. Approximately 551,153 goats were recorded in Laos in the 2016
agricultural census (DLF, 2016). This number is likely to be underestimated, as it is
widely considered to have been increasing rapidly due to recent expanding regional
demand for goat meat, particularly from Vietnam, with estimates that between 2,0003,000 goats per month are being exported. Increasing demand for consumption of goat
meat in Laos and neighbouring Vietnam and China, is providing opportunities for
smallholder farmers to increase productivity and has led to the development of semi to
full commercial production systems to capitalise on the growth in this emerging

livestock sector, particularly if biosecure transboundary trade can be enhanced (Stur et
al., 2002; Windsor, 2011; Nampanya et al., 2015). However, introducing goats and
expanding small goat herds where smallholders and potential commercial operators
have limited experience of small ruminants can be exceedingly challenging. In recent
years, many international development agencies have promoted smallholder goatraising programs with distribution of goats to untrained farmers, often accompanied by
severe mortality and morbidity problems (Windsor et al., 2017).
In developing improved systems for feeding livestock, account must also be
taken of the impacts on the environment. It is estimated that livestock presently
account for some 18% of greenhouses gases which cause global warming (Steinfeld et
al., 2006). Enteric methane from fermentative rumen digestion is the main source of
these emissions. There is an urgent need to develop ways of reducing methane
10


emissions from ruminants in order to meet future targets for mitigating global
warming.
The legume tree Bauhinia acuminata is widely distributed in many parts of Lao
specially in Luang Prabang, and it has been observed that the foliage is readily
consumed by goats. The leaves of Bauhinia acuminata have 14.5% of protein of low
solubility (22%). As is the case with foliage from most legume trees, it contains many
secondary plant compounds including tannins (Silivong and Preston, 2015)
Water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica) is cultivated for human food and also is fed
to animals such as goats, pigs, ducks and rabbits. It does not appear to contain antinutritional compounds and has been used successfully for goats as the only source of
supplementary protein (Phongpanith et al; 2013). It grows equally well in water or in
soil. It responds dramatically in biomass yield and protein content when fertilized.
(Preston et al., 2013) reported that the leaves contain 24% protein in dry matter (DM)
and that the protein is highly soluble (71%) and therefore easily fermentable as a
source of nutrients for rumen microorganisms. These qualities make water spinach an
ideal supplement for tree foliages of low nutritive value. Thus, (Kongmanila et al.,
2007) reported that water spinach supplementation of foliages from Fig, Jujube and

Mango trees increased the DM and crude protein intake of goats, and improved the
apparent digestibility and N retention. According to Thu Hong et al., 2011, the live
weight gain of goats fed Mimosa foliage was increased 27% by supplementing with
fresh water spinach. Goats fed a sole diet of cassava foliage also responded with
increased DM digestibility and N retention when fresh water spinach was provided as
a supplement (Patshoummalangsy and Preston, 2006).
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is an annual crop grown widely in the
tropical and subtropical regions. Roots of cassava are rich in energy (75 to 85% of
soluble carbohydrate) but with minimal levels of crude protein (2 to 3% in DM). The
development of the starch industry in Lao for export to China and other neighboring
countries has increased the market for cassava roots. As a result, cassava is currently
the third most important crop in Laos, after rice and maize.
The varieties used for industrial starch production are known as “bitter”
varieties due to the high content of cyanogenic glucosides that are converted into the
highly toxic hydrocyanic acid when consumed by animals and people. The cassava
varieties that are planted for human consumption are known as “sweet” varieties as
they have a lower content of cyanogenic glucosides.
For every tonne of roots that are harvested there are an additional 600kg of
stems and leaves. However, the farmers in the cassava factory area have no experience
11


in the utilization of cassava leaves as the protein supplement to feed to animals,
especially cattle.
The foliage of cassava has been shown to be an effective source of bypass
protein for fattening steers (Ffoulkes and Preston, 1978; Keo Sath et al., 2008;
Wanapat et al., 1997). It is thus a logical forage to provide the additional protein
required in diets rich in carbohydrate but low in protein. Cassava leaves are known to
contain variable levels of condensed tannins; about 3% in DM according to Netpana et
al., 2001 and Bui Phan Thu Hang and Ledin, 2005. Condensed tannins are reported to

decrease rumen methane production and increase the efficiency of microbial protein
synthesis (Makkar et al., 1995; Grainger et al., 2009). Reductions of CH 4 production of
13 to 16% have been reported (Carulla et al., 2005; Waghorn et al., 2002, Grainger et
al., 2009; Woodward et al., 2004), apparently through a direct toxic effect on
methanogens.
Brewers’ grains is a byproduct derived from the industrial brewing of beer.
Research with goats (Sina et al; 2017) highlighted a major interaction between the
effect of the supplementary brewers’ grains and the nature of the basal diet. The
improvement in growth rate due to addition of brewers’ grains was 130% when the
basal diet was fresh cassava foliage but only 30% when the basal diet was water
spinach (Sina et al., 2017).
A positive approach to the problem of how to reduce methane emissions from
live stock has been to incorporate a low level (1%) of biochar in the diet (Sangkhom et
al., 2012; Leng et al., 2012a,b,c). Biochar is the product of incomplete carbonization of
fibrous biomass at high temperatures (Lehmann and Joseph, 2009). It is a highly
porous material which gives it valuable properties as a support mechanism for biofilms
that facilitate the adsorption of consortia of micro-organisms and nutrients that may
prioritize incorporation of hydrogen into volatile acids rather than methane (Leng,
2018 personal communication).
2. THE OBJECTIVES
The study aimed at the utilization of locally available feed resources for
increasing growth performance and reducing enteric methane emissions from goats in
Lao PDR. The specific objectives were following:
- To evaluate the of water spinach as a source of high soluble protein and
biochar on methane production in an in vitro system with substrate of Bauhinia
acuminata or Guazuma ulmifolia leaves
- To evaluate the effect of water spinach as a source of high soluble protein and
biochar on feed intake, digestibility, N retention, methane emission and growth
12

performance of goats fed Bauhinia acuminata foliages plus molasses or dried cassava
root chip as the basal diets.
- To examine the effect of replacing water spinach by cassava foliage and/or
brewer’s grain on feed intake, digestibility, N retention and growth performance of
goat fed Bauhinia acuminata plus dried cassava root chip as the basal diets.
- To compare the sweet or bitter of cassava leaves and biochar on gas
production, methane content of the gas and methane ml/g DM digested in an in vitro
incubation.
3. THE HYPOTHESIS
- Water spinach, with its high content of soluble protein, would increase the rate
of fermentation and production of methane when added to forage rich in insoluble
protein such as Bauhinia acuminata or Guazuma ulmifolia leaves.
- The performance of growing goats fed Bauhinia acuminata as the basal diet
would be improved by supplementation with water spinach as a rapidly fermentable
protein source. Enteric methane production would be reduced by adding a low level
(1%) of biochar.
- Goats fed foliage of the legume tree Bauhinia acuminata would respond
positively in growth rate and feed conversion to a low-level supplement of brewers’
grains, and that the degree of response would be greater when cassava foliage, rather
than water spinach, was the complementary source of protein.
- The methane content of the gas produced in an in vitro fermentation would be
reduced when leaves of bitter cassava replaced leaves of sweet cassava as
supplementary protein source and when 1% of biochar was added to the substrate.
4. SIGNIFICANT/INNOVATION OF THE DISSERTATION
This is the first series of study and the first sciencetific information on
improving the utilization of Bauhinia acuminata for goat production in Laos. The
results presented in this dissertation indicate that: (1) Goats fed Bauhinia acuminata
responded with improved diet digestibility, N retention and growth rate when the
Bauhinia acuminata was supplemented with water spinach; (2) But an important

negative effect was that the improvement in diet digestibility by supplementation with
water spinach led to increases in methane production per unit diet DM digested; (3)
Supplementing Bauhinia acuminata foliage with leaves from a bitter variety of
cassava reduced the in vitro production of methane when compared with
supplementation by leaves from a sweet variety of cassava; (4) Ensiled brewers’ grains
fed as an additive (5% as DM) to a diet of Bauhinia acuminata improved the
digestibility, N retention and growth rate of goats. The degree of improvement was
13


greater when the Bauhinia acuminata was supplemented with cassava foliage instead
of water spinach; (5) Biochar fed at 1% of a diet of Bauhinia acuminata and cassava
foliage was as effective as brewers’ grains in improving the growth rate of the goats.
REFERENCES
Bui Phan Thu Hang. And Ledin Inger., 2005. Utilization of Melastoma
(Melastoma affine, D. Don) foliage as a forage for growing goats with cassava (Manihot
Esculenta, Crantz) hay supplementation. Proceedings International Workshop on
Small Ruminant Production and Development in South East Asia (Editor: Inger
Ledin), Hanoi,
Vietnam,
2-4
March
2005. />Carulla, J.E., Kreuzer, M., Machmüller, A. and Hess, H.D., 2005. Supplementation
of Acacia mearnsii tannins decreases methanogenesis and urinary nitrogen in forage-fed
sheep. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 56: 951-969
Daovy Kongmanila, Preston, T. R. and Ledin Inger., 2007. Chemical composition,
digestibility and intake of some tropical foliage species used for goats. MSc Thesis,
MEKARN-SLU />DLF., 2016. Department of Livestock and Fishery.
Ffoulkes, D. and Preston, T.R., 1978. Cassava or sweet potato forage as combined
sources of protein and roughage in molasses based diets: effect of supplementation with

soybean meal. Tropical Animal Production.
http://www. utafoundation.org/TAP/TAP33/ 331.pdf
FAO., 2005. Livestock Diversity in Lao PDR.
Glimp, H. A., 1995. Meat goat production. Journal of Animal Science 73, 291-295.
Grainger, C., Clarke, T., Auldist, M.J., Beauchemin, K.A., McGinn, S.M. and
Waghorn, G.C., 2009. Potential use of Acacia mearnsii condensed tannins to reduce
methane emissions and nitrogen). excretion from grazing dairy cows.Canadian Journal of
Animal Science, 89, 241-251
/>Keo Sath., Borin, K. and Preston, T.R., 2008. Effect of levels of sun-dried cassava
foliage
on growth performance of cattle fed rice straw. Livestock Research for
Rural Development. Volume 20, supplement.
./lrrd20/supplement/sath2.htm
Kounnavongsa, B., Phengvichith, V. and Preston, T. R., 2010. Effects of fresh or
sun-dried cassava foliage on growth performance of goats fed basal diets of Gamba grass
14


or sugar cane stalk. Livestock Research for Rural Development. Volume 22, Article
#202. />Lehmann, J. and Joseph, S. (Editors)., 2009. Biochar for Environmental
Management; Science and Technology.Earthscan, London, EC1N 8XA, UK, Sterling, VA
20166-2012, USA
Leng, R. A, Inthapanya, S. and Preston, T.R., 2012a. Biochar lowers net methane
production from rumen fluid in vitro. Livestock Research for Rural Development.Volume
24, Article #103. />Leng, R. A, Preston, T. R. and Inthapanya, S., 2012b. Biochar reduces enteric
methane and improves growth and feed conversion in local “Yellow” cattle fed cassava
root chips and fresh cassava foliage. Livestock Research for Rural Development. Volume
24, Article #199. />Leng, R.A, Inthapanya, S. and Preston, T.R., 2012c. Methane production is
reduced in an in vitro incubation when the rumen fluid is taken from cattle that previously
received biochar in their diet. Livestock Research for Rural Development. Volume 24,

Article#211. />Makkar, H.P.S., Blu¨mmel, M. and Becker, K., 1995. In vitro effects of and
interactions between tannins and saponins and fate of saponins tannins in the rumen,
Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. pp. 481-493.
Netpana, N., Wanapat, M., Poungchompu, O. and Toburan, W., 2001. Effect of
condensed tannins in cassava hay on fecal parasitic egg counts in swamp buffaloes
and cattle. In: Proceedings International Workshop on Current Research and Development
on Use of Cassava as Animal Feed. T R Preston, B Ogle and M Wanapat (Ed)
/>Nampanya, S; Khounsy, S; Phonvisay, A; Bush, R.D; Windsor, P.A., 2015a.
Improving smallholder food security through investigations of carcass composition and
beef marketing of buffalo and cattle in northern Lao PDR. Tropical Animal Health and
Production 47,681-689. doi:10.1007/s11250-015-0778-7
Phengsavanh, P. and Ledin I., 2003. Effect of Stylo 184 and Gamba grass in diet
for growing goats. Goat production in smallholder farming system in Lao PDR and the
possibility of improving the diet quality by using Stylo 184 and Andropogon gayanus cv
Kent. MSc thesis, Department of Animal Nutrition and Management, SLU, Uppsala
/>Pathoummalangsy Khamparn and Preston, T.R., 2006. Effect of a supplement of
fresh water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica) on feed intake and digestibility in goats fed a
15


basal diet of cassava foliage. Livestock Research for Rural Development.Volume 18,
Article #35.Retrieved April 24, 2007, From
/>Phengvichith, V. and Preston, T.R., 2011. Effect of feeding processed cassava
foliage on growth performance and nematode parasite infestation of local goats in Laos.
Livestock Research for Rural Development. Volume 23, Article #13.
/>Phongpanith, S; Inthapanya, S. and Preston, T.R., 2013. Effect on feed intake,
digestibility and N balance in goats of supplementing a basal diet of Muntingia foliage
with biochar and water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica). Livestock Research for Rural
Development. Volume 25, Article #35. />Preston, T.R; Do, H.Q; Khoa, T.D; Hao, T.P. and Leng, R.A., 2013. Protein
solubility of fish meal and groundnut meal and methane production in an in vitro

incubation. Livestock Research for Rural Development.Volume 25, Article #16.
/>Stür, W; Gray, D. and Bastin, G., 2002. Review of the Livestock Sector in the Lao
People’s Democratic Republic. Prepared by ILRI for the Asian Development Bank,
Manila, Philippines, 50pp.
Steinfeld, H; Gerber, P; Wassenaar, T; Castel, V; Rosales, R. and Haan, C.,
2006. Livestock’s long shadow. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, Rome, Italy.
Sangkhom, I; Preston, T.R; Khang, D.N. and Leng, R.A., 2012. Effect of method
of processing of cassava leaves on protein solubility and methane production in an in vitro
incubation using cassava root as source of energy. Livestock Research for Rural
Development.Volume 24, Article #36. />Silivong, P. and Preston, T.R., 2015. Effect of water spinach on methane
production in an in vitro incubation with substrates of Bauhinia (acuminata) and
Guazuma ulmifolia leaves. Livestock Research for Rural Development. Volume 27,
Article
#217.
Retrieved
December
10,
2015,
from
/>Sina, V; Preston, T.R. and Tham, T.H., 2017. Brewers’ grains have a synergistic
effect on growth rate of goats fed fresh cassava foliage (Manihot esculenta Crantz) as
basal diet. Livestock Research for Rural Development. Volume 29, Article
#137. Retrieved July 3, 2017, from />16


Thu Hong, N.T. and Lam, N.T., 2011. Effect of Mimosa pigra and water spinach
(Ipomoea aquatica) on intake, digestibility and growth of goats in the Mekong delta,
Vietnam. Livestock Research for Rural Development.Volume 23, Article #150.Retrieved
December 16, 2014, from />Wanapat, M., Pimpa, O., Petlum, A. and Boontao, U., 1997. Cassava hay: A new

strategic feed for ruminants during the dry season. Livestock Research for Rural
Development.Volume 9, Number 2, Article 18.
/>Waghorn, G.C., Tavendale, M.H. and Woodfield, D.R., 2002. Methanogenesis
from forages fed to sheep. Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association 64,
167-171.
Woodward, S.L., Waghorn, G.C. and Laboyrie, P., 2004. Condensed tannins in
birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) reduced methane emissions from dairy cows.
Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production 64, 160-164.
Windsor, P.A., Perspectives on Australian Animal Health Aid Project in South-East
Asia. Transbound Emerg Dis., 2011. 58: 375-86. g/10.1111/j.1865-168
2.2011. 01216.x
World Bank. World development indicator Washington, DC: World Bank., 2013.
Windsor, P., 2017. Are Village Animal Health Workers Able to Assist in
Strengthening Transboundary Animal Disease Control in Cambodia? Transboundary and
Emerging
Diseases,
64(2),
634-643.

17


CHAPTER 1
LITERATURE REVIEW
1. GOAT PRODUCTION IN LAOS
Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy in Laos, contributing 40.7% of GDP
and employing more than 80% of the population. For the rural smallholders, who
contribute most of the country’s agricultural output, livestock keeping is often a vital
source of cash income, a means to accumulate assets, and a provider of inputs to crop

production (manure and draught power). Cattle, buffaloes, pigs, chickens and goats are
the most important livestock species in the country. Demand for meat is increasing,
and there is growing potential for exporting livestock and their products to neighboring
countries. The government has adopted a livestock development plan to strengthen and
promote animal production and enhance national food security.
Farmers raise animals predominantly by traditional methods, and output per
animal is not high. The animals are mainly indigenous and are kept mostly under free
range conditions; they graze on natural grasslands, in paddy fields after the harvest, on
fallow land and in the forest. Feed resources are inadequate, and diseases and parasites
are serious constraints. The free range system means that there is often no selection of
breeding animals. Livestock support services, research and extension, marketing
networks, transport and communication links, and access to inputs and credit all need
to be improved. Despite the continued dominance of smallholder production, the
country’s livestock production systems are changing. In lowland areas, crop
production is being intensified and there is increased use of mechanized power. This
restricts the grazing land available for cattle and buffaloes, and limits their importance
as draught animals. In the cities, commercial pig and poultry enterprises are emerging
in response to rising demand, and one commercial dairy cattle farm has been
established. Laos has a comparative advantage in large ruminant production over
neighboring countries, with scope for further development of cattle, buffalo and goat
production in the uplands. Growing demand for goat meat has resulted in quite a rapid
increase in the national goat population (around 8 percent per annum) over the last 20
years, the animals largely being kept by smallholders in mountainous areas. More
18


recently, some districts have seen a huge boom in goat numbers, with the population
rising tenfold within a period of six years. These trends place new demands on the
country’s livestock populations and on the agro-ecosystems of which they are a part. It
is vital to ensure that the resources that underpin animal production and the wider

farming system are maintained and developed sustainably so that they provide ongoing
livelihood opportunities for local people and remain available for the future. The
management of livestock genetic diversity is one important element of this approach.
Goats in Laos are small in sizeand are used only for meat. At present, there is no
dairy milk production in the country. Average adult live weights are in the range of 2535 kg. The first kidding of this local goat is at an average age of 12 months, with only
one kid in the first kidding, and then commonly twins in later kidding. The goats can
produce 1.4 to 1.9 liters per year and 1.7 to 1.9 kids per litter. Lao native goats are
morphologically and genetically similar to the North Vietnamese native goats. Because
during the years 2001 to 2003, morethan 20 Bachthao goats from Vietnam were
introduced to Laos and kept at the Livestock Research Centre for improving the
production in Lao for raising and breeding with local breed of Lao. Their body size is
similar to the Southeast Asian dwarf goats (“Kambing-Katjang”-typed goats). Their coat
colors are polymorphic with wild-type agouti and black, and their external appearances
are Bezoar-type with scimitar-shaped horns, pricked ears and straight-faced profiles. The
amount of genetic variability of blood protein has been estimated, reinforcing the
conclusion that the Lao native goats can be characterized as the “Kambing-Katjang”type native goats of the Indo-China peninsula. The breeding system of indigenous goats
is natural mating with very limited human intervention. Inbreeding is usual. Information
systems for breed utilization are yet to be developed and there is a need to formulate
breeding systems and train staff and farmers in breeding techniques, nutrition and
management. The goat population in the country is relatively small but has increased
markedly in recent years (Daovy et al., 2008; Xaypha, 2005; Phengsavanh, 2003b;
Phimphachanhvongsod, 2001; Phengvichith, 1997).
Goats play an important role in food production system in almost all developing
countries. Their great popularity can be explained by their good adaptation to many
different climates and the many uses for which they can be kept. Goats are of high
importance to people because of the many functions they provide: they serve as a bank
account which can be drawn upon when cash money is needed. Furthermore, goats
provide milk and meat which are high-grade foods for people and contain high quality
protein to balance diets based on cereal grains. Goats are much more resistant than
cattle; they are small animals and cost less per animal. Each farmer usually owns a

number of goats, and goat keeping therefore touches on many people’s lives. The
goats often graze freely in fallow crop land and forests (Nafri, 2005). They are held in
small groups which are herded by their owner and the animals eat from fodder trees,
bushes, shrubs and grass. Most farmers keep their goats close to the house at night in
19


shelters because of the risk of theft, and the animals can also be fed supplementary
feed at this time, although most farmers do not provide any feed (Nafri, 2005). Some
farmers also form cooperatives and have their goats in bigger common groups. The
goats are still owned individually but the farmers share the labour and costs of for
example building shelters. The animals can also be in fenced areas during the wet
season to prevent damage to crop fields; feed is then cut and carried to them. During
the dry season they are often left to graze freely. In some systems, the goats are
grazing in big fenced areas during the whole year. Concentrates are seldom used.
Some goats are vaccinated and de-wormed but most farmers do not have the custom to
do this, making especially internal parasites common (Xaypha, 2005). A big problem
when raising goats seems to be the lack of planned breeding. Bucks are not often
selected and inbreeding is allowed to happen. Diseases, the tropical climate, low
fertility and damage to the crops are other problems as well (Acharya, 1986; FAO,
2007b). Keonakhone et al., 2009 made an investigation among villagers raising goats
in Phonexay and Namo districts and they found that another problem was that goats
died more easily from diseases than cattle. It also seemed that goats born during the
dry period did not die as easily as the ones born during the rain period. Thefts, as well
as dogs biting or killing the goats were other big problems stated by the inhabitants of
the villages. The goat breed most commonly used in Laos is a native mixed breed
which can be included in the Southeast Asian Mountain goat group (Wilson, 2007).
They are well adapted to the climate in the country and are relatively fertile. However,
they have a low growth rate. The average adult weight is around 30 kg but in some
more intensive production systems they can reach a weight of 40 kg (Xaypha, 2005)

Goats have many advantages, for example, they demand less labour than cattle,
leaving time for other work at the farm. Less money has to be spend when buying the
animals and in some cases, also their feed (Acharya, 1986).The main part of the goats
is found in some upland provinces of Lao PDR where it is custom to eat goat meat
(Acharya, 1986). Almost all goats are held for producing meat (Amanullah et al.,
2006). The raising systems practiced are very extensive ones, but they are the most
suited ones for the sometimes harsh conditions (Acharya, 1986).
2. ROLE OF GOAT PRODUCTION IN LAOS
2.1. Goat population and distribution
Goat production in Lao PDR is developed and increasing year by year with the
total population of around 551,153 head in 2016 (Table 1). Almost all goats are raised
for meat and they can be found in the whole country. The highest number of goats is in
the central, 42.65%, north, 40.91% and lowest in the south part the country about
16.44% (DLF, 2016). Base on table 1 the goat population was increased slightly. The
average is increased of 3.5% per year, causing by many factors especially high internal
and external demand from consumers. Another season the smallholder farmers who
20


have a freely grazing land or poor farmers, they will have chanced to access to lowinterest-rate loans, accumulation of knowledge and high access to key inputs (forage
seeds) and input services (advance veterinary and technical assistance) may accelerate
their transition from market-oriented smallholder farmers to small-scale commercial
goat producers.
Table 1. The number of goat in Laos
Goat
Province

200
5

201
5

201
6

Northern
region

86,7 89,8 109, 115, 148, 157, 184, 180, 192, 196, 217,
30
44 611 860 475 849 912 779 203 247 738

225,
472

Phongsaly

3,33 3,68 4,10 4,50 5,00 4,91 5,74 6,19 6,56 13,3 14,8
0
1
0
0
0
2
9
4
3
73
37

18,4
27

Luangnam 5,60 5,91 6,23 6,52 9,27 18,9 9,10 8,83 9,35 13,9 15,4
tha
0
3
1
0
4
48
4
1
6
65
94

18,0
61

Oudomxa
y

13,6 15,6 18,0 19,4 21,7 20,9 32,5 32,0 33,9 24,8 27,5
00
00
00
89
42

27
04
82
91
29
48

23,9
22

Bokeo

4,40 5,11 5,70 6,44 9,78 10,4 16,2 15,8 16,8 25,5 28,3
0
0
5
0
8
26
84
77
22
23
18

33,1
41

Luangpra
bang

36,1 36,7 44,8 46,3 62,8 63,3 81,0 78,6 83,3 75,9 84,2
00
00
12
00
27
38
35
85
67
72
92

82,9
36

Huaphanh

15,7 16,2 23,7 25,0 31,1 27,3 27,6 30,5 32,3 30,9 34,3
00
00
18
81
54
37
66
43
60
82

75

34,5
95

Xayabury

8,00 6,64 7,04 7,53 8,69 11,9 12,5 8,56 9,74 11,6
0
0
5
0
0
61
70
7
4
03

12,8
74

14,3
92

Central
region

79,2 95,1 115,
58

68 023

112, 134, 142, 179, 177, 188, 201, 223,
756 154 142 212 910 495 326 373

235,
081

Vientiane
Capital

14,4 15,2 15,4 17,8 18,8 18,5 24,0 20,6 21,9 23,2 25,7
00
00
79
06
30
53
02
90
21
52
98

27,0
79

Xiengkho
uang

5,65 6,50 7,86 8,00 13,8 14,5 17,9 16,9 17,9 22,1 24,5
8
0
9
0
11
20
48
07
13
68
96

27,2
27

Vientiane

10,7 11,5 12,6 14,1 15,3 15,5 21,9 21,3 22,6 22,5 25,0
00
00
94
90
10
40
07
31
00
82
55

25,6
81

200
6

200
7

200
8

200
9

201
0

21

201
1

201
2

201
3

201
4


Goat
Province

200
5

201
5

201
6

Borikham
xay

2,10 7,86 9,44 10,0 12,9 15,6 21,6 21,0 2,34 26,7 29,6
0
8
1
86
30
71
60
93
8
54

84

32,5
15

Khammua
ne

7,20 11,0 25,5 14,0 24,2 26,8 27,5 23,2 24,5 27,1 30,1
0
00
22
44
13
93
25
10
91
40
12

32,0
77

Savannak
het

39,2 43,1 44,0 48,6 49,0 50,9 66,1 74,6 79,1 76,3 84,7
00
00

18
30
60
65
70
79
22
85
50

85,6
03

3,04 3,37
5
8

371
1

Southern
region

21,7 31,5 43,6 40,2 56,2 66,7 66,7 85,1 90,1 82,7 91,7
00
95
58
50
14
70

76
10
74
30
90

90,6
00

Saravan

11,0 16,2 24,6 21,5 30,1 38,6 33,0 48,7 51,6 38,7 43,0
00
00
90
36
14
54
52
43
43
75
21

38,0
37

Sekong

5,60 7,30 10,1 8,80 12,0 13,5 17,5 17,1 18,1 24,4 27,1

0
0
70
0
70
84
75
39
59
97
80

30,8
59

Champasa
ck

2,80 5,49 6,01 6,85 10,5 10,8 12,2 14,5 15,4 14,5 16,1
0
5
6
4
30
29
57
55
21
95
93

16,2
13

Attapeu

2,30 2,60 2,78 3,06 3,50 3,70 3,89 4,67 4,95 4,86 5,39
0
0
2
0
0
3
2
3
1
3
6

5,49
1

Total

187, 216, 268, 268, 338, 366, 430, 443, 470, 480, 532,
688 607 292 866 843 761 900 799 872 303 901

551,
153

200
6

200
7

200
8

200
9

201
0

201
1

Specail
region

201
2

201
3

201
4

Source: DLF 2016, Livestock Statistic. Ministry of Agriculture, Department of
livestock and fisheries
2.2. Goat production systems in smallholder farms
General goat production systems in Lao PDR and there are similar cattle
production system and can be characterized by agro-ecological conditions of lowlands,
uplands and highlands. Under these agro-ecological conditions, there are various goat
production systems of which farmers utilize and access diversified land resources for
goat grazing.

22


The present goat production systems were classified into four systems by
Phimpachanhvongsod (2001) according to management practices: Free range systems,
semi-rotational grazing system, semi-free range system and permanent grazing system.
2.2.1. Free range systems
The goats are left to graze freely native grass in the forest land, fallow land, on
the road side, and paddy rice field after harvesting without supervision No pens,
vaccination or supplementation are provided. These systems may be up to 20% of the
total population of goat which may be equivalent to about 110,230 heads. In wet
season when majority of smallholder farmers practice rain fed crop cultivation, goats
are usually penned in cages or control grazing areas. In lowland areas. In upland areas,
many farmers walked with goat to graze along a road and abandon fields. Natural
grass seems to provide sufficient feed for goat. In dry season when large cultivation
land areas are unused, goats are released to freely graze particularly fodder trees,
bushes, shrubs and grass in rice fields or natural area or forest from November to
February. They move further to graze in other areas including degraded forest areas.
Minimum supplement feed and health management are given during this period
resulting in deterioration of animal health and productivity.
2.2.2. Semi-rotational grazing system

The farmers form a group to raise or take care of the goats but the goats still
belong to individual members. The goats are grazed and rotated in fallow land or
communal grazing land. Pens or shelters are built and provided for the goats. These
systems may present up to 10% of the total goat herd which may be equivalent to
almost 55,115 heads. In these systems, goats are largely confined to fallow areas.
Some smallholder farmers that have their fallow areas close to each other often
grouped them together and fenced these areas to confine the animals. It is estimated
that each group, that fences an area ranging from four to eight hectares, was then able
to confine about 20-30 animals. Goat graze on natural grass and tree leaves in all
seasons while each smallholder farmers, normally carrying salt to attract the animals
and additional feed, rotationally visit their animals every day to check the animal
numbers as well as their health. Natural forages tend to be shortage for goat in dry
season. Such a problem may lead to a decrease in the kidding and growth rates.
Nevertheless, this monitoring approach provides convenience for smallholder farmers
to capture their animals for either animal husbandry or sale purposes.
2.2.3. Semi-free range systems
The goats are left to graze only during the dry season but during the wet season
the animals are kept in a special area to avoid damage to the crops. In the wet season,
the native grass is cut and carried. Supplements are provided in the pen. These systems
23


may be up to 65% of the total goat population which may be equivalent to about
358,249 heads. The communal grazing systems are officially and traditionally
recognized by the district government and village community. In many villages of
remote upland areas, most households have their upland cultivation land
systematically located near each other. These households, under the guidance of their
village committee, agree to allocate their fallow areas as feed sources for their cattle,
buffalo and goat. These feed habitats are used for a whole year. Such allocation would
keep the animals away from their crops. The communal grazing systems have also

emerged in many upland villages located in valley areas due to external pressures to
the free grazing systems which smallholders previously practiced. Such pressures
include conflicts with crop/vegetable/plantation growers, road accidence and robbery.
The local government has encouraged, rather than forced, this grazing land allocation
for large ruminants as a way to solve many of the problems.
2.2.4. Permanent grazing systems
The goats are grazed permanently in a special area by some groups of farmers
in the northern Lao PDR. Supplement (salt) and water are provided regularly. A fence
is built using good materials. These systems may be up to 5% of the total goat
population, the government and development projects have perceived these intensive
systems as a potential system for improving smallholders’ goat production, the goat
using the cut-and-carry of grown forages provides a number of benefits for
smallholder farmers such as improving the animal weight before sale, saving time
searching for natural grass, and improving animal health through proper feeding.
Nevertheless, once smallholder farmers succeed in fattening goat, they become the
specialized goat farmers. It is estimated that each smallholder farmer fatten about 1020 goat per year and would take 2-3 months of fattening which depends on body
conditions of the animals. Average aged bout 8-15 months are preferable for fattening,
but in many cases, mature thin goat are also bought for fattening.
2.3. Goat breed and breeding
2.3.1. Goat breed
2.3.1.1. Local breed

Goats in Lao PDR are small in size and are used only for meat. At present, there
is no dairy milk production in the country. Average adult live weights are in the range
of 25-35 kg. The first kidding of this local goat is at an average age of 12 months, with
only one kid in the first kidding, and then commonly twins in later kidding. The goats
can produce 1.4 to 1.9 liters per year and 1.7 to 1.9 kids per litter. Lao native goats are
morphologically and genetically similar to the North Vietnamese native goats. Because
during the years 2001 to 2003, more than 20 Bach thao goats from Vietnam were
24

introduced to Laos and kept at the Livestock Research Centre for improving the
production in Lao for raising and breeding with local breed of Lao. Their body size is
similar to the Southeast Asian dwarf goats (“Kambing-Katjang”-typed goats). Their
coat colors are polymorphic with wild-type agouti and black, and their external
appearances are Bezoar-type with scimitar-shaped horns, pricked ears and straightfaced profiles. The amount of genetic variability of blood protein has been estimated,
reinforcing the conclusion that the Lao native goats can be characterized as the
“Kambing-Katjang”-type native goats of the Indo-China peninsula.
Co Goat Native Breed-Used for meat yield, this breed is traditional beed of
Vietnam. Co goat is the most common goat breed of the country in Vietnm, the farmers
reared under semi-intensive or extensive system. Co goat population is distributed all
over the country, concentrated mainly in the North Mountains and Midland provinces,
raised for meat.
There are several kinds of Co goat breeds distinguished by colors. Their hairs
are black, yellow, brown and black and brown lanes along with along the back, Coat
Colour: Brown is the most frequent colourfollowed by brown black and silver.
Body weight at adult: Male: 27-32 kg; Female: 24-28 kg Reproductive
performances: 1.4 litter/year; 1.35-1.5 kid/litter Milk yield: 0.3-0.6 liter/day; Milk
cycle: 80-90 days Age at sexual maturity: 6.0 months; Survive rate from birth to
weaning: 65-70%
Bachthao goat-Used for meat and milk yields, this breed also belong to
traditional breed of Vietnam. The BachThao goat population is raised mainly in central
coastal provinces: Ninh Thuan, Binh Thuan, Khanh Hoa, and Ha Tay province... for
both meat and milk Appearance, description: Their hairs are black, shank and a part of
the tail have white color. Some: Hairs are white spots, feet black.... with big ears and
drooping ears Body weight at adult: Male: 60-70 kg; Female: 40-45 kg. First litter
420-450 days old. Reproductiveperformance: 1.7 kid/little; 1.5-1.7 litter/year. Survive
rate after 6 months: 82-87%. Milk yield: 1.0-1.5 litter/day. Milk cycle: 140-160 days
2.3.1.2. Exotic breed

The Boer goat is a breed of goat for produce meat that was developed in South
Africa in the early 1900s for meat production. Their name is derived from the
Afrikaans (Dutch) word boer, meaning farmer. Boer goats are a popular breed for
meat. The Boer goat was probably bred from the indigenous South African goats of the
Namaqua, San, and Fooku tribes, with some crossing of Indian and European
bloodlines being possible. They were selected for meat rather than milk production;
due to selective breeding and improvement, the Boer goat has a fast growth rate and
excellent carcass qualities, making it one of the most popular breeds of meat goat in
25