Tài liệu Introduction and history of cage culture ppt

1 Introduction and History of Cage Culture
Chua Thia Eng
1
and Elsie Tech
2
1
Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA),
DENR Compound, Visayas Avenue, Quezon City, Philippines;
2
Asian Fisheries Society
25-A Mayaman Street, UP Village, Quezon City, Philippines
History of Cage Culture
Open sea activities, such as cage and pen
culture, are viewed by many stakeholders in
the industry as the aquaculture system of
the millennium. Fish production from cages
and pens (both in freshwater and marine
environments) contributes significantly to
total foodfish produced. Cage culture has
made possible the large-scale production of
commercial finfish and will probably be
the most efficient and economical way of
raising fish.
Aquaculturists realize the need to limit
further conversion of wetlands and man
-
groves into traditional aquaculture farms.
We face a situation where even freshwater
ecosystems have reached critical levels
with respect to their carrying capacities.
The depletion of ocean and coastal fishery

resources in some areas has led to the
development of marine cage culture.
The earliest record of cage culture
practices dates back to the late 1800s in
Southeast Asia, particularly in the fresh
-
water lakes and river systems of Kampuchea
(Coche, 1976; Pantulu, 1979; Beveridge,
1987). The fish cultured included snake
-
heads (Channa spp.), catfishes (Pangasius
spp.) and gobies (Oxycleotris spp.). By 1995,
more than 5000 fish farmers were engaged
in cage culture in the Mekong river system
around Phnom Penh (Thana, 1995). There
were also reports of similar culture
practices in Indonesia in the 1920s and
1940s (Hickling, 1962).
Marine fish farming in cages traces its
beginnings to the 1950s in Japan where fish
farming research at the Fisheries Laboratory
of the Kinki University led to the com-
mercial culture of the yellowtail, Seriola
quinqueradiata. Takashima and Arimoto
(2000), however, traced back a history of 200
years where wooden farm net cages were
being operated for anchovies or sardines or
bait for skipjack. Similar cages were later
used for yellowtail culture in Japan and
developed into a significant industry as

early as 1960. The cage culture of common
carp (Cyprinus carpio) in lakes also started
at this time (Kuronuma, 1968). Since the
1970s, Thailand has developed cage culture
techniques for two important marine finfish:
the seabream (Pagrus major) and grouper
(Epinephelus spp.) (Coche, 1976). Chua and
Teng (1978) pioneered the development of
cage culture methods/designs for groupers
in Malaysia, although large-scale cage farm
-
ing in marine waters really gained ground in
the 1980s and in inland waters in the 1990s
(Shariff and Nagaraj, 2000). Korea started
growing a European variety of common carp
and maintained yellowtail in holding cage
enclosures in the late 1970s. By the end
of 1980, cage culture of the olive flounder
(Paralichthys olivacens) and black rockfish
©CAB International 2002. Diseases and Disorders of Finfish in Cage Culture
(eds P.T.K. Woo, D.W. Bruno and L.H.S. Lim) 1
(Sebastes schlegeli) was established, and
developed into a successful aquaculture
industry in the 1990s (Kim, 2000). Cage
culture of groupers (Epinephelus spp.) in the
Philippines has been practised since the
1980s. Mariculture of milkfish in the 1990s
led to the further growth and development of
the industry (Marte et al., 2000).
In Europe, cage culture of rainbow trout

(Oncorhynchus mykiss) in fresh water began
in the late 1950s and, in Norway, Atlantic
salmon (Salmo salar) followed in the 1960s.
More than 40% of its rainbow trout comes
from freshwater cages (Beveridge, 1987).
Salmonid culture is currently dominated by
production from Norway, Scotland and
Chile. Cage culture of fish was adopted in the
USA in 1964 (Coche, 1976). Records show
commercial production of channel catfish
(Ictalurus punctatus) in freshwater cages
(Collins, 1970a,b, 1972; Trotter, 1970;
Bennet, 1971; Brett, 1974; Novotny, 1975).
Cage culture in Africa, however, is still
in its infant stage (ADB/NACA, 1998). In
Central Africa, there was no real practical
experience in cage culture before 1974.
Very limited observations were recorded for
Clarias lazera (de Kimpe and Micha, 1974).
Semi-intensive rearing was done in Lake
Victoria, Tanzania, using Nile tilapia
(Tilapia zillii) (Ibrahim et al., 1974).
Research initiatives on intensive production
of commercial sized Tilapia nilotica were
carried out in Lake Kossou, Ivory Coast
(Coche, 1974, 1975; Shehadeh, 1974). Cook
(1995) reported that it was only in the 1980s
that the potential of aquaculture in South
Africa gained grounds with respect to
becoming a viable commercial industry.

Freshwater aquaculture was limited to
availability of water while mariculture had
to rely on only 3000 km of coastlines (the
majority of which did not have sheltered
bays or lagoons). In the years that followed,
efforts were geared towards improvement in
the culture of tilapia and cage design (Coche,
1976).
Currently many fish species have been
cultivated in various designs and sizes of
cages in Asia, Europe and other parts of
the world (Table 1.1). Tilapia and carp pre-
dominate in freshwater cage culture in Asia,
while salmonids are commonly farmed in
Europe and the Americas.
2 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Species cultured Country Reference
Anguillidae
Anguilla japonica
(eel)
Bagridae
Mystus nemerus
(mystid catfish)
Chanidae
Chanos chanos
(milkfish)
Channidae
Channa macrocephalus
Channa micropeltes
(snakehead)

Channa striatus
Giant snakehead
Characidae
Colossoma macropomum
(Amazonian fish tambaqui)
Cichlidae
Black tilapia
Oreochromis mortimeri
Oreochromis niloticus
(Nile tilapia)
China
Malaysia
Philippines
Thailand
Cambodia
Vietnam
Vietnam
Malaysia
Brazil
Malaysia
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
Bangladesh
Malaysia
Yuan (1991)
Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)
Guerrero (1996); Ramos (1996); Bagarinao (1998);
Marte
et al
. (2000)

Lin (1990)
Thana (1995)
Pantulu (1976); Thuoc (1995)
Pantulu (1976); Thuoc (1995)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Chellappa
et al
. (1995)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)
Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)
Mazid (1995)
Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)
Table 1.1a.
Major species of freshwater finfishes cultured in cages.
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 3
Species cultured Country Reference
Red tilapia
Sarotherodon aureus
Sarotherodon esculentus
Sarotherodon galilaeus
Sarotherodon mossambicus
Sarotherodon mossambicus
×
S. honorum
(hybrid)

Sarotherodon niloticus
Sarotherodon spilirus niger
(tilapia)
Tilapia
Tilapia
Tilapia
Tilapia heudeloti
Tilapia nilotica
Tilapia niloticus
Tilapia rendalli
Tilapia zillii
Clariidae
Clarias gariepinus
Clarias lazera
(Nile catfish)
Clarias macrocephalus
(catfish)
Cyprinidae
Abramis brana
(bream)
Aristichthys nobilis
(bighead carp)
Philippines
Thailand
Egypt
Malaysia
USA
El Salvador
Puerto Rico
USA

Tanzania
Nigeria
Philippines
Taiwan
Guatemala
USA
Sri Lanka
Ivory Coast
Nigeria
Kenya
Philippines
Brazil
Dominican
Republic
Togo
USA
Sierra Leone
Togo
Dominican
Republic
Nigeria
Colombia
Zimbabwe
Tanzania
Togo
Kenya
Nigeria
Vietnam
South Africa
Egypt

Thailand
Vietnam
Russia
Nepal
Santiago and Arcilla (1993); Lopez (1995)
Chiayvareesajja
et al
. (1990); Lin (1990)
Ishak and Hassanen (1987)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Schmittou (1969); Perry and Avault (1972)
Bayne
et al
. (1976); Ramirez (1977); Sanchez
(1978); Street (1978)
Jordan and Pagan (1973); Miller and Ballantine
(1974)
Williams
et al
. (1974)
Ibrahim
et al
. (1976)
Konikoff (1975); Ita (1976)
Guerrero (1975); IFP (1976); Pantastico and Baldia
(1979)
Maruyama and Ishida (1976)
Bardach

et al
. (1972)
Suffern
et al
. (1978)
Anon. (1980); Muthukumarana and Wcerakoon
(1987)
Coche (1975, 1976, 1977, 1978); Campbell (1976);
Shehadeh (1976); de Kimpe (1978); Amoikon
(1987)
Konikoff (1975); Campbell (1987)
Haller (1974)
PCARRD (1981); Aragon
et al
. (1985); Guerrero
(1985, 1996)
FAO (1977)
Olivo (1987)
Issifou and Amegavie (1987)
McGinty (1991)
Iscandari (1987)
Issifou and Amegavie (1987)
Olivo (1987)
Ali (1987)
Patino (1976); McLarney (1978); Popma (1978)
Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)
Ibrahim
et al
. (1974)
Issifou and Amegavie (1987)

Haller (1974)
Konikoff (1975); Campbell (1987)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Hoffman and Prinsloo (1992)
Ishak (1987)
Lin (1990)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Ziliukiene (1994)
Swar and Pradhan (1992); Pradhan and Pantha
(1995)
Continued
4 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Species cultured Country Reference
Carps
Carps
Carps
Cirrhinus microbis
Cirrhinus
sp.
Ctenopharyngodon idella
(grass
carp)
Cyprinids
Cyprinus carpio
(common carp)
(mirror carp)
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
(silver carp)
(Javanese carp)
Leptobarbus hoeveni

(slender
carp/sultan fish)
Nile carp
River carp
Eleotridae
Goby
Oxyeleotris marmoratus
(sand
goby)
Ictaluridae
Ictalurus punctatus
(Channel
catfish)
Moronidae
Morone chryops
×
M. saxatilis
(sunshine bass)
Osphronemidae
Osphronemus gourami
(giant gouramy)
Malaysia
Philippines
Sri Lanka
India
Indonesia
Iran
Cambodia
Cambodia
Malaysia

Nepal
Sri Lanka
Vietnam
Egypt
Netherlands
India
Philippines
Poland
Russia
Nepal
Indonesia
Korea
Egypt
Israel
Turkey
Nepal
Egypt
India
Malaysia
Vietnam
Malaysia
Indonesia
Egypt
Malaysia
Malaysia
Thailand
Vietnam
USA
USA
Indonesia

Malaysia
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Fermin (1990); Marte
et al
. (2000)
Muthukumarana and Weerakoon (1987)
Basavaraja (1994)
Costa-Pierce and Effendi (1988)
Matinfar and Nikouyan (1995)
Thana (1995)
Thana (1995)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Pradhan and Pantha (1995)
Muthukumarana and Weerakoon (1987)
Lovatelli (1997)
Siemelink
et al
. (1982); Ishak (1987)
Huisman (1979)
Bandyopadhyay
et al
. (1991)
Lopez (1995)
Filipiak (1991); Mamcarz (1992)
Evtushenko (1994)
Pradhan and Pantha (1995)

Costa-Pierce and Roem (1990); Zainal
et al
.
(1990)
Kim
et al
. (1992)
Hamza (1996)
Viola and Lahav (1991); Wolhfarth and Moav
(1991)
Erden (1987)
Swar and Pradhan (1992); Pradhan and Pantha
(1995)
Hamza (1996)
Sivakami and Ayyappan (1991)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Thuoc (1995); Lovatelli (1997)
Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)
Dahril and Ahmad (1990)
Hamza (1996)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Menasveta (2000)
Lovatelli (1997)

Schmittou (1969); Perry and Avault (1972); Collins
and Delmendo (1979); Parker (1988); Masser and
Duarte (1992); Burtle and Newton (1993); Webster
et al
. (1994)
Kelly and Kohler, 1996; Pagan (1970); Suwanasart
(1971); Pagan-Font (1975)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Table 1.1a.
Continued
.
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 5
Species cultured Country Reference
Pangasiidae
Pangasius bocourti
(yellow catfish)
Pangasius conchophilis
Pangasius hypophthalmus
(catfish)
Pangasius lardnaudi
Pangasius micronemus
Pangasius nasutus
(catfish)
Pangasius pangasius
(river

catfish)
Pangasius sutchii
(striped
catfish)
River catfish
Percidae
Perca fluviatilis
(perch)
Salmonidae
Coregonus
Coregonus albula
(vendace)
Coregonus lavaretus
(Baltic
whitefish)
(whitefish)
Coregonus peled
(peled)
Oncorhynchus mykiss
(rainbow trout)
Salmo salar
(Atlantic salmon)
Salmo trutta
(broom trout)
Stenodus
(whitefish)
Sciaenidae
Sciaenops ocellatus
(red drum or
red fish)

Siluridae
Silurus glanis
(sheat fish)
Esox lucius
(pike)
Puntius gonionotus
(minnows)
Puntius schwanenfeldii
(tinfoil barb)
(minnows)
Puntius
spp.
Vietnam
Vietnam
Cambodia
Vietnam
Cambodia
Cambodia
Vietnam
Vietnam
Thailand
Malaysia
Malaysia
France
Germany
Poland
Finland
Germany
Russia
France

Canada
Bolivia
Canada
Denmark
Iran
Sweden
Switzerland
Norway
USA
Indonesia
Northern
Europe
Ecuador
Israel
Panama
Poland
Yugoslavia
Russia
Bangladesh
Vietnam
Indonesia
Vietnam
Cambodia
Lovatelli (1997)
Lovatelli (1997); Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Thana (1995)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Thana (1995)
Thana (1995)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)

Thuoc (1995)
Menasveta (2000)
Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Tamazouzt
et al
. (1993)
Marciak (1979)
Mamcarz (1984)
Mamcarz (1984)
Schultz
et al
. (1993)
Jager and Nellen (1981)
Champigneulle and Rojas-Beltran (1990)
Mamcarz and Kozlowski (1992)
Menton (1991)
Srivastava
et al
. (1991); Cornel and Whoriskey
(1993)
Torrissen
et al
. (1995)
Matinfar and Nikouyan (1995)
Alanaerae (1992)
Mamcarz and Szczerbowski (1984)
Torrissen

et al
. (1995)
Rottiers (1994)
Goeltenboth and Krisyanto (1994)
Bronisz (1979)
Benetti
et al
. (1995)
Kissil (1996)
Garces (1992)
Mamcarz and Worniallo (1985)
Stevic
et al
. (1993)
Ziliukiene (1994)
Mazid (1995)
Thuoc (1995)
Christensen (1993)
Thuoc (1995)
Thana (1995)
6 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Species cultured Country Reference
Chanidae
Chanos chanos
(milkfish)
Cichlidae
Oreochromis urolepsis hornorum
×
O.
mossambicus

male (Florida red tilapia)
Moronidae
Morone chryops
×
M. saxatilis
(sunshine
bass)
Pisodonophis
Pisodonophis boro
(brackishwater eel)
Salmonidae
Coregonus lavaretus
(Baltic whitefish)
Oncorhynchus mason rhodurus
(Amago
salmon)
Salmo salar
(Atlantic salmon)
Philippines
USA
USA
Vietnam
Germany
Yugoslavia
USA
Guerrero (1996); Ramos (1996); Bagarinao
(1998); Marte
et al
. (2000)
Rust

et al
. (1991)
Pagan (1970); Suwanasart (1971);
Pagan-Font (1975); Kelly and Kohler (1996)
Lovatelli (1997)
Schultz
et al
. (1993)
Teskeredzic and Teskeredzic (1990)
Rottiers (1994)
Table 1.1b. Major species of brackish water finfishes cultured in cages.
Species cultured Country Reference
Carangidae
Longirostrum/Caranx delicatissimus
(striped jack)
Seriola dumerili
Seriola magatlana
(Pacific yellowtail)
Seriola purpurescens
(amberjack)
Seriola quinqueradiata
(yellowtail)
Sturgeon
Sturgeon (beluga × sterlet, ‘bestir’)
Trachinotus carolinus
(pompano)
Trachinotus oaitensis
(pompano)
Trachinotus teraia
Centropomidae

Centropomus nigrescens
(snook)
Lates calcarifer
(seabass)
Japan
Taiwan
Ecuador
Hong Kong
Japan
China
Korea
Iran
Russia
USA
Ecuador
France
Ecuador
China
Hong Kong
Indonesia
Malaysia
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Vietnam
Australia
Watanabe (1988a,b)
Su
et al
. (2000)

Benetti
et al
. (1995)
Wong (1995)
Fujiya (1976); Mitani (1979); Kafuku and
Ikenoue (1983); Shepherd and Bromage (1988);
Fukumoto (1989); Watanabe
et al
. (1996)
Lin (1997)
Shepherd and Bromage (1988); Fukumoto
(1989); Jeon
et al
. (1992); Kim (1995)
Matinfar and Nikouyan (1995)
Romanycheva and Salnikov (1979)
Smith (1973)
Benetti
et al
. (1995)
Trebaol (1991)
Benetti
et al
. (1995)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Wong (1995)
Sakaras (1982); Kungvankij (1987b)
Singh (1991); Hannafi

et al
. (1995)
Toledo
et al
. (1991); Fermin
et al
. (1993);
Alcantara
et al
. (1995); Lopez (1995)
Anon. (1986); Cheong and Lee (1987)
Sakaras (1984); Kungvankij (1987a); Tookwinas
(1990b); Chaitanawisuti and Piyatiratitivorakul
(1994a)
Lovatelli (1997)
Barlow
et al
. (1995); Rimmer (1998)
Table 1.1c. Major species of marine finfishes cultured in cages.
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 7
Species cultured Country Reference
Characidae
Piaractus mesopotamicus
(pacu)
Cichlidae
Oreochromis spilirus
(tilapia)
Oreochromis urolepsis hornorum
×
O.

mossambicus
male (Florida red tilapia)
Cyprinidae
Barbus gonionotus
(silver barb)
Cirrhina
(rohu)
Gadidae
Cod
Gadus morhua
(Atlantic cod)
Lutjanidae
Lutjanus argentimaculatus
(red
snapper)
Lutjanus erythropeterus
Lutjanus johni
(golden snapper)
Lutjanus russelli
(Russell’s snapper)
Lutjanus sebae
Lutjanus stellatus
Pagrus major
(Japanese red
seabream/red seabream)
Moronidae
Dicentrarchus labrax
(seabass)
(European seabass)
Oplegnathidae

Oplegnathus fasciatus
(rock bream)
Paralichthyidae
Paralichthys olivaceus
(bastard
halibut/flounder)
(olive flounder)
Percichthyidae
Lateolabrax japonicus
(Japanese
seabass)
Percidae
Stizostedion lucioperca
(wild zander)
Pleuronectidae
Hippoglossus hippoglossus
(Atlantic
halibut)
Brazil
Kuwait
USA
Vietnam
Nepal
Norway
Canada
China
Malaysia
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand

Taiwan
Malaysia
Singapore
China
Hong Kong
Malaysia
Thailand
Taiwan
Israel
Japan
Korea
Taiwan
Egypt
Italy
Israel
Korea
Japan
Japan
Japan
Korea
Korea
Korea
Finland
UK
Ferraz de Lima
et al
. (1992)
Cruz and Ridha (1990b)
Rust
et al

. (1991)
Lovatelli (1997)
Pradhan and Pantha (1995)
Kaspruk and Tvejte (1994); Hjelt (2000)
Jones and Iwama (1990)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Ali (1987); Hannafi
et al
. (1995)
Emata (1996)
Cheong (1988)
Doi and Singhagraiwan (1993); Chaitanawisuti
and Piyatiratitivorakul (1994b)
Su
et al
. (2000)
Hannafi
et al
. (1995)
Lee (1982); Anon. (1986)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Wong (1995)
Rahim (1982)
Tanomkiat (1982)
Su
et al

. (2000)
Kissil (1996)
Fukumoto (1989
Kim (1995)
Su
et al
. (2000)
Ishak and Hassanen (1987)
Barbato
et al
. (1991)
Kissil (1996)
Kim (1995)
Watanabe (1988a,b)
Hiraishi
et al
. (1995)
Kikuchi
et al
. (1993)
Kim (1995)
Jeon
et al
. (1992)
Kim (1995)
Salminen
et al
. (1992)
Martinez-Cordero
et al

. (1994)
Continued
8 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Species cultured Country Reference
Limanda herzentein
(brown sole)
Limanda punctatissima
(longsnout
flounder)
Rachycentridae
Rachycentron canadum
Salmonidae
Caspian salmon
Onchorynchus kisutch
(Coho salmon)
Oncorhynchus mason rhodurus
(Amago
salmon)
Oncorhynchus mykiss
(rainbow trout)
Oncorhynchus tshavytocha
(Chinook
salmon)
Prosopium
Salmo salar
(Atlantic salmon)
Salmo trutta
(broom trout)
Salvelinus alpinus
(Arctic charr)

Sciaenidae
Cynoscion stolzmanni
(corvina)
Ophicephalus
sp. (serpent head)
Scianops teraia
(Western African
pompano)
Sebastidae
Sebastes schlegeli
(Schlegel’s
black rock fish)
Scophthalmidae
Scophthalmus maximus
(turbot)
Serranidae
Cephalopholis mimata
Cephalopholis pachycenteron
Epinephelus akaara
Epinephelus alwaora
(grouper)
Epinephelus amblycephalus
Epinephelus areolatus
(spotted grouper)
Epinephelus bleeker
Epinephelus bleekeri
Epinephelus coioides
Epinephelus fario
Epinephelus fuscoguttatus
Korea

Japan
Taiwan
Iran
Chile
Yugoslavia
Canada
Canada
Germany
Canada
Scotland
Norway
USA
France
Norway
Ecuador
Thailand
France
China
Korea
France
Vietnam
Philippines
Hong Kong
Japan
Vietnam
China
China
Taiwan
Hong Kong
Philippines

Vietnam
Philippines
Taiwan
Vietnam
Sri Lanka
Singapore
Indonesia
Kim (1995)
Hiraishi
et al
. (1995)
Su
et al
. (2000)
Matinfar and Nikouyan (1995)
Jelvez-Flores (1992)
Teskeredzic and Teskeredzic (1990)
Srivastava
et al
. (1991); Cornel and Whoriskey
(1993)
Jones and Iwama (1990)
Marciak (1979)
Egan and Kenney (1990); Menton and Allen
(1991); Duston and Saunders (1994)
Glen (1974); Went (1980); Worniallo and
Mamcarz (1985); Sangster and Munro (1991);
Smith
et al
. (1993)

Kraakenes
et al
. (1991)
Rottiers (1994)
Arzel
et al
. (1993)
Torrissen
et al
. (1995)
Benetti
et al
. (1995)
Menasveta (2000)
Trebaol (1991)
Liu
et al
. (1991)
Kim (1995)
Vigneulle and Laurencin (1995)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Sayong (1981)
Chao and Lim (1991); Wong (1995)
Ukawa
et al
. (1966); Chao and Lim (1991)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Chao and Lim (1991); Wong (1995)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Maruyama and Ishida (1976)

Wong (1995)
Kohno
et al
. (1988)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Quinitio
et al
. (1997)
Su
et al
. (2000)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Lim
et al
. (1990); Chao and Lim (1991)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Table 1.1c.
Continued
.
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 9
Species cultured Country Reference
Epinephelus hexagonatus
Epinephelus macrospilos
Epinephelus malabaricus
Epinephelus merra
Epinephelus microdon
Epinephelus moara
(kelp bass)
Epinephelus salmonoides

Epinephelus sexfaciatus
Epinephelus
spp.
Epinephelus suillus
Epinephelus summana
Epinephelus tauvina
(green grouper,
estuarine grouper)
Siganidae
Siganus canaliculatus
(rabbit fish)
Siganus guttatus
(siganid)
Sillaginidae
Sillago sihama
(sand whiting)
Sparidae
Acanthopagrus schlegeli
(black
seabream)
Chrysophrys major
(red pargo)
Mylio latus
(yellow finned seabream)
Puntazzo puntazzo
(sheepshead bream)
Rhabdosargus sarba
(goldlined
seabream)
Sparrus aurata

(gilthead seabream)
Sparrus macrocephalus
Tetraodontidae
Takifugu rubripes
(tiger puffer)
Japan
Philippines
India
Philippines
China
Philippines
Philippines
Vietnam
Japan
Japan
China
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Japan
Malaysia
Philippines
Vietnam
Malaysia
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Philippines
Taiwan
Philippines
Hong Kong

India
Indonesia
Malaysia
Philippines
Singapore
Singapore
Kuwait
Indonesia
Philippines
Vietnam
India
Korea
China
Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Israel
Hong Kong
Israel
Israel
China
Japan
Korea
Chao and Lim (1991)
PCARRD (1986); Quinitio and Toledo (1991)
Hamsa and Kasim (1992)
PCARRD (1986); Quinitio and Toledo (1991)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Kohno

et al
. (1988)
Sayong (1981)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Kungvankij
et al
. (1986)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Chua (1979); Chua and Teng (1979, 1980)
Kohno
et al
. (1988)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Leong (1998)
Quinitio and Toledo (1991)
Anon. (1986)
Tookwinas (1990a); Menasveta (2000)
Toledo
et al
. (1993)
Maruyama and Ishida (1976)
Sayong (1981)
Wong (1995)
Hamsa and Kasim (1992)

Lanjumin (1982)
Chua and Teng (1978); Rahim (1982); Ali (1987)
Kohno
et al
. (1988); Lopez (1995)
Cheong and Lee (1987)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Hussain
et al
. (1975); Chao and Lim (1991)
Tacon
et al
. (1990)
Lopez (1995); Soriano
et al
. (1995)
Lovatelli (1997)
James
et al
. (1985)
Kim (1995)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Wong (1995)
Wong (1995)
Kissil (1996)
Wong (1995)
Kissil (1996)
Porter

et al
. (1991)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Shepherd and Bromage (1988)
Moon
et al
. (1993); Kim (1995)
The rapid growth of the industry in most
countries may be attributed to: (i) suitable
offshore sites for cage culture; (ii) well
established breeding techniques that yield a
sufficient quantity of various marine and
freshwater fish juveniles; (iii) availability of
supporting industries, such as feed and fish
-
ing net manufacturers, and fish processors
and packers; (iv) strong research and devel
-
opment initiatives from institutions, govern
-
ment and universities; and (v) the private
sector ensuring refinement and improve
-
ment of techniques/culture systems, thereby
further developing the industry.
With the experiences seen in salmon
farming, seabream (Sparus auratus) and sea-
bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) cage culture

activities started to move toward offshore
areas. The lack or non-availability of
sheltered sites in many regions because of
varied coastline configurations, the build-up
of organic matter in closed bays due to poor
water exchange, and use conflicts between
industries and tourism for sea water were the
main reasons for such a shift (Lisac, 1991).
Some of the offshore cage systems
that later developed include: Dunlop
Tempest I (Fearn, 1991); ‘SADCO’ cages
(Muravjev et al., 1993); Ocean Spar
(Loverich and Croker, 1993); Farmocean
system (Gunnarson, 1993); Seacon system
(Lien, 2000); and Bridgeton Hi-Seas
(Gunnarson, 1993; Lien, 2000).
Muir (1998) considered the following
criteria important for success in offshore
cage culture: (i) location (> 2 km from
shore); (ii) environment (average waves
> 5 m, regularly 2–3 m oceanic swells,
variable wind periods); (iii) access (about
80% of the time when cages are accessible to
working staff); and (iv) operation (remote;
with automated feeding devices and long-
distance monitoring).
Advantages and Limitations of
Cage Culture
In general, cage culture practices have
numerous advantages over other culture

systems. By integrating the cage culture
system into the aquatic ecosystem the carry
-
ing capacity per unit area is optimized
because the free flow of current brings in
fresh water and removes metabolic wastes,
excess feed and faecal matter (Beveridge,
1983). Operationally, this has a number of
advantages. Some cage designs, especially
those used in inshore cultures, are rela
-
tively easy to construct with minimal
skilled labour, and cages utilize minimal
physical facilities and space. Economically,
cage culture is a low-input farming practice
with high economic return. However, cage
culture is a high risk and labour-intensive
operation. The practice is vulnerable to
natural hazards (strong tides, storms and
typhoons) and can be affected by deteriorat
-
ing water quality attributed to chronic
pollution from oil and chemical spills from
oil tankers and cargo vessels (Tabira, 1980;
Nose, 1985). In addition, poaching and
vandalism are reported by cage farmers. The
advantages and limitations of cage culture
are summarized in Table 1.2.
In view of the high production attain-
able in cage culture system and the presence

of large sheltered coastal waters in many
countries, marine cage farming can play
a significant role in increasing fish
production.
Cage culture systems vary in terms of
farm size and intensity of operation. Floating
cages, for instance, in Korea can reach yields
exceeding 500 t ha
−1
(ADB/NACA, 1998).
Cage Design
Cage design is determined by conditions in
the culture site, as well as the ecological
requirements and behaviour of the target
species for culture. Each design is site-
specific and knowledge of the topography,
wind force, wind direction, prevalence of
storms, monsoons, wave load, current
velocity and water depths are important
parameters for consideration. In designing
cages, it is also important to consider the
rate of biofouling and the species composi
-
tion of the marine fauna in and around the
potential site (Chua, 1982). A checklist of
10 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
fish species popularly cultured in Asia with
cage and culture specifications is provided
in Table 1.3.
Types of cages

A fish cage is usually made up of netting
with an opening at the surface to facilitate
feeding, removal of debris and dead fish,
and for harvesting. The netcage system
consists of a netcage proper and the frame,
which supports the nets. The frame is
normally kept afloat by buoys, usually
metal (or traditionally plastic drums), and
held in position by anchors. Cages may be
classified as follows.
Fixed
A stationary cage is fastened to a fixed
bamboo or wooden pole at its corners. It
consists of a net bag supported by posts
driven into the bottom of a lake or river. It is
traditionally used in tropical countries like
the Philippines for raising fish fingerlings.
It is inexpensive and simple to build. This
type of cage is normally restricted to shal
-
low areas with suitable substrates usually in
freshwater systems.
Floating
A floating cage consists of a floating unit
from which a single cage or a battery of
netcages is suspended. Floating cages are
widely used for fish rearing in both fresh
and coastal waters. They are less restrictive
in terms of site selection compared with
the stationary fixed types. Surface floating

cages are used in lakes, protected bays and
lagoons, sheltered coves and inland seas.
The surface-floating unit consists of floats,
framework and netcage. Most floating cages
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 11
Advantages Limitations
Maximizes use of available water resources
Reduces pressure on land resources
Combines several types of culture within one water
body; treatments and harvests independent
Ease of movement and relocation of cages
Intensification of fish production (high densities and
optimum feeding result in improved growth rates,
reducing rearing period)
Optimum utilization of artificial food improves food
conversion efficiencies
Easy control of competitors and predators
Ease of daily observation of stocks for better
management and early detection and treatment of
parasites and diseases
Reduces fish handling and mortalities
Easy fish harvest
Storage and transport of live fish facilitated
Initial investment is relatively small
Locations restricted to sheltered areas
Requires back-up food store, hatchery and
processing facilities
Needs adequate water exchange to remove
metabolites and maintain high dissolved oxygen
levels; rapid fouling of cage walls requires frequent

cleaning
Absolute dependence on artificial feeding unless in
sewage ponds; high-quality balanced rations
essential; feed losses possible through cage walls
Sometimes important interference from the natural
fish population, i.e. small fish enter cages and
compete for food
Natural fish populations act as a potential reservoir
of disease and parasites, and the likelihood of
spreading disease by introducing new cultured
stocks is increased
Increased difficulties of disease and parasite
treatment
Risks of theft are increased
Amortization of capital investment may be short
Increased labour costs for handling, stocking,
feeding and maintenance
Table 1.2. Advantages and limitations of cage fish culture technique.
12T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Species
Cage/pen
dimension Culture specifics
Country/
references
Milkfish (
Chanos
chanos
)
Seabass (
Lates

calcarifer
)
Rectangular marine pen, 20 × 50 × 60 m
(1000 m
2
× 6 m); wood, bamboo, polythene
net
Cylindrical floating netcage, 2 m diameter
× 2 m depth (6 m
3
); wood, bamboo,
polythene and 200 l plastic drums for floats
Box-shaped floating netcage, 5 × 5 × 3m;
wood and plastic drums
Rectangular broodstock floating netcage
4 × 4 × 3 m, installed with a hapa net of the
same dimension with mesh size of
0.4–0.6 mm as egg collector; made of
bamboo, wood and 200 l plastic drums
Circular or rectangular broodstock floating
netcages, 4 × 4 × 3mor10× 10 × 2 m nylon
mesh of size 4–8 cm
2 × 2 × 1.5mor10× 5 × 1.5 m floating
netcage
3 × 3 × 2 m floating netcage
2.5 × 2.5 × 1.5 m bamboo and polythene
netting
5 × 5 × 2 m, galvanized iron pipe and
bamboo, concrete weight
Stocking density is 30,000 fingerlings weighing 10 g; feeding

with commercial pellets or crumbles, given 3× daily to satiation,
and with FCR of 1.77; 138 days culture period, 94% survival;
production about 5–7 days
Stocking density is 40 fish m
−3
of size 18 cm; feeding with trash
fish, once daily; 9 months culture period, 95.4% survival;
production of 490 g per fish
Stocking density is 44 fish m
−3
of size 80–100 g; feeding with
trash fish, cooked rice bran and aquatic vegetation, with FCR
of 4.5:1; 6–7 months of culture, 90% survival; production of
600 g per fish
Stocking density is 60–80 fish per cage, sex ratio is 13–28
female:male fish; feeding with trash fish daily at 3–5% of body
weight; culture period of 4 years; fish matured and naturally
spawned; also demonstrates an efficient, simple and cheap
egg collector (116 million eggs in one breeding season)
Stocking density is 1 fish m
−3
, sex ratio of 1:1 female:male fish;
feeding with trash fish and commercial bait fish (the pilchard
Sardinops neopilchardus
) and vitamin supplement
Stocking density is 100 kg m
−2
of size 15 cm; feeding with
floating pellets twice daily (warm months) or once daily (winter)
to satiation, with FCR of 1.6–1.8:1; 8 months to 2 years culture

period; production of 350–600 g to 2–3 kg per fish
Stocking density is 15–25 fish m
−3
of size 2–3 inches; feeding
with trash fish once daily; 6–8 months of culture; production of
500–600 g per fish
Stocked with juveniles; feeding with trash fish at 5% of body
weight twice daily, with FCR of 3.6:1; 4 months culture period;
growth rate of 4 g per day
Stocking density of 12–300 fish m
−3
; feeding fresh trash fish
twice daily, with FCR of 4–10:1; 12 months culture period;
production of 1 kg per fish, 80–95% survival
Philippines (Ramos,
1996; Bagarinao, 1998)
Thailand (Chaitanawisuti
and Piyatiratitivorakul,
1994a)
Singapore (Anon.,
1986)
Philippines (Toledo
et al
.,
1991)
Australia (Rimmer,
1998)
Australia (Barlow
et al
.,

1995)
Malaysia (Singh, 1991)
Philippines (Alcantara
et al
., 1995)
Thailand (Tookwinas,
1990b)
Table 1.3.
Fish species and culture specifics of fish in Asia and Australia. (From Buendia, 1998).
Introduction and History of Cage Culture13
Grouper (
Epinephelus
spp.)
Red snapper (
Lutjanus
argentimaculatus
)
3 × 3 × 2m,4× 4 × 2mor5× 5 × 2m
cages, bamboo or wood, with plastic
carboys and 2–5 cm mesh net
5 × 5 × 3 m, wood and plastic drums
2 × 2 × 2.5 m or coco lumber, with empty
200 l plastic drums
5 × 5 × 2mor3× 3 × 3 m, galvanized iron,
wood, bamboo, empty plastic drums,
carboys, concrete weight
7 × 8 × 2m
3 × 3 × 2 m, bamboo frame, polythene net
and 200 l plastic drums
1 × 1 × 1 m (for juveniles), 2.5 × 2.5 × 4m

(grow-out)
Stocking density is 20–30 fish m
−3
measuring 9–10 cm, feeding
with commercial feeds; 7–8 or 12–14 months of culture;
production of 600–800 g per fish or 1.2–1.4 g per fish
Stocking density is 44 fish m
−3
of size 80–100 g; feeding with
trash fish at 3–5% of body weight twice daily; 6–7 months of
culture; production of 600 g per fish, 90% survival
Stocking density is 120 fish m
−3
of size 13–15 cm (grow-out),
5–13 cm (transition), or 2–3 cm (nursery); feeding with dry
pellets and minced trash fish (grow-out) or
Chlorella,
Brachionus
and
Artemia
(nursery); FCR of 2.5–2.8:1 for dry
pellets and 6.3:1 for trash fish; culture period of 1 month
(nursery), 3 months (transition) or 8 months (grow-out);
production of 500–800 g per fish
Stocking density is 10–100 m
−3
of size 7.5–10 cm; feeding with
artificial feeds and live or frozen trash fish and crustaceans,
feeds given at 10% body weight during the first 2 months, 5%
thereafter until harvest; 8 months culture period; production of

580 g per fish, 80% survival
Stocking density is 12–100 m
−3
of size 12 cm or 20 g; feeds
given at 10% of body weight on the first 2 months, then at 5%
on the third month; 10–18 months culture period; production of
700–900 g per fish
Stocking density is 90 fish m
−3
of size 12 cm or 20 g; feeding
with chopped carangids (
Seloroides
spp.), feed given twice
daily to satiation; 10 months culture period; production of 890 g
per fish, 83% survival
Stocking density is 6 fish m
−3
of size 30 g or 100 fish m
−3
of size
10 cm or 20 g; feeding with trash fish once or twice a day; 9–10
months culture period; production of 500–960 g per fish, 95%
survival
Malaysia (Leong, 1998)
Singapore (Anon., 1986)
Philippines (Quinitio and
Toledo, 1991)
Thailand (Tookwinas,
1990a)
Thailand (Tookwinas,

1990a)
Thailand (Chaitanawisuti
and Piyatiratitivorakul,
1994b)
Thailand (Doi and
Singhagraiwan, 1993)
Continued
14T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Species
Cage/pen
dimension
Culture specifics
Country/
references
Golden snapper
(
Lutjanus jobni
)
Red seabream
(
Pagrus major
)
Yellowtail (
Seriola
quinqueradiata
)
Rabbitfish (
Siganus
canalculatus
)

Carp
Giant gourami
(
Osphronemus
goramy
)
5 × 5 × 3 m, wood and plastic drums
Square, circle cages of size 4 × 4 × 3m,
4 × 4 × 4m,5× 5 × 5m,7× 7 × 7mor
20 × 20 × 5 m, cages may be synthetic,
nylon-coated wire or bamboo with styrofoam
as buoy
Square, circle net enclosures made of
bamboo, wood, 50 mm steel pipes; also big
open sea cages of sizes 1600–2400 m
2
with
1–6 cm mesh nets
Square broodstock floating netcages
5 × 5 × 5m
1 × 1 × 1.5 m cages housed in 6 × 6m
floating raft
Bamboo cages 3 × 4 × 0.5 m
2000 × 5000 m
3
pens made of casuarina
poles and bamboo and with monofilament
nylon fabric (30 cm mesh)
1.5 × 2 × 1 m cage made of bamboo and
wood

Stocking density is 44 fish m
−3
of size 80–100 g; feeding with
trash fish at 3–5% of body weight once or twice daily; 6–7
months of culture; production of 600 g per fish
Stocking density is 100 fish m
−3
(1-year-old fish); feeding with
trash fish (anchovy and sardines) and moist pellets; 1–7 years
culture period; production of 800 g to 1.4 kg per fish
Stocking density is 115–340 fish m
−3
of size 200–500 g or 5 fish
m
−3
for size 1 kg; feeding with trash fish (anchovy, sardines,
sand lance) and moist pellets; feed given 1–4× daily at 1–3% of
body weight or at 4–8% of body weight for fish less than 100 g;
FCR of about 5–9:1; 1–2 years culture period; production of
2.5–6 kg per fish
Stocking density is 25 fish of size 0.89 g per cage; feeding with
moist pellets once every 2 days at 3% of body weight; 20
months culture period or until fish reach maturity and spawning
(about 3.7 kg size)
Stocking density is 15 fish of size 48–68 g per cage; feeding
with formulated diet, given 2× daily to satiation; 100 days culture
period; production of 119 g per fish, 100% survival
Stocking density is 1 kg m
−3
(8–10 fish per kg); no feeding; 6

months of culture in sewage canal; production of 800 g per fish
Stocking density is 4–5 million fish ha
−1
(3-day-old
hatchery-reared); feeding with a mixture of groundnut, oil cake
and rice bran; with periodic dressing of organic (manure) and
inorganic fertilizers; 3–4 months of culture
Stocking density is 15 fish m
−3
of size 14 g or 9 cm; feeding with
yam and formulated diet, 3× daily at 5% of body weight;
18 weeks of culture; production of 180 g fish, 99% survival
Singapore (Anon., 1986)
Japan (Shepherd and
Bromage, 1988;
Fukumoto, 1989)
Japan (Shepherd and
Bromage, 1988;
Fukomoto, 1989)
Japan (Watanabe
et al
.,
1996)
Indonesia (Tacon
et al
.,
1990)
Indonesia (Costa-Pierce
and Effendi, 1988)
India (Basavaraja, 1994)

Malaysia (Ang
et al
.,
1988)
FCR, food conversion ratio.
Table 1.3.
Continued
.
have a rigid wooden or metal framework
surrounded by a catwalk to facilitate
operation and maintenance. The net bag is
supported by a buoyant collar or a frame,
and can be designed in various shapes and
sizes.
Floats. Common flotation materials in
-
clude metal, plastic drums, PVC pipes, Sty
-
rofoam, cement blocks, rubber tyres with
polystyrene, bamboo and logs. Metal drums
coated with tar or fibreglass are popular
because they are cheap, but they corrode
easily in seawater and have a life span
ranging from 0.5 to 3 years (IDRC, 1979).
Fibreglass drums or buoys are preferred by
commercial fish farmers as they can last for
many years in seawater although the initial
cost is comparatively higher. Styrofoam
blocks, covered with polythene sheets
provide good buoyancy and may last for as

long as 5 years under tropical conditions.
Cement floats, though promising, require
skill in construction and are presently not
widely used. Bamboo and logs widely
used in freshwater cages are also used in
constructing brackish and marine cages, but
they are easily attacked by fouling and
boring organisms. Their life span in seawater
is relatively short (1–2 years).
Catwalk. For cages designed with a cat
-
walk, the framework from which a single
net or a battery of nets is suspended is
usually large to provide a stable and rigid
platform for workers. Some marine cages
do not have catwalks and the surface unit
consists of floats from which each cage is
suspended.
Netcage proper. The netcage (Fig. 1.1) is
normally flexible, and made up of synthetic
netting of nylon or polythene fibres
reinforced at the corners with polythene
ropes. The nets are kept stretched vertically
with weights at the bottom of the cage or
fastened by rope to the framework (Kennedy,
1975). The net can also be stretched with
rectangular, round or square steel or PVC
pipes depending on the shape of the
cage. Rigid cages, made of metal netting
(galvanized mesh, copper–nickel mesh or

vinyl-coated mesh) mounted on rigid metal
or wooden frameworks, are also commonly
used in sea farming (Swingle, 1971; Powell,
1976; Milne, 1979). The relative merits of
flexible and rigid cages are discussed by
Hugenin and Ansuini (1978). The choice
of flexible or rigid types is dependent on
economics. Flexible cages are more widely
used in developing countries because of
lower cost.
Mesh size. This is determined by the size of
the fish to be stocked. Small mesh size nets
become clogged, especially in tropical areas,
and easily damaged by floating objects and
increased drag force and hence affect the
morning load of the cages. As the fish grow,
a larger mesh size should be used (Chua,
1979).
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 15
Fig. 1.1. Set net showing typical netcage structure (King Chou Fish Net Manufacturing Co., Ltd).
Rotating and non-rotating floating cages
Rotating cages have been designed
primarily to reduce the impact of fouling
organisms and insects. The cage rotates
from a central axis attached to a solid
floating framework (Christensen, 1995).
Non-rotating types are widely used and may
be designed with narrow or wide collars.
Rigid narrow collars made of non-wooden
materials (glass fibre and steel) and buoys

have been used in Western Europe.
Submersible cages
Submersible cages (Figs 1.2–1.4) have also
been developed. This type of cage design
has no collar, and the bag rests on a frame
to maintain its shape. The position of
submersible cages (with reference to the
water column) can be adjusted by means
of buoys. The cages are designed for deep
waters, to overcome strong waves, and
strong and rough seas. The disadvantage of
submersible cages is that it is difficult to
maintain the bag shape under water and
not many species adapt to this condition
(Beveridge, 1987). Submerged cages are also
used in shallow water in Indonesia and
Russia (Vass and Sachlan, 1957; Martyshev,
1983; Beveridge, 1987).
Shape and size of cages
In general, square or rectangular cages are
preferred because they are easy to construct
and maintain. They have been widely used
for the culture of yellowtail (Harada, 1970;
Fujiya, 1979), salmonids (Kennedy, 1975;
Møller, 1979) and groupers (Chua, 1979).
Cylindrical cages are also used for marine
or brackish water species such as milkfish
(Yu et al., 1979) and rainbow trout (Tatum,
1973). Cylindrical cages are designed to
rotate so as to delay biofouling (Caillouet,

1972). Other forms of cages such as orthogo-
nal (Anon., 1976; Milne, 1979) and octagonal
(Møller, 1979) have been used for salmonid
culture in Scotland, Norway and France.
The size of cages ranges from less than
1 m
3
to 50,000 m
3
. Freshwater cages for
tilapia in the Philippines and Indonesia are
16 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Fig. 1.2. Submersible cage for yellowtail (from Fujiya, 1979).